1.
Musk strawberry
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The musk strawberry or hautbois strawberry, is a species of strawberry native to Europe. Its French name hautbois strawberry may be anglicised as hautboy strawberry, the plants are hardy and can survive in many weather conditions and are cultivated commercially on a small scale, particularly in Italy. The fruit are small and round, they are used in the community for their intense aroma and superb flavour. Popular cultivated varieties include Capron and Profumata di Tortona, musk strawberries grow wild to a limited extent in the forests of Central Europe, north into Scandinavia, and east into Russia. The musk strawberry is found growing along the edges of forests and requires moist, all strawberries have a base haploid count of 7 chromosomes. Fragaria moschata is hexaploid, having three pairs of chromosomes for a total of 42 chromosomes. Musk strawberry has long been in cultivation in parts of Europe and this species was the first strawberry of any sort with a cultivar name, which was Le Chapiron. By 1591, the cultivar was called Chapiton, then later Capiton, in the early 17th century an illustration appeared in the Hortus Eystettensis as fraga fructu magno. It was mentioned by Quintinye, gardener to Louis XIV, as Capron in 1672, at the beginning of the 19th century musk strawberries were the most common garden strawberry in Germany. Cultivation of musk strawberries is not very different from that of garden strawberry or alpine strawberry, moschata information from GRIN Taxonomy Database F. moschata information from Ibiblios Plants for a Future database Den Virtuella Floran Swedish site with good photos of F. moschata. Smithsonian Magazine Article on F. moschata
2.
Woodwind instrument
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Woodwind instruments are a family of musical instruments within the more general category of wind instruments. There are two types of woodwind instruments, flutes and reed instruments. What differentiates these instruments from other instruments is the way in which they produce their sound. Examples are a saxophone, a bassoon and a piccolo, flutes produce sound by directing a focused stream of air below the edge of a hole in a cylindrical tube. The flute family can be divided into two sub-families, open flutes and closed flutes, to produce a sound with an open flute, the player is required to blow a stream of air across a sharp edge that then splits the airstream. This split airstream then acts upon the air contained within the flutes hollow causing it to vibrate. Examples of open flutes are the flute, panpipes and shakuhachi. Ancient flutes of this variety were often made from sections of plants such as grasses, reeds. Later, flutes were made of such as tin, copper. Modern concert flutes are made of high-grade metal alloys, usually containing nickel, silver, copper. To produce a sound with a flute, the player is required to blow air into a duct. This duct acts as a channel bringing the air to a sharp edge, as with the open flutes, the air is then split, this causes the column of air within the closed flute to vibrate and produce sound. Examples of this type of include the recorder, ocarina. Reed instruments produce sound by focusing air into a mouthpiece which then causes a reed, or reeds, similar to flutes, Reed pipes are also further divided into two types, single reed and double reed. Single-reed woodwinds produce sound by placing a reed onto the opening of a mouthpiece, when air is forced between the reed and the mouthpiece, the reed causes the air column in the instrument to vibrate and produce its unique sound. Single reed instruments include the clarinet, saxophone, and others such as the chalumeau, double-reed instruments use two precisely cut, small pieces of cane bound together at the base. This form of production has been estimated to have originated in the middle to late Neolithic period. The finished, bound reed is inserted into the instrument and vibrates as air is forced between the two pieces and this family of reed pipes is subdivided further into another two sub-families, exposed double reed, and capped double reed instruments
3.
Musical instrument classification
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Throughout history, various methods of musical instrument classification have been used. The most commonly used system divides instruments into string instruments, woodwind instruments, brass instruments and percussion instruments, the oldest known scheme of classifying instruments is Chinese and dates from the 3rd millennium BC. It grouped instruments according to the materials they are made of. However, the Chou-Li, an anonymous treatise compiled from sources in about the 2nd century BC, had the following order, metal, stone, clay, leather, silk, wood, gourd. The same order was presented in the Tso Chuan, attributed to Tso Chiu-Ming, more usually, instruments are classified according to how the sound is initially produced. The modern system divides instruments into wind, strings and percussion, the scheme was later expanded by Martin Agricola, who distinguished plucked string instruments, such as guitars, from bowed string instruments, such as violins. Classical musicians today do not always maintain this division, but distinguish between wind instruments with a reed and those where the air is set in motion directly by the lips, many instruments do not fit very neatly into this scheme. The serpent, for example, ought to be classified as a brass instrument, however, it looks more like a woodwind instrument, and is closer to one in many ways, having finger-holes to control pitch, rather than valves. Keyboard instruments do not fit easily into this scheme, for example, the piano has strings, but they are struck by hammers, so it is not clear whether it should be classified as a string instrument or a percussion instrument. Ottoman encyclopedist Hadji Khalifa also recognized the three classes in his Kashf al-Zunun an Asami al-Kutub wa al-Funun, a treatise on the origin. The division pervades Tboli thought about cosmology, social characters of men and women, victor-Charles Mahillon later adopted a system very similar to this. This scheme was taken up by Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs who published an extensive new scheme for classication in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie in 1914. Their scheme is used today, and is most often known as the Hornbostel-Sachs system. Electrophones, such as the guitar or electric bass, which produce sound through electricity and is required to be plugged in to an amplifier. Later Sachs added a category, electrophones, such as theremins. Modern synthesizers and electronic instruments fall in this category, within each category are many subgroups. The system has been criticised and revised over the years, in 1932, comparative musicologist André Schaeffner developed a new classification scheme that was exhaustive, potentially covering all real and conceivable instruments. The Kpelle of West Africa also use this system and they distinguish the struck, including both beaten and plucked, and the blown
4.
Wind instrument
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The pitch of the vibration is determined by the length of the tube and by manual modifications of the effective length of the vibrating column of air. In the case of wind instruments, sound is produced by blowing through a reed. Using different air columns for different tones, such as in the pan flute and this method is used on nearly all brass instruments. Changing the length of the air column by lengthening and/or shortening the tube using a sliding mechanism. This method is used on the trombone and the slide whistle, changing the frequency of vibration through opening or closing holes in the side of the tube. This can be done by covering the holes with fingers or pressing a key which then closes the hole and this method is used in nearly all woodwind instruments. Making the column of air vibrate at different harmonics without changing the length of the column of air, almost all wind instruments use the last method, often in combination with one of the others, to extend their register. A more accurate way to determine whether an instrument is brass or woodwind is to examine how the player produces sound, in brass instruments, the players lips vibrate, causing the air within the instrument to vibrate. For example, the saxophone is typically made of brass, but is classified as an instrument because it produces sound with a vibrating reed. In the Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification, wind instruments are classed as aerophones, sound production in all wind instruments depends on the entry of air into a flow-control valve attached to a resonant chamber. The resonator is typically a long cylindrical or conical tube, open at the far end, a pulse of high pressure from the valve will travel down the tube at the speed of sound. It will be reflected from the end as a return pulse of low pressure. Under suitable conditions, the valve will reflect the pulse back, with increased energy, Reed instruments such as the clarinet or oboe have a flexible reed or reeds at the mouthpiece, forming a pressure-controlled valve. Standing waves inside the tube will be odd multiples of a quarter-wavelength, with a pressure anti-node at the mouthpiece, the reed vibrates at a rate determined by the resonator. For Lip Reed instruments, the controls the tension in their lips so that they vibrate under the influence of the air flow through them. They adjust the vibration so that the lips are most closed, and the air flow is lowest, standing waves inside the tube will be odd multiples of a quarter-wavelength, with a pressure anti-node at the mouthpiece, and a pressure node at the open end. For Air Reed instruments, the thin grazing air sheet flowing across an opening in the pipe interacts with an edge to generate sound. The jet is generated by the player, when blowing through a thin slit, for recorders and flue organ pipes this slit is manufactured by the instrument maker and has a fixed geometry
5.
Double reed
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A double reed is a type of reed used to produce sound in various wind instruments. The term double reed comes from the fact there are two pieces of cane vibrating against each other. A single reed consists of one piece of cane which vibrates against a mouthpiece made of metal, hardened rubber, resin, the term double reeds can also refer collectively to the class of instruments which use double reeds. There are several differences, the most obvious being size, between various types of reeds, for example between that for a bassoon and that for an oboe or a cor anglais. Typically, Arundo donax cane is used for the making of double reeds, for bassoon reeds, tubes of this cane are first split lengthwise then gouged to a certain thickness. The chosen piece of cane is cut to shape and the centre portion is thinned. The cane is folded end to end to form the two blades of the reed, the unprofiled end of the cane is shaped into a tube with the aid of a mandrel and bound with three strategically placed wires. A turban made out of thread is added on the third wire and it provides a hand hold for the reed that isnt a sharp wire. The folded tip is cut off to allow the blades to vibrate and final adjustments to the interior of the using a reamer. The reed is then ready to fit to the bocal of the bassoon, note that there are many schools of thought and processes for making reeds. However, because the oboe does not have a bocal, the cane must be fastened to a metal tube, the staple is then inserted into the farrow at the upper end of the oboe. There are many different methods of making reeds and many variations of design have been developed, players can buy reeds either ready-made, or in various stages of formation, such as part-scraped, reed blanks, or buy the staples and cane separately. Cane is sold in forms, as tubes, gouged, gouged and shaped. Bassoon cane has the option of being profiled before purchase. Cane from several different regions is used in reed making, traditionally from southern France, there are also many options with regard to staples, shaping equipment, and so forth, which all have a subtle effect on the tone quality a reed will produce. While cane is by far the most common material for double reeds, reeds made out of synthetic materials may be used, these reeds often last longer and are less sensitive to temperature and humidity flucutations. Most reeds produced from synthetic materials have a quality that is dissimilar to that of a cane reed and are not favored by musicians. However, some recent manufacturers produce synthetic reeds that are used in a professional setting, oboe double reeds are about 7 mm in width
6.
Aerophone
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Aerophones categorically comprise the largest and most complex group of instruments in the Americas. The first class includes instruments which, when played, do not contain the vibrating air and this class includes free reed instruments, such as the harmonica, but also many instruments unlikely to be called wind instruments at all by most people, such as sirens and whips. The second class includes instruments which contain the air when being played. This class includes almost all instruments generally called wind instruments — including the didgeridoo, brass instruments, additionally, very loud sounds can be made by explosions directed into, or being detonated inside of resonant cavities. Detonations inside the calliope, as well as the pyrophone might thus be considered as class 42 instruments, according to Ardal Powell, flute is a simple instrument found in numerous ancient cultures. There are three legendary and archeologically verifiable birthplace sites of flutes, Egypt, Greece and India, of these, the transverse flute appeared only in ancient India, while the fipple flutes are found in all three. It is likely, states Powell, that the modern Indian bansuri has not changed much since the medieval era. Archaeological studies have found examples of globular flutes in ancient Mexico, Colombia and Peru, the use of shells of Conches as an aerophone have also been found to be prevalent in areas such as Central America and Peru. Examples of aerophone type instruments in China can be dated back to the Neolithic period, fragments of bone flutes can be found at the burial sites of the Jiahu settlements of ancient China, and they represent some of the earliest known examples of playable instruments. The instruments were carved from the wing bone of the red-crowned crane. The flutes were efficient enough to sound in a nearly accurate octave. Examples of flutes made out of bamboo in China date back to 2nd Century BC and these flutes were known as Dizis or simply Di and typically had 6 holes for playing melodies that were framed by scale-modes. Flutes including the famous Bansuri, have been a part of Indian classical music since 1500 BC. A major deity of Hinduism, Krishna, has been associated with the flute, some early flutes were made out of tibias. Free aerophones are instruments where the air is not enclosed by the instrument itself. The air-stream meets a sharp edge, or an edge is moved through the air. Occasionally called percussive aerophones, plosive aerophones are sounded by percussion caused by a single compression, an example of a plosive aerophone is the scraper flute which has tubes with ridged or serrated edges so that they can be scraped with a rod to produce sound. Non-free aerophones are instruments where the air is contained within the instrument
7.
Key (instrument)
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A key is a specific part of a musical instrument. The purpose and function of the part in question depends on the instrument, on instruments equipped with tuning machines, violins and guitars, for example, a key is part of a tuning machine. It is a gear with a key shaped end used to turn a cog. The key is used to make adjustments to a string. With other instruments, zithers and drums, for example, a key is essentially a small wrench used to turn a tuning machine or lug. On woodwind instruments such as a flute or saxophone, keys are finger operated levers used to open or close tone holes, the keys of an accordion direct the air flow from a manually operated bellows across various tuned vibrating reeds
8.
Shawm
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The shawm is a conical bore, double-reed woodwind instrument made in Europe from the 12th century to the present day. It achieved its peak of popularity during the medieval and Renaissance periods and it is likely to have come to Western Europe from the Eastern Mediterranean around the time of the Crusades. Double reed instruments similar to the shawm were long present in Southern Europe and the East, for instance the Ancient Greek, and later Byzantine, aulos, the Persian sorna, and the Armenian duduk. The body of the shawm is usually turned from a piece of wood. Beginning in the 16th century, shawms were made in sizes, from sopranino to great bass. All later shawms have at least one key allowing an extension of the compass. The pirouette, a small wooden attachment with a cavity in the center resembling a thimble, surrounds the lower part of the reed—this provides support for the lips and embouchure. Since only a portion of the reed protrudes past the pirouette, the player has only limited contact with the reed. In English the name only first appears in the 14th century, the early plural forms were often mistaken for a singular, and new plurals were formed from them. The later reduction in the 15th and 16th centuries to a syllable in forms such as schalme, shaume, shawme. In Portugal there is an instrument called charamela, and the name of the Italian shawm is ciaramella, Instruments resembling the medieval shawm can still be heard in many countries today, played by street musicians or military bands. The latter use would have been familiar to crusaders, who often had to face massed bands of Saracen shawms and nakers and it must have had a profound effect, as the shawm was quickly adopted by Europeans, for dancing as well as for military purposes. The standard outdoor dance band in the century consisted of a slide trumpet playing popular melodies. In many Asian countries, shawm technique includes circular breathing allowing continuous playing without pauses for air, by the early 16th century, the shawm had undergone considerable development. The harsh tonality of the shawm had been modulated somewhat by a narrowing of the bore. This also extended the range, enabling the performer to play the notes in the second octave. Larger sizes of shawm were built, down to the bass in Bb, two octaves and a major third below the soprano in D. However, the larger sizes were unwieldy. The shawm became standard equipment for bands, or waits
9.
Range (music)
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In music, the range of a musical instrument is the distance from the lowest to the highest pitch it can play. For a singing voice, the equivalent is vocal range, the range of a musical part is the distance between its lowest and highest note. The terms sounding range, written range, designated range, duration range, a piccolo, for example, typically has a sounding range one octave higher than its written range. The designated range is the set of notes the player should or can achieve while playing, all instruments have a designated range, and all pitched instruments have a playing range. Timbre, dynamics, and duration ranges are interrelated and one may achieve registral range at the expense of timbre, the designated range is thus the range in which a player is expected to have comfortable control of all aspects. The duration range is the difference between the shortest and longest rhythm used, dynamic range is the difference between the quietest and loudest volume of an instrument, part or piece of music. Although woodwind instruments and string instruments have no upper limit to their range. Brass instruments, on the hand, can play beyond their designated ranges. Notes lower than the brass instruments designated range are called pedal tones, the playing range of a brass instrument depends on both the technical limitations of the instrument and the skill of the player. Classical arrangements seldom make woodwind or brass instruments play beyond their designed range, string musicians play the bottom of their ranges very frequently, but the top of a string instruments range is rather fuzzy, and it is unusual for a string player to exceed the designated range. It is quite rare for wind musicians to play the extremes of their instruments, the most common exception is that in many 20th century works, pedal tones are called for in bass trombones. This chart uses standard numberings for octaves where middle C corresponds to C4, in the MIDI language middle C is referred to as MIDI note number 60. The lowest note that an organ can sound is C−1. However, if acoustic combination counts, the lowest note is C−2, *This chart only displays down to C0, though some pipe organs, such as the Boardwalk Hall Auditorium Organ, extend down to C−1. Also, the frequency of the subcontrabass tuba is B♭−1
10.
Musical instrument
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A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
11.
Piccolo oboe
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The piccolo oboe, also known as the piccoloboe and historically called an oboe musette, is the smallest and highest pitched member of the oboe family. Pitched in E♭ or F above the regular oboe, the oboe is a sopranino version of the oboe. Piccolo oboes are produced by the French makers F. Lorée, Lorée calls its instrument piccolo oboe or oboe musette, while Marigaux and Patricola call their instruments simply oboe musette. As of 2006, a new instrument typically sold for US$6, the instrument has found the most use in chamber and contemporary music, where it is valued for its unusual tone colour. It is also employed in double-reed ensembles such as Amoris, perhaps the best-known pieces requiring piccolo oboe are Solo for Oboe Instruments and Concerto for Oboe and Orchestra No. 2, both by Bruno Maderna, as well as Ar-Loth by Paolo Renosto, Oboe Piccolo heckelphone F. Lorée page with description and photograph Wayback archive of Amoris International Musette page WIMA scores for oboe family instruments
12.
Cor anglais
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The cor anglais or English horn in North America, is a double-reed woodwind instrument in the oboe family. It is approximately one and a half times the length of an oboe, the cor anglais is a transposing instrument pitched in F, a perfect fifth lower than the oboe. This means that music for the cor anglais is written a fifth higher than the instrument actually sounds. The fingering and playing technique used for the cor anglais are essentially the same as those of the oboe, the cor anglais normally lacks the lowest B♭ key found on most oboes and so its sounding range stretches from E3 below middle C to C6 two octaves above middle C. The pear-shaped bell of the cor anglais gives it a more covered timbre than the oboe, the cor anglais is perceived to have a more mellow and plaintive tone than the oboe. Its appearance differs from the oboe in that the reed is attached to a bent metal tube called the bocal, or crook. The cor anglais is usually notated in the treble clef, a fifth higher than sounding. Some composers notated it in the bass clef, when the register was persistently used. Alto clef written at sounding pitch is used, even by as late a composer as Sergei Prokofiev. In late-18th- and early-19th-century Italy, where the instrument was played by bassoonists instead of oboists. French operatic composers up to Fromental Halévy notated the instrument at sounding pitch in the mezzo-soprano clef, although the instrument usually descends only to low B♮, continental instruments with an extension to low B♭ have existed since early in the 19th century. Examples of works requiring this note include Arnold Schoenbergs Gurre-Lieder and Gustav Mahlers Das Lied von der Erde, antonín Dvořák, in his Scherzo Capriccioso, even writes for the cor anglais down to low A, though it seems unlikely that such an extension ever existed. Reeds used to play the cor anglais are similar to those used for an oboe, consisting of a piece of cane folded in two. While the cane on a reed is mounted on a small metal tube partially covered in cork, there is no such cork on a cor anglais reed. The cane part of the reed is wider and longer than that of the oboe, unlike American style oboe reeds, cor anglais reeds typically have wire at the base, approximately 5 mm from the top of the string used to attach the cane to the staple. This wire serves to hold the two blades of cane together and stabilize tone and pitch. Perhaps the best-known makers of modern cors anglais are the French firms of F. Lorée, Marigaux and Rigoutat, the British firm of T. W. Howarth, instruments from smaller makers, such as A. Laubin, are also sought after. Fox has recently made some instruments in plastic resin and in maple, the instrument originated in Silesia about 1720, when a bulb bell was fitted to a curved oboe da caccia-type body by the Weigel family of Breslau
13.
Oboe da caccia
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The oboe da caccia is a double reed woodwind instrument in the oboe family, pitched a fifth below the oboe and used primarily in the Baroque period of European classical music. It has a tube and a brass bell, unusual for an oboe. Its range is close to that of the cor anglais—that is, the oboe da caccia is thus a transposing instrument in F. The notated range is identical to that of the baroque oboe. Johann Sebastian Bach tended to favor the middle and lowest registers, however, the instrument was likely invented by J. H. Eichentopf of Leipzig, Germany. The first dated reference to the da caccia is 1722. The first recorded use of the instrument is on 24 June 1723, but Bach was certainly the most prolific and most important composer for oboe da caccia, often using them in pairs. Bach wrote extensively for the da caccia in the years 1723–27. There are also significant parts for the da caccia in his Christmas Oratorio, the Passions. 1780–1820, roughly the Classical period, centering on Vienna, the soprano oboe underwent major changes first in bore and it is therefore understandable that the oboe da caccia, with its complex means of construction, was not selected for the same evolutionary treatment. The early English horn was no more suitable. Innovation was the watchword of the day, and antiquated instruments such as the da caccia stood little chance of surviving. A curious note, according to Cecil Forsyth in his famous book on orchestration, however, Forsyth wrote during a period when organology was in its infancy. The oboe da caccia has a wooden body terminating in a large wooden bell, or in the case of Eichentopfs instruments. There are typically two brass keys, E-flat and C, the E-flat key is normally doubled for the left hand. There are usually two twin fingerholes, G/A-flat and F/F#, similar to the baroque oboe. The construction differs from that of all other woodwinds. The bore and outward profiles are first created on the lathe, then a series of saw kerfs are made through the bore from the side, then the instrument is bent over steam and a slat glued onto the inside curve to fix it
14.
Wiener oboe
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The Akademiemodel Wiener Oboe, commonly referred to as the Wiener Oboe or Viennese oboe, is a type of modern oboe first developed in the 1880s by Josef Hajek. The design of the Wiener Oboe retains the essential bore and tonal characteristics of the historical oboe, the Wiener Oboe is named after its origins in Vienna and, besides the more common Conservatoire oboe, is the only other type of modern oboe in use today. The Wiener Oboe is a hybrid of German and Austrian designs and it has a wider internal bore, shorter and broader reed and a different fingering schema than the Conservatoire oboe. Its great advantage is the ease of speaking, even in the lowest register and it can be played very expressively and blends well with other instruments. The Viennese oboe is perhaps the most distinctive member of the Vienna Philharmonic instrumentarium, the oboe in use in Vienna in the early and mid-19th century was originally a design called the Koch/Sellner oboe. In 1825 Viennese oboist and teacher Joseph Sellner wrote an oboe tutor, the oboe associated with these materials was produced by Stefan Koch. This instrument was well regarded in central Europe. In addition to a mechanism with up to 13 keys, the Koch/Sellner oboe resembled the conservatoire oboe used today in that it had a narrow bore. As a relatively advanced musical tool it satisfied the needs of Viennese musicians until the end of the 19th Century, one instrument maker whose designs went in the opposite direction, utilizing a wide bore design, was the highly regarded German maker Karl Friedrich Golde from Dresden. His ideal oboe sound contained a deep, rich, warm tonality, a powerful depth, Hajek and later other makers, notably Hermann Zuleger created a new instrument with changes and improvements especially to the key mechanism. The aftermath of the world war witnessed the takeover of the Conservatoire oboe. In Austria the Wiener Oboe faced a period of general decline and this unsatisfactory situation only worsened as time went by, with the construction of instruments almost coming to a standstill. In the 1980s, however, the Yamaha company in Japan began to manufacture Wiener Oboen, the modern Wiener Oboe is most commonly made from grenadilla, though some manufacturers also make oboes out of the traditional European material boxwood. Jahrhundert”, Rohrblatt, Magazin für Oboe, Klarinette, Fagott und Saxophon 14, Gesellschaft der Freunde der Wiener Oboe
15.
Bombard (music)
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The bombard is a contemporary conical-bore double-reed instrument widely used to play traditional Breton music. The bombard is an instrument, and a member of the shawm family. Like most shawms, it has a broad and very powerful sound and it is played as other shawms are played, with the double reed placed between the lips. The second octave is over-blown, achieved via increased lip and air pressure or through the use of an octave key and it plays a diatonic scale of up to two octaves, although contemporary instruments frequently have added keywork permitting some degree of chromaticism. A bombard player is known as a talabarder after talabard, the older Breton name for the bombard, traditional Breton musicians are referred to as Sonerien or Sonneurs. Musicians playing in pairs are also referred to as sonneurs de couple, while Soner originally referred only to the bombard player, the meaning long ago expanded to also include other traditional musicians. Call-and-response remains a central aspect of Breton music regardless of the instruments used, the paired kan ha diskan vocal tradition, which remains vitally active today, perhaps formed the original basis for all other pairings of Breton musicians. In some parts of Brittany from the late 19th century onwards, bombards in their most traditional setting are accompanied by a bagpipe called a biniou kozh, which plays an octave above the bombard. The bombard calls, and the biniou responds, the bombard requires so much lip pressure and breath support that a talabarder can rarely play a sustained melody line. The biniou plays the melody continuously, while the bombard takes breaks, in the first part of the twentieth century, the number of players of bombards and biniou kozh decreased significantly. Now most towns in Brittany have one or several Bagadoù, and they compete with each other in a series of annual tournaments. As the bagad is a Breton take on the Scottish pipe band concept, now the Bagadoù play dance music, traditional melodies and new compositions. The large number of players in the Bagadoù has been a key factor in the successful popularization of the instrument. Essentially a shawm or oboe--that is, a pipe with a bore, a double reed. The bombard is an instrument that has been in constant evolution, milder versions in lower ranges such as Youenn Le Bihans piston have been developed for use in mixed ensembles. A class of musicians and instrument makers has emerged, as well as standardized reeds. Produced and directed by Gei Zantzinger, in collaboration with Dastum, free method for self-learning the Breton Bombard
16.
Bass oboe
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The bass oboe or baritone oboe is a double reed instrument in the woodwind family. It is about twice the size of an oboe and sounds an octave lower, it has a deep, full tone somewhat akin to that of its higher-pitched cousin. The bass oboe is notated in the treble clef, sounding one octave lower than written. Its lowest note is B2, one octave and a semitone below middle C, the bass oboe uses its own double reed, similar to but larger than that of the English horn. The instrument is known popularly as the oboe in the English language. The bass designation is in resonance with that of the flute in the flute family and the bass clarinet in that family. Early bass oboes were modeled after bassoons, with a joint and bocal and some holes drilled obliquely. The concept of the oboe as an enlarged English horn survived. As a result, it is not always clear in English orchestral works of the early 20th century which of the two instruments is intended when the composer requests bass oboe. The instrument has been manufactured sporadically by various companies, including F. Lorée, Marigaux, Rigoutat, Fossati and it is usually a special order instrument, and its purchase price normally exceeds that of a top-of-the-line English horn. Another similar instrument, the Lupophon, has developed by Guntram Wolf. The bass oboe is also featured in the First Interlude of Sir Michael Tippetts Triple Concerto. There is also a substantial solo in the second movement of Thomas Ades Asyla. Frederick Delius scored for the oboe in a number of works, including Songs of Sunset, A Mass of Life, Requiem, An Arabesque, Fennimore and Gerda. 1, however, the latest research reveals that despite his use of this term, arnold Bax calls for it in his Symphony No. 1, and Havergal Brian requires an instrument in both the Gothic Symphony and his Symphony No.4 Das Siegeslied, percy Grainger includes the bass oboe in Childrens March and The Warriors. The bass oboe has not as yet come into its own as a solo instrument, the work was written for the Canadian performer Lawrence Cherney, who uses a bass oboe manufactured by F. Lorée. Robert Morans Survivor From Darmstadt, for nine amplified bass oboes, was commissioned by oboist Nora Post, at least one sonata for bass oboe and piano, by Simon Zaleski, has been written
17.
Piston (music)
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The piston is a type of oboe invented by Breton musician, teacher, and luthier Youenn Le Bihan in 1983. The pistoñ is a development of the hautbois, classical and/or baroque oboe, influenced by the bombard or talabard. It is typically rooted in the key of D and features post-mounted simple system key-work to expand its range, the tone of the pistoñ stands in a warm and rich middle ground between the trumpet-like tone of the bombard and that of the baroque oboe. The bore is similar to that of a baroque or classical oboe, the pistoñ uses a fairly stiff reed based on cane of an approximate diameter of 12mm, very similar in size to those of the baritone oboe, English horn and baroque oboe. Some other musicians who have recorded with the pistoñ are the group Koun, Tud, initially Mr. Le Bihan was the only maker of the instrument, and he made them on only a very limited basis. Other makers soon filled the void, however, and instruments by such as Hervieux & Glet, Jean-Luc Ollivier. Mr. Ollu objects strenuously to the use of the term pistoñ, as he states on his website, I always call the instrument by its real name, oboe or baroque oboe. I suppose I could call it an Olluphone, tromblophone or some other fantastic name, why in Brittany and only in Brittany do people call a Baroque oboe a pistoñ. One can only wonder that information available since the century has not yet been received. Why give the name of an instrument to a woodwind. While Mr. Ollu might market his instruments as baroque oboes, the pistoñ is also tuned to concert standard A440 tuning rather than a historically-based tuning scheme such as A=415 or 430. Altogether these developments highlight the pistoñ oboe as an evolving instrument intended to play a popular music, rather than recreate music
18.
Piccolo
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The piccolo /ˈpɪkəloʊ/ is a half-size flute, and a member of the woodwind family of musical instruments. The modern piccolo has most of the same fingerings as its sibling, the standard transverse flute. This gave rise to the name ottavino, the name by which the instrument is referred to in the scores of Italian composers, piccolos are now manufactured in the key of C or D♭. It was for this D♭ piccolo that John Philip Sousa wrote the solo in the final repeat of the closing section of his march The Stars. In the orchestral setting, the player is often designated as piccolo/flute III. The larger orchestras have designated this position as a position due to the demands of the literature. Piccolos are often orchestrated to double the violins or the flutes, adding sparkle, in concert band settings, the piccolo is almost always used and a piccolo part is almost always available. Historically, the piccolo had no keys, and should not be confused with the fife, the piccolo is used in conjunction with marching drums in traditional formations at the Carnival of Basel, Switzerland. It is a myth that one of the earliest pieces to use the piccolo was Beethovens Symphony No.5 in C Minor, although neither Joseph Haydn nor Mozart used it in their symphonies, some of their contemporaries did, including Hoffmeister, Süssmayr and Michael Haydn. Also, Mozart used the piccolo in his opera Idomeneo, opera orchestras in Paris sometimes included small transverse flutes at the octave as early as 1735 as existing scores by Rameau show. Finely made piccolos are often available with a variety of similar to the flute. Most piccolos have a body with a cylindrical head, which is like the Baroque flute. There are a number of pieces for piccolo alone, by composers as Samuel Adler, Robert Dick, Michael Isaacson, David Loeb, Polly Moller, Vincent Persichetti. Additionally, there is a selection of chamber music that uses the piccolo. One example is the Quintet for Piccolo and String Quartet by Graham Waterhouse, another is Stockhausens Zungenspitzentanz, for piccolo and two euphoniums, with optional percussionist and dancer. Bryn Mawr, Theodore Presser Company,2008, the Symphonic Debutante Piccolo, Was it Really Beethovens Fifth. The Woodwind Fingering Guide, with piccolo fingerings
19.
Flute
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The flute is a family of musical instruments in the woodwind group. Unlike woodwind instruments with reeds, a flute is an aerophone or reedless wind instrument that produces its sound from the flow of air across an opening, according to the instrument classification of Hornbostel–Sachs, flutes are categorized as edge-blown aerophones. A musician who plays the flute can be referred to as a player, flautist, flutist or, less commonly. Flutes are the earliest extant musical instruments, as paleolithic instruments with hand-bored holes have been found, a number of flutes dating to about 43,000 to 35,000 years ago have been found in the Swabian Jura region of present-day Germany. These flutes demonstrate that a musical tradition existed from the earliest period of modern human presence in Europe. Flutes, including the famous Bansuri, have been a part of Indian classical music since 1500 BC. A major deity of Hinduism, Krishna, has been associated with the flute, the English verb flout has the same linguistic root, and the modern Dutch verb fluiten still shares the two meanings. Attempts to trace the word back to the Latin flare have been pronounced phonologically impossible or inadmissable, the first known use of the word flute was in the 14th century. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, this was in Geoffrey Chaucers The Hous of Fame, today, a musician who plays any instrument in the flute family can be called a flutist, or flautist, or simply a flute player. Flutist dates back to at least 1603, the earliest quote cited by the Oxford English Dictionary, flautist was used in 1860 by Nathaniel Hawthorne in The Marble Faun, after being adopted during the 18th century from Italy, like many musical terms in England since the Italian Renaissance. Other English terms, now obsolete, are fluter and flutenist. The oldest flute ever discovered may be a fragment of the femur of a cave bear. In 2008 another flute dated back to at least 35,000 years ago was discovered in Hohle Fels cave near Ulm, the five-holed flute has a V-shaped mouthpiece and is made from a vulture wing bone. The researchers involved in the officially published their findings in the journal Nature. The flute, one of several found, was found in the Hohle Fels cavern next to the Venus of Hohle Fels, on announcing the discovery, scientists suggested that the finds demonstrate the presence of a well-established musical tradition at the time when modern humans colonized Europe. Scientists have also suggested that the discovery of the flute may help to explain the probable behavioural and cognitive gulf between Neanderthals and early modern human. A three-holed flute,18.7 cm long, made from a mammoth tusk was discovered in 2004, the earliest extant Chinese transverse flute is a chi flute discovered in the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng at the Suizhou site, Hubei province, China. It dates from 433 BC, of the later Zhou Dynasty and it is fashioned of lacquered bamboo with closed ends and has five stops that are at the flutes side instead of the top
20.
Clarinet
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The clarinet is a musical-instrument family belonging to the group known as the woodwind instruments. It has a mouthpiece, a straight cylindrical tube with an almost cylindrical bore. A person who plays a clarinet is called a clarinetist, the word clarinet may have entered the English language via the French clarinette, or from Provençal clarin, oboe. It would seem however that its roots are to be found amongst some of the various names for trumpets used around the renaissance. Clarion, clarin and the Italian clarino are all derived from the medieval term claro which referred to a form of trumpet. This is probably the origin of the Italian clarinetto, itself a diminutive of clarino, according to Johann Gottfried Walther, writing in 1732, the reason for the name is that it sounded from far off not unlike a trumpet. The English form clarinet is found as early as 1733, while the similarity in sound between the earliest clarinets and the trumpet may hold a clue to its name, other factors may have been involved. The trumpet parts that required this speciality were known by the term clarino, Johann Christoph Denner is generally believed to have invented the clarinet in Germany around the year 1700 by adding a register key to the earlier chalumeau. Over time, additional keywork and airtight pads were added to improve the tone and these days the most popular clarinet is the B♭ clarinet. However, the clarinet in A, just a lower, is commonly used in orchestral music. Since the middle of the 19th century the clarinet has become an essential addition to the orchestra. The clarinet family ranges from the BBB♭ octo-contrabass to the A♭ piccolo clarinet, the clarinet has proved to be an exceptionally flexible instrument, equally at home in the classical repertoire as in concert bands, military bands, marching bands, klezmer, and jazz. The cylindrical bore is primarily responsible for the clarinets distinctive timbre, the tone quality can vary greatly with the musician, the music, the instrument, the mouthpiece, and the reed. The most prominent were the German/Viennese traditions and the French school, the latter was centered on the clarinetists of the Conservatoire de Paris. The proliferation of recorded music has made examples of different styles of clarinet playing available, the modern clarinetist has a diverse palette of acceptable tone qualities to choose from. The A clarinet and B♭ clarinet have nearly the same bore, orchestral players using the A and B♭ instruments in the same concert could use the same mouthpiece for both. The A and the B♭ instruments have nearly identical tonal quality, the tone of the E♭ clarinet is brighter than that of the lower clarinets and can be heard even through loud orchestral or concert band textures. The bass clarinet has a deep, mellow sound, while the alto clarinet is similar in tone to the bass
21.
Saxophone
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The saxophone is a family of woodwind instruments. Saxophones are usually made of brass and played with a single-reed mouthpiece similar to that of the clarinet, the saxophone family was invented by the Belgian instrument maker Adolphe Sax in 1840. He patented the saxophone on June 28,1846, in two groups of seven instruments each, each series consisted of instruments of various sizes in alternating transposition. The series pitched in B♭ and E♭, designed for bands, have proved extremely popular. The saxophone is used in music, military bands, marching bands. The saxophone was developed in 1846 by Adolphe Sax, a Belgian instrument maker, flautist, born in Dinant and originally based in Brussels, he moved to Paris in 1842 to establish his musical instrument business. Prior to his work on the saxophone, he had several improvements to the bass clarinet by improving its keywork and acoustics. Sax was also a maker of the ophicleide, a large conical brass instrument in the bass register with keys similar to a woodwind instrument. His experience with two instruments allowed him to develop the skills and technologies needed to make the first saxophones. As an outgrowth of his work improving the bass clarinet, Sax began developing an instrument with the projection of a brass instrument and he wanted it to overblow at the octave, unlike the clarinet, which rises in pitch by a twelfth when overblown. An instrument that overblows at the octave has identical fingering for both registers, Sax created an instrument with a single-reed mouthpiece like a clarinet, conical brass body like an ophicleide, and some acoustic properties of both the horn and the clarinet. Having constructed saxophones in several sizes in the early 1840s, Sax applied for, and received, the patent encompassed 14 versions of the fundamental design, split into two categories of seven instruments each, and ranging from sopranino to contrabass. Although the instruments transposed at either F or C have been considered orchestral, the C soprano saxophone was the only instrument to sound at concert pitch. Saxs patent expired in 1866, thereafter, numerous saxophonists and instrument manufacturers implemented their own improvements to the design, the first substantial modification was by a French manufacturer who extended the bell slightly and added an extra key to extend the range downwards by one semitone to B♭. It is suspected that Sax himself may have attempted this modification and this extension is now commonplace in almost all modern designs, along with other minor changes such as added keys for alternate fingerings. Using alternate fingerings allows a player to play faster and more easily, a player may also use alternate fingerings to bend the pitch. Some of the alternate fingerings are good for trilling, scales, a substantial advancement in saxophone keywork was the development of a method by which the left thumb operates both tone holes with a single octave key, which is now universal on modern saxophones. This enables a chromatic scale to be played two octaves simply by playing the diatonic scale combined with alternately raising and lowering this one digit
22.
Bassoon
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The bassoon is a woodwind instrument in the double reed family that typically plays music written in the bass and tenor clefs, and occasionally the treble. Appearing in its form in the 19th century, the bassoon figures prominently in orchestral, concert band. The bassoon is an instrument known for its distinctive tone color, wide range, variety of character. Listeners often compare its warm, dark, reedy timbre to that of a baritone voice. Someone who plays the bassoon is called a bassoonist, the word bassoon comes from French basson and from Italian bassone. However, the Italian name for the instrument is fagotto. B♭1–C5 The range of the bassoon begins at B♭1 and extends upward over three octaves, roughly to the G above the treble staff, higher notes are possible but difficult to produce, and rarely called for, orchestral and concert band parts rarely go higher than C5 or D5. Even Stravinskys famously difficult opening solo in The Rite of Spring only ascends to D5, a1 is possible with a special extension to the instrument—see Extended techniques below. The bassoon disassembles into six pieces, including the reed. Bassoons are double reed instruments like the oboe and the English horn, a modern beginners bassoon is generally made of maple, with medium-hardness types such as sycamore maple and sugar maple preferred. Both bore and tone holes are precision-machined, and each instrument is finished by hand for proper tuning and this ensures coverage by the fingers of the average adult hand. Wooden instruments are lined with hard rubber along the interior of the wing and boot joints to prevent damage from moisture, the end of the bell is usually fitted with a ring, either of metal, plastic or ivory. The joints between sections consist of a tenon fitting into a socket, the tenons are wrapped in either cork or string as a seal against air leaks. The bocal connects the reed to the rest of the instrument and is inserted into a socket at the top of the wing joint, bocals come in many different lengths and styles, depending on the desired tuning and playing characteristics. Folded upon itself, the bassoon stands 1.34 m tall, there are also short-reach bassoons made for the benefit of young or petite players. The origins of the dulcian are obscure, but by the century it was available in as many as eight different sizes. Otherwise, dulcian technique was rather primitive, with eight finger holes, the dulcian came to be known as fagotto in Italy. However, the etymology that equates fagotto with bundle of sticks is somewhat misleading
23.
Contrabassoon
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The contrabassoon, also known as the double bassoon or bass bassoon is a larger version of the bassoon, sounding an octave lower. Its technique is similar to its cousin, with a few notable differences. The reed is considerably larger than the bassoons, at 65–75 mm in length as compared to 53–58 mm for most bassoon reeds. The large blades allow ample vibration that produces the low register of the instrument, the contrabassoon reed is similar to an average bassoons in that scraping the reed affects both the intonation and response of the instrument. The fingering of the contrabassoon is slightly different than that of the bassoon, particularly at the register change and in the extreme high range. The instrument is twice as long, curves around on itself twice, additional support is sometimes given by a strap around the players neck. A wider hand position is required, as the primary finger keys are widely spaced. The contrabassoon has a key to expel condensation and a tuning slide for gross pitch adjustments. The instrument comes in a few pieces, some models cannot be disassembled without a screwdriver, sometimes, however, the bell can be detached, and instruments with a low A extension often come in two parts. The contrabassoon is a very deep sounding woodwind instrument that plays in the same register as the tuba. It has a range beginning at B♭0 and extending up three octaves and a major third to D4. Donald Erb and Kalevi Aho write even higher in their concertos for the instrument, the instrument is notated an octave above sounding pitch in bass clef, with tenor or even treble clef called for in high passages. Tonally, it sounds much like the bassoon except for an organ pedal quality in the lowest octave of its range which provides a solid underpinning to the orchestra or concert band. The lowest range, in comparison with the bassoon, can be played quieter than the bassoon can, while prominent in solo and small ensemble situations, the sound can be completely obscured in the volume of the full orchestra or concert band. The contrabassoon was developed, especially in England, in the century, the oldest surviving instrument. It was around that time that the contrabassoon began gaining acceptance in church music, however, until the late 19th century, the instrument typically had a weak tone and poor intonation. For more than a century, between 1880 and 2000, Heckel’s design remained relatively unchanged, chip Owen at the American company, Fox, began manufacturing an instrument in 1971 with some improvements. Generally, during the 20th century changes to the instrument were limited to an upper vent key near the socket, a tuning slide
24.
Bagpipes
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Bagpipes are a wind instrument using enclosed reeds fed from a constant reservoir of air in the form of a bag. The term bagpipe is equally correct in the singular or plural, though pipers usually refer to the bagpipes as the pipes, a set of bagpipes minimally consists of an air supply, a bag, a chanter, and usually at least one drone. Many bagpipes have more than one drone in various combinations, held in place in stocks—sockets that fasten the various pipes to the bag, the most common method of supplying air to the bag is through blowing into a blowpipe, or blowstick. In some pipes the player must cover the tip of the blowpipe with their tongue while inhaling, an innovation, dating from the 16th or 17th century, is the use of a bellows to supply air. In these pipes, sometimes called cauld wind pipes, air is not heated or moistened by the players breathing, the bag is an airtight reservoir that holds air and regulates its flow via arm pressure, allowing the player to maintain continuous even sound. The player keeps the bag inflated by blowing air into it through a blowpipe or pumping air into it with a bellows, materials used for bags vary widely, but the most common are the skins of local animals such as goats, dogs, sheep, and cows. More recently, bags made of materials including Gore-Tex have become much more common. A drawback of the bag is the potential for fungal spores to colonise the bag because of a reduction in necessary cleaning. An advantage of a bag is that they have a zip which allows the user to fit a more effective moisture trap to the inside of the bag. Bags cut from larger materials are usually saddle-stitched with an extra strip folded over the seam, holes are then cut to accommodate the stocks. The chanter is the pipe, played with two hands. Almost all bagpipes have at least one chanter, some pipes have two chanters, particularly those in North Africa, the Balkans in Southern Europe, and Southwest Asia. A chanter can be bored internally so that the walls are parallel for its full length. The chanter is usually open-ended, so there is no way for the player to stop the pipe from sounding. Thus most bagpipes share a constant, legato sound where there are no rests in the music, primarily because of this inability to stop playing, technical movements are used to break up notes and to create the illusion of articulation and accents. Because of their importance, these embellishments are often highly technical systems specific to each bagpipe, a few bagpipes have closed ends or stop the end on the players leg, so that when the player closes the chanter becomes silent. A practice chanter is a chanter without bag or drones, allowing a player to practice the instrument quietly, the term chanter is derived from the Latin cantare, or to sing, much like the modern French word chanteur. The note from the chanter is produced by a reed installed at its top, the reed may be a single or double reed
25.
Recorder (musical instrument)
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The recorder is a woodwind musical instrument in the group known as internal duct flutes—flutes with a whistle mouthpiece. It is distinguished from other duct flutes by having a thumb-hole for the hand and seven finger-holes. It is the most prominent duct flute in the classical tradition. Recorders are made in different sizes with compasses corresponding to different vocal ranges, the sizes most commonly in use today are the soprano, alto, tenor and bass. Recorders are traditionally constructed from wood and ivory, although the use of plastics is now common, other characteristics of their construction, such as bore profile and fingering systems, have varied over time and between instruments. The recorder is first documented in the Middle Ages, and continued to enjoy popularity in the renaissance and baroque periods. It was revived in the 20th century as part of the historically informed performance movement, today, there are many professional recorder players who demonstrate the instruments full solo range and a large community of amateurs. The sound of the recorder is described as clear and sweet. It is notable for its response and its corresponding ability to produce a wide variety of articulations. This ability, coupled with its open finger holes, allow it to produce a variety of tone colors. Acoustically, its tone is relatively pure and odd harmonics predominate in its sound, the instrument has been known by its modern English name at least since the 14th century. David Lasocki reports the earliest use of recorder in the accounts of the Earl of Derby in 1388. By the 15th century, the name had appeared in English literature, the instrument name recorder derives from the Latin recordārī, by way of Middle French recorder and MFr recordeur, itself derived from MFr recorder. Thus, the recorder cannot have been named after the sound of birds, the name of the instrument is also uniquely English, in Middle French there is no equivalent noun sense of recorder referring to a musical instrument. Partridge indicates that the use of the instrument by jongleurs led to its association with the verb, recorder the minstrels action, the reason we know this instrument as the recorder and not one of the other instruments played by the jongleurs is uncertain. Until about 1695, the recorder and flute overlapped, but from 1673 to the late 1720s in England. Until at least 1765, some still used flute to mean recorder. Until the mid 18th century, musical scores written in Italian refer to the instrument as flauto and this distinction, like the English switch from recorder to flute, has caused confusion among modern editors, writers and performers
26.
Garklein recorder
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The garklein recorder in C, also known as the sopranissimo, is the smallest size of the recorder family. The name garklein is German for quite small, and is sometimes used to describe the sopranino in G. Although some modern German makers use the single-word form Garkleinflötlein, this is historical precedent. Double holes for the two lowest notes are uncommon, the instrument is usually notated in the treble clef two octaves lower than its actual sound. The garklein recorder is only about 16 to 18 cm long and is different from larger recorders in that it is made in one piece due to its size. Praetorius says it is three to four Brunswick inches long. Praetoriuss descriptive expression is the source of the name given by modern makers to their recorders in C6. Today, Monteverdis instrument is generally assumed to be the sopranino in G5, the smallest true recorder described by Praetorius, adding to the confusion, however, he also uses the expression klein flöttlein for the one-handed zuffolo. The earliest-known example of a recorder in C6 is an ivory instrument by a Nuremberg maker identified by the mark M. In comparison to larger recorders, the fingering is relatively difficult because of the very tight hole spacing, woodwind Instruments and Their History, third edition, with a foreword by Sir Adrian Boult. This edition reissued, Mineola, New York, Dover Publications,1991, and reprinted again in 2012. Griscom, Richard W. and David Lasocki, the Recorder, A Research and Information Guide, third edition. Syntagma Musicum II, Parts 1 and 2 of De Organographia by Michael Praetorius, the Galpin Society Journal 41, 142–44. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. Wolfenbüttel, Elias Holwein, in Verlegung des Autoris, klangfarbe und Instrumentation, Geschichte, Ursachen, Wirkung. Real-Lexikon der Musikinstrumente, zugleich ein Polyglossar für das gesamtr Instrumentengebiet, aspekte zur Geschichte der Blockflöte in c´´´
27.
Soprano recorder
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The soprano recorder in c2, also known as the descant, is the third-smallest instrument of the modern recorder family and is usually played as the highest voice in four-part ensembles. Since its finger spacing is relatively small, it is used in music education for children first learning to play an instrument. The soprano recorder is an octave above the level of the soprano voice. Its lowest note is c2, the range is c2–d4. Compositions for soprano recorder are usually notated an octave lower than they sound and its timbre is similar to the sound of the flue pipes of an organ, which is why some organ stops sound similar to a recorder. These registers are called then block-flute or forest-flute, in German fingering the note F5 is playable with a simpler fingering than the Baroque techniques forked fingering. However, German fingering has been described as a step backwards, made on the false assumption that the instrument would be easier for schoolchildren. The disadvantage is that other, unavoidable cross-fingerings become more difficult, recorders with a plastic head joint or made completely of plastic are widely used. Soprano recorders are made from woods such as maple, pear, boxwood, rosewood, olive, African blackwood, rosewood. Woodwind Instruments and Their History, third edition, with a foreword by Sir Adrian Boult and this edition reissued, Mineola, New York, Dover Publications, Inc. 1991, and reprinted again in 2012, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. Wolfenbüttel, Elias Holwein, in Verlegung des Autoris, real-Lexikon der Musikinstrumente, zugleich ein Polyglossar für das gesamte Instrumentengebiet
28.
Alto recorder
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The alto recorder in F, also known as a treble is a member of the recorder family. Up until the 17th century the instrument was normally in G4 instead of F4. The alto is between the soprano and tenor in size, and is intermediate in pitch. It has the general shape as a soprano, but is approximately 50% larger in all dimensions. A 50% increase in length causes a 50% increase in the wavelength for a given fingering and this lowers the pitch by a perfect fifth, that is from C to F. The F alto is an instrument, though its basic scale is in F, that is, a fifth lower than the soprano recorder. So-called F fingerings are therefore used, as with the bassoon or the low register of the clarinet and its notation is usually at sounding pitch, but sometimes is written an octave lower than it sounds. For adult hands, the recorder is easy to play. Maintenance is the same as for the soprano recorder, recorders are known to have been made in different sizes since at least the 15th century, but a consistent terminology did not exist until the 20th-century revival of the instrument. Appropriate to the highest instrument of the set, it is given a name used for the highest vocal part in music from time, discant. At this time, recorders were made in a single piece and this type of instrument continued to be produced through the 17th century and into the early 18th, though around 1650 it began to be made in three separate parts. It was sometimes called the flauto italiano, particularly after about 1670 when a new type of recorder appeared in France, called flûte douce, what today would be called an alto in F. In contrast to the bright-toned flauto italiano, which was easy to play in the register, the flüte douce was full and resonant in the low register. This new version of recorder was first made in Paris and, shortly later and under French influence, the redesign is traditionally attributed to the Hotteterres, particularly to Jean Hotteterre, though the evidence is rather tenuous. In 1696, Johann Christoph Denner and Johann Schell applied for permission to make the French type of instrument in Nuremberg, in most languages, this was the instrument meant by the word for flute alone, German Flöte, Dutch fluyt, Italian flauto, Spanish flauta. In England, it was usually simply flute, but when necessary to differentiate from the flute or other sizes of recorder. Woodwind Instruments and Their History, third edition, with a foreword by Sir Adrian Boult and this edition reissued, Mineola, New York, Dover Publications, Inc. 1991, and reprinted again in 2012, facsimile reprint, Collezione di trattati e musiche antiche edite in fac-simile
29.
Bass recorder
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A bass recorder is a wind instrument in F3 that belongs to the family of recorders. The bass recorder plays an octave lower than the alto or treble recorder, in the recorder family it stands in between the tenor recorder and C great-bass recorder. Due to the length of the instrument, the lowest tone, F, on modern instruments, keys may also be provided for low F♯, G, and G♯, and sometimes for C and C♯ as well. Praetorius calls the instrument a bass, and the instrument an octave lower than the basset a Großbaß. Woodwind Instruments and Their History, third edition, with a foreword by Sir Adrian Boult and this edition reissued, Mineola, New York, Dover Publications, Inc. 1991, and reprinted again in 2012, griscom, Richard W. and David Lasocki. The Recorder, A Research and Information Guide, third edition, syntagma Musicum II, Parts 1 and 2 of De Organographia by Michael Praetorius, David Z. Crookes. The Galpin Society Journal 41, 142–44, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. Wolfenbüttel, Elias Holwein, in Verlegung des Autoris, real-Lexikon der Musikinstrumente, zugleich ein Polyglossar für das gesamte Instrumentengebiet
30.
Great bass recorder
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The great bass recorder is a member of the recorder family. The great bass recorder has up to seven keys, which serve to facilitate access to the finger holes, for modern large bass recorders woods like maple or African Bubinga are used. The prefixes great and contra refer to the registers from C to B and from ͵C to ͵B, respectively, in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum in Nuremberg are two famous great bass recorders. Both are of the Renaissance type, despite the fact that the instrument of Hieronymus F. Kynseker is provided on the piece with high baroque ornaments. This recorder is part of a set that is made of plum wood. For larger recorders pear wood is used, for reasons of cost. The great bass recorder requires a key for the bottom note, an S-shaped bocal or crook is used to make it somewhat more comfortable to play the instrument. Because the finger holes are not covered with keys, some of the holes are placed in acoustically unfavorable locations to accommodate the hand. The relatively large finger-span distance reduces fluency of playing, as an authentic instrument, the great bass recorder has a short history of about 100 to 120 years. The instrument is described in the Syntagma Musicum of Michael Praetorius. The earliest great bass recorder is probably that in the collection of Venetian Catajo Palace and it is now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. The Kynseker instrument from the Germanisches Nationalmuseum is both the highpoint and the endpoing of development and it is possible that it was already conceived as historicizing. Woodwind Instruments and Their History, third edition, with a foreword by Sir Adrian Boult and this edition reissued, Mineola, New York, Dover Publications, Inc. 1991, and reprinted again in 2012, griscom, Richard W. and David Lasocki. The Recorder, A Research and Information Guide, third edition, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. Wolfenbüttel, Elias Holwein, in Verlegung des Autoris, real-Lexikon der Musikinstrumente, zugleich ein Polyglossar für das gesamte Instrumentengebiet
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Contrabass recorder
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The contrabass or great bass recorder is a wind instrument in F2 that belongs to the family of recorders. The contrabass recorder plays an octave lower than the bass recorder. Until recently, it was the largest instrument in the family, but since 1975 has been exceeded by the sub-great bass recorder in C2. Due to the length of the instrument, the lowest tone, F, on modern instruments, keys may also be provided for low F♯, G, and G♯, and sometimes for C and C♯ as well. Occasionally, this size of instrument may be equipped with so-called diapason keys, praetorius calls the next-lower instrument a bass, and the instrument an octave lower than the basset a Großbaß, great or large bass. However, the contrabass is sometimes used for the next-larger size. The modern notation for this instrument is usually in the bass clef at sounding pitch, woodwind Instruments and Their History, third edition, with a foreword by Sir Adrian Boult. This edition reissued, Mineola, New York, Dover Publications,1991, and reprinted again in 2012. Griscom, Richard W. and David Lasocki, the Recorder, A Research and Information Guide, third edition. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie, wolfenbüttel, Elias Holwein, in Verlegung des Autoris. Real-Lexikon der Musikinstrumente, zugleich ein Polyglossar für das gesamte Instrumentengebiet
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Brass instrument
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A brass instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound by sympathetic vibration of air in a tubular resonator in sympathy with the vibration of the players lips. Brass instruments are also called labrosones, literally meaning lip-vibrated instruments, there are several factors involved in producing different pitches on a brass instrument. The view of most scholars is that the brass instrument should be defined by the way the sound is made, as above. Thus one finds brass instruments made of wood, like the alphorn, the cornett, the serpent, as valved instruments are predominant among the brasses today, a more thorough discussion of their workings can be found below. The valves are usually piston valves, but can be rotary valves, slide brass instruments use a slide to change the length of tubing. The main instruments in this category are the family, though valve trombones are occasionally used. The trombone familys ancestor, the sackbut, and the folk instrument bazooka are also in the slide family, there are two other families that have, in general, become functionally obsolete for practical purposes. Instruments of both types, however, are used for period-instrument performances of Baroque or Classical pieces. In more modern compositions, they are used for their intonation or tone color. Natural brass instruments only play notes in the harmonic series. These include the bugle and older variants of the trumpet and horn, the trumpet was a natural brass instrument prior to about 1795, and the horn before about 1820. In the 18th century, makers developed interchangeable crooks of different lengths, natural instruments are still played for period performances and some ceremonial functions, and are occasionally found in more modern scores, such as those by Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss. Keyed or Fingered brass instruments used holes along the body of the instrument and these included the cornett, serpent, ophicleide, keyed bugle and keyed trumpet. They are more difficult to play than valved instruments, Brass instruments may also be characterised by two generalizations about geometry of the bore, that is, the tubing between the mouthpiece and the flaring of the tubing into the bell. Those two generalizations are with regard to the degree of taper or conicity of the bore and the diameter of the bore with respect to its length, cylindrical bore brass instruments are generally perceived as having a brighter, more penetrating tone quality compared to conical bore brass instruments. The trumpet, baritone horn and all trombones are cylindrical bore, in particular, the slide design of the trombone necessitates this. Conical bore brass instruments are those in which tubing of constantly increasing diameter predominates, conical bore instruments are generally perceived as having a more mellow tone quality than the cylindrical bore brass instruments. The British brass band group of instruments fall into this category and this includes the flugelhorn, cornet, tenor horn, horn, euphonium and tuba
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Trumpet
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A trumpet is a musical instrument commonly used in classical and jazz ensembles. The trumpet group contains the instruments with the highest register in the brass family, trumpets are used in art music styles, for instance in orchestras, concert bands, and jazz ensembles, as well as in popular music. They are played by blowing air through almost-closed lips, producing a sound that starts a standing wave vibration in the air column inside the instrument. Since the late 15th century they have primarily been constructed of brass tubing, there are many distinct types of trumpet, with the most common being pitched in B♭, having a tubing length of about 1.48 m. Early trumpets did not provide means to change the length of tubing, most trumpets have valves of the piston type, while some have the rotary type. The use of rotary-valved trumpets is more common in orchestral settings, each valve, when engaged, increases the length of tubing, lowering the pitch of the instrument. A musician who plays the trumpet is called a trumpet player or trumpeter, the earliest trumpets date back to 1500 BC and earlier. The bronze and silver trumpets from Tutankhamuns grave in Egypt, bronze lurs from Scandinavia, trumpets from the Oxus civilization of Central Asia have decorated swellings in the middle, yet are made out of one sheet of metal, which is considered a technical wonder. The Shofar, made from a ram horn and the Hatzotzeroth and they were played in Solomons Temple around 3000 years ago. They were said to be used to blow down the walls of Jericho and they are still used on certain religious days. The Salpinx was a straight trumpet 62 inches long, made of bone or bronze, Salpinx contests were a part of the original Olympic Games. The Moche people of ancient Peru depicted trumpets in their art going back to AD300, the earliest trumpets were signaling instruments used for military or religious purposes, rather than music in the modern sense, and the modern bugle continues this signaling tradition. Improvements to instrument design and metal making in the late Middle Ages, the natural trumpets of this era consisted of a single coiled tube without valves and therefore could only produce the notes of a single overtone series. Changing keys required the player to change crooks of the instrument, the development of the upper, clarino register by specialist trumpeters—notably Cesare Bendinelli—would lend itself well to the Baroque era, also known as the Golden Age of the natural trumpet. During this period, a vast body of music was written for virtuoso trumpeters, the art was revived in the mid-20th century and natural trumpet playing is again a thriving art around the world. The melody-dominated homophony of the classical and romantic periods relegated the trumpet to a role by most major composers owing to the limitations of the natural trumpet. Berlioz wrote in 1844, Notwithstanding the real loftiness and distinguished nature of its quality of tone, there are few instruments that have been more degraded. The attempt to give the trumpet more chromatic freedom in its range saw the development of the keyed trumpet, the symphonies of Mozart, Beethoven, and as late as Brahms, were still played on natural trumpets
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Trombone
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The trombone is a musical instrument in the brass family. Like all brass instruments, sound is produced when the players vibrating lips cause the air column inside the instrument to vibrate, nearly all trombones have a telescoping slide mechanism that varies the length of the instrument to change the pitch. Many modern trombone models also utilize a rotary valve as a means to lower pitch of the instrument, variants such as the valve trombone and superbone have three valves like those on the trumpet. The word trombone derives from Italian tromba and -one, so the name means large trumpet, the trombone has a predominantly cylindrical bore like its valved counterpart the baritone and in contrast to its conical valved counterparts, the euphonium and the horn. The most frequently encountered trombones are the trombone and bass trombone. The most common variant, the tenor, is an instrument pitched in B♭, an octave below the B♭ trumpet. A person who plays the trombone is called a trombonist or trombone player, the trombone is a predominantly cylindrical tube bent into an elongated S shape. Rather than being completely cylindrical from end to end, the tube is a series of tapers with the smallest at the mouthpiece receiver. The design of these affects the intonation of the instrument. As with other instruments, sound is produced by blowing air through pursed lips producing a vibration that creates a standing wave in the instrument. The detachable cup-shaped mouthpiece is similar to that of the baritone horn and it has the venturi, a small constriction of the air column that adds resistance greatly affecting the tone of the instrument, and is inserted into the mouthpiece receiver in the slide section. The slide section consists of a leadpipe, the inner and outer tubes. Modern stays are soldered, while sackbuts were made with loose, the slide, the most distinctive feature of the trombone, allows the player to extend the length of the air column, lowering the pitch. To prevent friction from slowing the action of the slide, additional sleeves were developed during the Renaissance, and this part of the slide must be lubricated frequently. Additional tubing connects the slide to the bell of the instrument through a neckpipe, for example, second position A is not in exactly the same place on the slide as second position E. Many types of trombone also include one or more rotary valves used to increase the length of the instrument by directing the air flow through additional tubing. This allows the instrument to reach notes that are not possible without the valve as well as play other notes in alternate positions. Like the trumpet, the trombone is considered a cylindrical bore instrument since it has sections of tubing, principally in the slide section
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Cornet
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The cornet /ˈkɔːrnɪt/ is a brass instrument similar to the trumpet but distinguished from it by its conical bore, more compact shape, and mellower tone quality. The most common cornet is an instrument in B♭, though there is also a soprano cornet in E♭. Both are unrelated to the renaissance and early baroque cornett, the cornet was initially derived from the post horn around 1820 in France. Among the first manufacturers of modern cornets was Parisian Jean Asté in 1828, cornets first appeared as separate instrumental parts in 19th century French compositions. This instrument could not have developed without the improvement of piston valves by Silesian oboe player Friedrich Blühmel. These two instrument makers almost simultaneously invented valves, though it is likely that Blühmel was the inventor and they jointly applied for a patent and were granted this for a period of ten years. Later, and most importantly, François Périnet received a patent in 1838 for a valve which is the basis of all modern brass instrument piston valves. Up until the early 20th century, the trumpet and cornet coexisted in musical ensembles, symphonic repertoire often involves separate parts for trumpet and cornet. As several instrument builders made improvements to instruments, they started to look and sound more alike. The modern day cornet is used in bands, concert bands. The name cornet derives from corne, meaning horn, itself from Latin cornu, while not musically related, instruments of the Zink family are named cornetto or cornett in modern English to distinguish them from the valved cornet described here. The 11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica referred to serpents as old wooden cornets, the Roman/Etruscan cornu is the lingual ancestor of these. It is a predecessor of the post horn from which the evolved and was used like a bugle to signal orders on the battlefield. The instrument was once referred to as a cornopean, referencing the earliest cornets with the Stölzel valve system. The cornet was invented by adding valves to the post horn in 1814, the valves allowed for melodic playing throughout the register of the cornet. Trumpets were slower to adopt the new technology, so for the next 100 years or more. The trumpet would play fanfare-like passages, while the cornet played more melodic passages, the modern trumpet has valves that allow it to play the same notes and fingerings as the cornet. Cornets and trumpets made in a key play at the same pitch
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Baritone horn
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The baritone horn, or sometimes just called baritone, is a low-pitched brass instrument in the saxhorn family. It is a brass instrument with a bore that is mostly conical, like the flugelhorn and alto horn. It uses a cup mouthpiece like that of its peers. Like the trombone and the euphonium, the horn can be considered either a transposing or non-transposing instrument. In the UK, the horn is frequently found in brass bands. In concert band music, there is often a part marked baritone, a person who plays a baritone horn is a baritone player or baritonist. The baritone, like the trombone and euphonium, is a brass tube. It is predominately of conical bore, like the euphonium, but has a narrow bore than the euphonium. The smaller bore renders its attack more distinct than the attack of the euphonium. The baritone is pitched in concert B♭, meaning that when no valves are actuated, music for the baritone horn can be written in either the bass clef or the treble clef. When written in the bass clef, the horn is a non-transposing instrument. It is often used to play parts written for the similarly pitched tenor trombone or euphonium, the baritone is part of the tenor section of a band. Its second partial with no valves pressed is concert B♭ on the line from the bottom of the bass clef. The eighth partial with no valves pressed is concert B♭ in the center of the treble clef, the baritone sounds with a timbre between the brightness of the trombone and the more mellow tone of the euphonium. The baritone horn usually has a wrap and a smaller bell, and is thus smaller and lighter overall. This practice has not yet stopped, there is a common misconception that three-valve instrument is a baritone and that the four-valve instrument is a euphonium. Euphoniums often have a valve as an alternate fingering for 1&3 split fingering with improved intonation. The fourth valve can also be viewed in the way as an F trigger on trombone
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Flugelhorn
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The flugelhorn is a brass instrument pitched in B♭, and resembles a trumpet, but has a wider, conical bore. The instrument known today as the flugelhorn is a descendant of the valved bugle, the valved bugle provided Adolphe Sax with the inspiration for his B♭ soprano saxhorns, on which the modern-day flugelhorn is modeled. The German word Flügel translates into English as wing or flank, the flugelhorn is built in the same B♭ pitch as many trumpets and cornets. It usually has three valves and employs the same fingering system as other brass instruments, but four-piston valve. It can thus be played too much trouble by trumpet and cornet players. It is usually played with a more deeply conical mouthpiece than either trumpets or cornets, some modern flugelhorns feature a fourth valve that lowers the pitch a perfect fourth. This adds a low range that, coupled with the flugelhorns dark sound. More often, however, players use the valve in place of the first and third valve combination. A pair of bass flugelhorns in C, called fiscorns, are played in the Catalan cobla bands which provide music for sardana dancers, the tone is fatter and usually regarded as more mellow and dark than the trumpet or cornet. The sound of the flugelhorn has been described as halfway between a trumpet and a French horn, whereas the sound is halfway between a trumpet and a flugelhorn. The flugelhorn is as agile as the cornet but more difficult to control in the high register and it is not generally used for aggressive or bright displays as trumpets and cornets often are, but tends more towards a softer and more reflective role. The flugelhorn is a member of the British-style brass band. It also appears occasionally in orchestral and concert band music, famous orchestral works with flugelhorn include Igor Stravinskys Threni, Ralph Vaughan Williamss Ninth Symphony, Danzon no.2 by Arturo Marquez, and Michael Tippetts third symphony. The flugelhorn is sometimes substituted for the post horn in Mahlers Third Symphony, in HK Grubers trumpet concerto Busking the soloist is directed to play a flugelhorn in the slow middle movement. The flugelhorn figured prominently in many of Burt Bacharachs 1960s pop song arrangements and it is featured in a solo role in Bert Kaempferts 1962 recording of That Happy Feeling. Flugelhorns have occasionally used as the alto or low soprano voice in a drum. The flugelhorns in these orchestras are pitched in B-flat, with sporadically an E-flat soloïst, due to bad intonation these E-flat flugelhorns are mostly being replaced by the E-flat trumpet or cornet. Joe Bishop, as a member of the Woody Herman band in 1936, was one of the earliest jazz musicians to use the flugelhorn, shorty Rogers and Kenny Baker began playing it in the early fifties, and Clark Terry used it in Duke Ellingtons orchestra in the mid-1950s
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Mellophone
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The mellophone is a three-valved brass instrument pitched in the key of F or E♭. It has a bore, like that of the euphonium. Tuning is done solely by adjusting the piping, instead of adjusting both piping and hand position as on the French horn, fingerings for the mellophone are the same as fingerings for the trumpet, alto horn, and most valved brass instruments. Owing to its use primarily outside of music, there is little solo literature for the mellophone, other than that used within drum. The present-day mellophone has three valves, operated with the right hand, mellophone fingering is the same as the trumpet and is typically pitched lower, in the key of F or E♭. The overtone series of the F mellophone is an octave above that of the F horn, the tubing length of a mellophone is the same as that of the F-alto single horn or the F-alto branch of a triple horn or double-descant horn. The direction of the bell as well as the amount of tubing make the mellophone look like a large trumpet. The mellophone uses the same mouthpiece as the horn, which is in-between the size of a trombone. This mouthpiece usually has a cup, like that of the flugelhorn. These mouthpieces give the mellophone a dark, round sound, some trumpet players who double on mellophone use a trumpet-style parabolic mouthpiece on the instrument, resulting in a much brighter, more trumpet-like sound. Horn players doubling on mellophone use a smaller, lighter, conical mouthpiece, as used on French horns. Two instruments carry the name mellophone, Traditional mellophones with a rear or sideways facing bell, the marching mellophone, with a forward-facing bell. In general, the mellophone has its origin in the horn design boom of the 19th century. The earliest version was the Koenig horn, based on a design by its eponym Herman Koenig, but manufactured by Antoine Courtois, Courtois had just won the right to manufacture the saxhorn, in a lawsuit against the inventor of the saxophone, Adolphe Sax. This shape was influenced by the post horn. Kohler & Son originally began using the name mellophone for its line of horns based loosely on similar instruments by Distin. These were also post horn-like instruments with valves, but the mouthpieces and bell angle were slowly evolving to allow for more projection, the traditional instrument is visually modeled on the horn, with a round shape and a rear-facing bell. Unlike French horns, it is played with the hand
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Euphonium
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The euphonium is a large, conical-bore, baritone-voiced brass instrument that derives its name from the Ancient Greek word εὔφωνος euphōnos, meaning well-sounding or sweet-voiced. The euphonium is an instrument, nearly all current models are piston valved. The euphonium is an instrument known for its distinctive tone color. A person who plays the euphonium is sometimes called a euphoniumist, euphophonist, or a euphonist, while British players often colloquially refer to themselves as euphists, similarly, the instrument itself is often referred to as eupho or euph. The euphonium is part of the family of brass instruments and it is sometimes confused with the baritone horn. The two instruments are easily interchangeable to the player, with modification of breath and embouchure. The cylindrical baritone offers a brighter sound and the conical euphonium offers a mellower sound, several late 19th century music catalogs sold a euphonium-like instrument called the B♭ bass. In these catalog drawings, the B♭ Bass had thicker tubing than the baritone, along the same lines, drum and bugle corps introduced the Bass-baritone, and distinguished it from the baritone. The thicker tubing of the three-valve B♭ bass allowed for production of strong false-tones, ferdinand Sommers original name for the instrument was the euphonion. It is sometimes called the tenor tuba in B♭, although this can refer to other varieties of tuba. Names in other languages, as included in scores, can be ambiguous as well and they include French basse, saxhorn basse, and tuba basse, German Baryton, Tenorbass, and Tenorbasshorn, Italian baritono, bombardino, eufonio, and flicorno basso. The most common German name, Baryton, may also have caused the American use of the term baritone for the instrument with the influx of German musicians to the United States in the nineteenth century. As a baritone-voiced brass instrument, the euphonium traces its ancestry to the ophicleide, the search for a satisfactory foundational wind instrument that could support masses of sound above it took some time. With the invention of the valve system c. 1818, the construction of instruments with an even sound. While Saxs family of saxhorns were invented at about the same time, the euphonium, like the tenor trombone, is pitched in concert B♭. For a valved brass instrument like the euphonium, this means that when no valves are in use the instrument will produce partials of the B♭ harmonic series. It is generally orchestrated as an instrument like the trombone
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Oboe". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
