1.
Ottoman Bank
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It operated as the Imperial Ottoman Bank from 1863 to 1924. Privileged as a bank, it carried out the functions of a central bank. In June 1996, the Ottoman Bank was sold to the Doguş Group, in 2001, the Ottoman Bank became part of the Garanti Bank. On February 4,1863, seven years after its establishment, sultan Abdülâziz, who expected to improve his countrys economy, which was in a state of financial crisis after the Crimean War, ratified the contract immediately. Tanzimat eras principal renovations in the field were the re-establishment of the currency. The Ottoman Bank provided the Treasury with the advances, played an intermediary role during the Ottoman public debt and acted as a bank of issue. On February 18,1875, the bank was authorized to control the budget, the character of the Ottoman Bank as a state bank was fully reaffirmed by extending its right of issue for 20 years and conferring on it the role of Treasurer of the Empire. Following the re-establishment of Empires credit standing, the placing of Turkish loans abroad became possible around 1886, the Banks financial support continued to some other railway projects including the line Constantinople-Salonica, Smyrna-Kasaba and the Baghdad Railway. In 1896, the Bank played a role in the establishment of the Ereğli coal mining company on the Black Sea shore. In August 1896, the bank was the subject of a seizure by Armenian Revolutionaries intent on bringing attention to mistreatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire. But, with the exception of Cyprus, during time, the British and French executives of the bank left their posts. After the War of Independence and the proclamation of the Republic of Turkey, the name of the Bank was changed from the Imperial Ottoman Bank back to the Ottoman Bank. The Banks role as a state bank remained, however it was extended on a temporary due to the Turkish governments intention to establish its own Central Bank. During the period after World War I, most of the branches had to be closed, in 1933, the Ottoman Bank became a commercial bank, and finally in 1952 it turned into a private institution. Following the Suez Canal crisis in 1956, Egyptian government nationalized all the five branches in the country, the Egyptian government established Bank Al-Goumhourieh to take over the Egyptian operations of Ionian Bank and the Ottoman Bank in the wake of the Suez Canal War. In 1958, the Bank extended its network to East African countries such as Kenya, Uganda, the branches in France and Switzerland it regrouped in a separate company called Banque Ottomane, which Grindlays Bank later bought. In 1996, the Ottoman Bank was sold to Doğuş Group, on July 31,2001, it merged with Körfez Bankasi. On December 21,2001, it was incorporated in its principal shareholder and this led to the disappearance of the name Ottoman Bank from all remaining branches
2.
Constantinople
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Constantinople was the capital city of the Roman/Byzantine Empire, and also of the brief Latin, and the later Ottoman empires. It was reinaugurated in 324 AD from ancient Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Emperor Constantine the Great, after whom it was named, Constantinople was famed for its massive and complex defences. The first wall of the city was erected by Constantine I, Constantinople never truly recovered from the devastation of the Fourth Crusade and the decades of misrule by the Latins. The origins of the name of Byzantion, more known by the later Latin Byzantium, are not entirely clear. The founding myth of the city has it told that the settlement was named after the leader of the Megarian colonists, Byzas. The later Byzantines of Constantinople themselves would maintain that the city was named in honour of two men, Byzas and Antes, though this was likely just a play on the word Byzantion. During this time, the city was also called Second Rome, Eastern Rome, and Roma Constantinopolitana. As the city became the remaining capital of the Roman Empire after the fall of the West, and its wealth, population, and influence grew. In the language of other peoples, Constantinople was referred to just as reverently, the medieval Vikings, who had contacts with the empire through their expansion in eastern Europe used the Old Norse name Miklagarðr, and later Miklagard and Miklagarth. In Arabic, the city was sometimes called Rūmiyyat al-kubra and in Persian as Takht-e Rum, in East and South Slavic languages, including in medieval Russia, Constantinople was referred to as Tsargrad or Carigrad, City of the Caesar, from the Slavonic words tsar and grad. This was presumably a calque on a Greek phrase such as Βασιλέως Πόλις, the modern Turkish name for the city, İstanbul, derives from the Greek phrase eis tin polin, meaning into the city or to the city. In 1928, the Turkish alphabet was changed from Arabic script to Latin script, in time the city came to be known as Istanbul and its variations in most world languages. In Greece today, the city is still called Konstantinoúpolis/Konstantinoúpoli or simply just the City, apart from this, little is known about this initial settlement, except that it was abandoned by the time the Megarian colonists settled the site anew. A farsighted treaty with the emergent power of Rome in c.150 BC which stipulated tribute in exchange for independent status allowed it to enter Roman rule unscathed. The site lay astride the land route from Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, and had in the Golden Horn an excellent and spacious harbour. He would later rebuild Byzantium towards the end of his reign, in which it would be briefly renamed Augusta Antonina, fortifying it with a new city wall in his name, Constantine had altogether more colourful plans. Rome was too far from the frontiers, and hence from the armies and the imperial courts, yet it had been the capital of the state for over a thousand years, and it might have seemed unthinkable to suggest that the capital be moved to a different location. Constantinople was built over 6 years, and consecrated on 11 May 330, Constantine divided the expanded city, like Rome, into 14 regions, and ornamented it with public works worthy of an imperial metropolis
3.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
4.
Armenian Revolutionary Federation
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The ARF has traditionally advocated democratic socialism and is a full member of the Socialist International since 2003, which it had originally joined in 1907. It has the largest membership of the parties present in the Armenian diaspora. The party campaigns for the recognition of the Armenian Genocide and the right to reparations and it also advocates the establishment of United Armenia, partially based on the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920. ARF members formed fedayi groups that defended Armenian civilians through armed resistance, in 1918, the party was instrumental in the creation of the First Republic of Armenia, which fell to the Soviet communists in 1920. After its leadership was exiled by the communists, the ARF established itself within Armenian diaspora communities, after the fall of the USSR, it returned to Armenia, where it now again has a presence as a minor party in Armenias parliament. In the late 19th century, Eastern Europe and Russia became the hub of small groups advocating reform in Armenian-populated areas in the Ottoman Empire, the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party at one point had agreed to join as well, seeing that the ARFs political ideology was socialism. However, the Hunchakians claimed the new party was not Marxist enough, the original aim of the ARF was to gain autonomy for the Armenian-populated areas in the Ottoman Empire. The party began to organize itself in the Ottoman Empire in the early 1890s and held its first major meeting in Tiflis, Russian Empire, in 1892. The party set its goal of a society based on the principles of freedom of assembly, freedom of speech, freedom of religion. The ARF gradually acquired significant strength and sympathy among Russian Armenians, mainly because of the ARFs stance towards the Ottoman Empire, the party enjoyed the support of the central Russian administration, as tsarist and ARF foreign policy had the same alignment until 1903. On June 12,1903, the tsarist authorities passed an edict to bring all Armenian Church property under imperial control and this was faced by strong ARF opposition, because the ARF perceived the tsarist edict as a threat to the Armenian national existence. As a result, the ARF leadership decided to defend Armenian churches by dispatching militiamen who acted as guards, in 1905–06, the Armenian-Tatar massacres broke out during which the ARF became involved in armed activities. Some sources claim that the Russian government incited the massacres in order to reinforce its authority during the turmoil of 1905. The first outbreak of violence occurred in Baku, in February 1905, the ARF held the Russian authorities responsible for inaction and instigation of massacres that were part of a larger anti-Armenian policy. Unable to rely on government forces to protect their interests and properties, the Russian Tsars envoy in the Caucasus, Vorontsov-Dashkov, reported that the ARF bore a major portion of responsibilities for perpetrating the massacres. The ARF, however, argued that it helped to organize the defence of the Armenian population against Muslim attacks, the blows suffered at the hands of the Dashnakist fighting squads proved a catalyst for the consolidation of the Muslim community of the Caucasus. During that period, the ARF regarded armed activity, including terror, in January 1912,159 ARF members, being lawyers, bankers, merchants and other intellectuals, were tried before the Russian senate for their participation in the party. Kerensky succeeded in having the evidence reexamined for one of the defendants, the Senate eventually opened an inquiry against the chief magistrate who had brought the charges against the Dashnak members and concluded that he was insane
5.
Papken Siuni
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Bedros Parian was born in 1873 in the village of Akn, the same village Siamanto was from. Early in his life, he moved to Constantinople where he continued his studies, in Constantinople, he became interested in revolutionary ideologies. He joined a Naval institute where he found other sympathetic youth and formed with them Syunik and they eventually merged with the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Upon merging with the ARF, he known for his ability to gather intelligence without being suspected. On his intelligence missions, he would wear a fez and peasant clothes to remain unnoticed from the Ottoman secret police and he became a fundamental aspect of the national movement. During the Hamidian massacres, Bedros Parian lost his parents which would make him pursue the national movement even more staunchly, the Ottoman Bank takeover was his brainchild, which he came up with after the murder of his parents. The ARF made Papken Siuni the leader and mastermind of the operation and he would secure pistols, grenades and other weapons which he would personally give to his comrades who were to be involved in the operation. The night before the takeover, he gave his men a speech stating in Armenian about the Armenian cause. On 26 August 1896, Papken Siuni, alongside Karekin Pastermadjian, Papken Siuni was part of the first wave of attackers. But before he could go into the bank, a bullet pierced through one of the grenades attached to his chest. Despite his short tenure in the takeover, he is credited as playing a big part in the takeover. ARF Lebanon page From the Armenian, Mihran Kurdoghlian, Badmoutioun Hayots, C. hador, Athens, Greece,1996, pg.44
6.
Armen Garo
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Garegin or Karekin Pastermadjian, better known by his nom de guerre Armen Garo or Armen Karo was an Armenian nationalist activist and politician. A was a member of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation for more than two decades. Between 1918 and 1920 he served as the first ambassador to the United States from the First Republic of Armenia, Karekin Pastermadjian was born in Karin. He finished his education as one of the first graduates of the Sanasarian College of Erzerum in 1891. Later in 1894, he continued his studies in France to study agriculture at the Agricultural School of Nancy-Université, during this period he was introduced to Armenian Revolutionary Federation and become younger generation of Armenian students of ARF in Europe. His plans to return to his hometown after graduating came to a halt when massacres and he left his studies to aid his compatriots in Zeitun. He soon found himself in Geneva, where he became an activist alongside his friends and he was sent to Egypt to assist the Zeitun Resistance. With Sarkis Srentz, Haig Tiriakian, Max Zevrouz, he left Egypt and it was around this time that Karekin Pastermadjian first assumed the name Armen Garo. The 1896 Ottoman Bank Takeover, executed on 26 August 1896, was his, the attack took place at about 1 p. m. Armen Garo entered 10 minutes prior to the attack. He was to keep the busy and the bank officers from escaping. His men didnt arrive quickly so he went to a shop across the street. When he saw the men through the doorway, he ran out to meet them, during the long and bloody battle, the group leader, Papken Siuni, was killed. Armen Garo took over as leader, ordering his group for much of the standoff, after these events, Karekin Pastermadjian returned to Europe to continue his unfinished studies. French Foreign Minister Gabriel Hanotaux declared the Armenians who had connected with the Ottoman Bank Takeover as persona non grata. Armen Garo transferred to Switzerland and studied natural sciences at the University of Geneva, during his studies, he continued his activities with the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. He was on the roster of the second ARF general conference in 1898. Despite his youth, he had gained trust and authority in the circles of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. In 1900 he completed his courses at the University of Geneva, in 1901 he founded a lab in Tiflis for chemical research
7.
Turkish language
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Outside of Turkey, significant smaller groups of speakers exist in Germany, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Northern Cyprus, Greece, the Caucasus, and other parts of Europe and Central Asia. Cyprus has requested that the European Union add Turkish as an official EU language, in 1928, as one of Atatürks Reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with a Latin alphabet. The distinctive characteristics of Turkish are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination, the basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb. Turkish has no classes or grammatical gender. Turkish has a strong T–V distinction and usage of honorifics, Turkish uses second-person pronouns that distinguish varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a person out of respect. Turkic languages belong to the Altaic language group, the Turkic family comprises some 30 living languages spoken across Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of languages, a subgroup of the Turkic language family, there is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and the other Oghuz Turkic languages, including Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia, erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan, these date back to the second Turk Kaghanate. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, following the adoption of Islam c. Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry, was influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a reform to replace loanwords of Arabic. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the terms of Arabic or Persian origin. The past few decades have seen the work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance, however, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, political party—also failed to meet with popular approval, some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings, for example betik is now used to mean script in computer science
8.
Armenian language
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The Armenian language is an Indo-European language spoken by the Armenians. Like Hellenic Greek, it has its own branch in the language tree. It is the language of Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. It has historically been spoken throughout the Armenian Highlands and today is spoken in the Armenian diaspora. Armenian has its own script, the Armenian alphabet, introduced in 405 AD by Mesrop Mashtots. Armenian is an independent branch of the Indo-European languages and it is of interest to linguists for its distinctive phonological developments within that family. Armenian exhibits more satemization than centumization, although it is not classified as belonging to either of these subgroups, Armenia was a monolingual country by the 2nd century BC at the latest. Its language has a literary history, with a 5th-century Bible translation as its oldest surviving text. Its vocabulary has been influenced by Western Middle Iranian languages, particularly Parthian, and to an extent by Greek, Persian. There are two standardized modern literary forms, Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian, with which most contemporary dialects are mutually intelligible and he is also credited by some with the creation of the Caucasian Albanian alphabet. In The Anabasis, Xenophon describes many aspects of Armenian village life and he relates that the Armenian people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians. W. M. However, unlike shared innovations, the retention of archaisms is not considered conclusive evidence of a period of common isolated development. Some of the terms he gives admittedly have an Akkadian or Sumerian provenance, loan words from Iranian languages, along with the other ancient accounts such as that of Xenophon above, initially led linguists to erroneously classify Armenian as an Iranian language. Scholars such as Paul de Lagarde and F. Müller believed that the similarities between the two meant that Iranian and Armenian were the same language. The distinctness of Armenian was recognized when philologist Heinrich Hübschmann used the method to distinguish two layers of Iranian loans from the older Armenian vocabulary. Meillets hypothesis became popular in the wake of his Esquisse, eric P. Hamp supports the Graeco-Armenian thesis, anticipating even a time when we should speak of Helleno-Armenian. Nevertheless, as Fortson comments, by the time we reach our earliest Armenian records in the 5th century AD, graeco--Aryan is a hypothetical clade within the Indo-European family, ancestral to the Greek language, the Armenian language, and the Indo-Iranian languages. Graeco-Aryan unity would have divided into Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian by the mid-third millennium BC
9.
Hamidian massacres
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The massacres are named after Sultan Abdul Hamid II, who, in his efforts to reinforce the territorial integrity of the embattled Ottoman Empire, reasserted Pan-Islamism as a state ideology. The massacres began with incidents in the Ottoman interior in 1894, gained full force in 1894–96, although the Ottomans had previously suppressed other revolts, the harshest measures were directed against the Armenian community. They observed no distinction between ages or genders, and massacred them with brutal force and this occurred at a time when the telegraph could spread news around the world, and the massacres received extensive coverage in the media of Western Europe and the United States. The origins of the hostility toward Armenians lay in the precarious position in which the Ottoman Empire found itself in the last quarter of the 19th century. The loss of Ottoman dominion over the Balkans was ushered in by an era of European nationalism, the Armenians of the empire, who were long considered second-class citizens, had begun in the mid-1860s and early 1870s to ask for civil reforms and better treatment from their government. These requests went unheeded by the central government, the Armenians sent a delegation led by Mkrtich Khrimian to the 1878 Congress of Berlin to lobby the European powers to include proper safeguards for their kinsmen in the eventual peace agreement. The Sultan, however, was not prepared to relinquish any power, Abdul Hamid believed that the woes of the Ottoman Empire stemmed from the endless persecutions and hostilities of the Christian world. He perceived the Ottoman Armenians to be an extension of foreign hostility, Turkish historian and Abdul Hamids biographer Osman Nuri observed, The mere mention of the word reform irritated him, inciting his criminal instincts. Upon hearing of the Armenian delegations visit to Berlin in 1878, he remarked, Such great impudence. Such great treachery toward religion. The provisions for reforms in the Armenian provinces embodied in Article 61 of the Treaty of Berlin were ultimately not enforced and were followed instead by further repression. On January 2,1881, collective notes sent by the European powers reminding the Sultan of the promises of reform failed to prod him into action, the eastern provinces of the Ottoman Empire were historically insecure, the Kurdish rebels attacked the inhabitants of towns and villages with impunity. In 1890-91, at a time when the empire was too weak and disorganized or reluctant to halt them. Made up mainly of Kurdish tribes, but also of Turks, Yöruk, Arabs, Turkmens and Circassians, in the face of such abuses and violence, the Armenians established revolutionary organizations, namely the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party and the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Clashes ensued and unrest occurred in 1892 at Merzifon and in 1893 at Tokat, in 1894, the Sultan began to target the Armenian people in a precursor to the Hamidian massacres. This persecution strengthened nationalistic sentiment among Armenians, the first notable battle in the Armenian resistance took place in Sasun. Hunchak activists, such as Mihran Damadian, Hampartsoum Boyadjian, and Hrayr, encouraged resistance against double taxation, the ARF armed the people of the region. The Armenians confronted the Ottoman army and Kurdish irregulars at Sasun, finally succumbing to superior numbers, in response to the resistance at Sasun, the governor of Mush responded by inciting the local Muslims against the Armenians. Sultan Abdul Hamid sent the Ottoman army into the area and also armed groups of Kurdish irregulars, the violence spread and affected most of the Armenian towns in the Ottoman Empire
10.
Abdul Hamid II
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Abdul Hamid II was the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the last Sultan to exert effective autocratic control over the fracturing state. Abdul Hamids 1909 removal from the throne was hailed by most Ottoman citizens, the most far-reaching of these reforms were in education, professional schools were established. The University of Istanbul, although shut down by Abdul Hamid himself in 1881, was reopened in 1900, and a network of secondary, primary, Railway and telegraph systems were developed by primarily German firms. Between 1871 and 1908, the Sublime Porte thus reached a new degree of organizational elaboration and articulation. Abroad, Abdul Hamid was nicknamed the Red Sultan or Abdul the Damned due to the massacres committed against minorities during his rule and use of a police to silence dissent. These led to an attempt in 1905, contributing to the sultans worsening paranoia until his eventual removal from the throne. Abdul Hamid II was born at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul and he was the son of Sultan Abdülmecid and Tirimüjgan Kadınefendi, originally named Virjin. After the death of his mother, he became the adoptive son of his fathers wife. He was a carpenter and personally crafted some high quality furniture. Abdul Hamid II was also interested in opera and personally wrote the first-ever Turkish translations of many opera classics and he ascended to the throne following the deposition of his brother Murad on 31 August 1876. At his accession, some commentators were impressed by the fact that he rode practically unattended to the Eyüp Sultan Mosque where he was given the Sword of Osman. Most people expected Abdul Hamid II to have ideas. In any event, like many other reforms of the Ottoman Empire change proved to be nearly impossible. Russia continued to mobilize for war, however, everything changed when the British fleet approached the capital from the Sea of Marmara. Early in 1877 the Ottoman Empire went to war with the Russian Empire, Abdul Hamids biggest fear, near dissolution, was realised with the Russian declaration of war on 24 April 1877. In that conflict, the Ottoman Empire fought without help from European allies, Russian chancellor Prince Gorchakov had effectively purchased Austrian neutrality with the Reichstadt Agreement. The Russian victory was quickly realised, the conflict ended in February 1878. After the war with Russia, Abdulhamid suspended the constitution in February 1878, for the next three decades, the Ottoman Empire was ruled by Abdulhamid from Yıldız Palace
11.
Pistol
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A pistol is a type of handgun. In some usage, the term refers to a subset of handguns. In other usage, the term is interchangeable with handgun, some handgun experts and dictionaries make a technical distinction that views pistols as a subset of handguns, others use the terms interchangeably. But UK/rest of Commonwealth usage does not always make this distinction, for example, the official designation of the Webley Mk VI revolver was Pistol, Revolver, Webley, No.1 Mk VI. The English word was introduced in ca.1570 from the Middle French pistolet, the etymology of the French word pistolet is disputed. The first suggestion derives the word from Czech píšťala, a type of hand-cannon used in the Hussite Wars during the 1420s, the Czech word was adopted in German as pitschale, pitschole, petsole, and variants. The second suggestion is less likely, the use of the word as a designation of a gun is not documented before 1605 in Italy, long after it was used in French, the Czech word is well documented since the Hussite wars in 1420s. Other suggestions include from Middle High German pischulle or from Middle French pistole, also it is suggested that early pistols were carried by cavalry in holsters hung from the pommel of a horses saddle. The most common types of pistol are the shot. Single shot handguns were mainly seen during the era of flintlock and musket weaponry where the pistol was loaded with a ball and fired by a flint striker. However, as technology improved, so did the single shot pistol, new operating mechanisms were created, and due to this, they are still made today. It is the oldest type of pistol, and is used to hunt wild game. Multi-barreled pistols were common during the time as single shot pistols. As designers looked for ways to increase fire rates, multiple barrels were added to all guns including pistols, one example of a multi-barreled pistol is the Ducks foot pistol, which generally had either four or eight barrels, although some 20th century models had three barrels. Around 1850, pistols such as the Jarre harmonica gun were produced that had a sliding magazine, the sliding magazine contained pinfire cartridges or speedloaders. The magazine needed to be moved manually in many designs, hence distinguishing them from semi-automatic pistols, with the development of the revolver in the 19th century, gunsmiths had finally achieved the goal of a practical capability for delivering multiple loads to one handgun barrel in quick succession. The semi-automatic pistol was the step in the development of the pistol. By avoiding multiple chambers—which need to be individually reloaded—semi-automatic pistols delivered faster rates of fire, an example of a modern blow back action semi-automatic pistol is the HK VP70
12.
Grenade
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A grenade is a small bomb typically thrown by hand. A variety of hand grenades exist, the most common being explosive grenades designed to detonate after impact or after a set amount of time, Grenadiers were originally soldiers who specialized in throwing grenades. The word grenade derives from the French word for an explosive shell. Its first use in English dates from the 1590s and it is likely derived from Old French pomegranate and influenced by Spanish granada, as the fragmenting bomb is reminiscent of the many-seeded fruit. Rudimentary incendiary grenades appeared in the Eastern Roman Empire, not long after the reign of Leo III. Byzantine soldiers learned that Greek fire, a Byzantine invention of the century, could not only be thrown by flamethrowers at the enemy. The use of Greek fire spread to Muslim armies in the Near East, in China, during the Song Dynasty, weapons known as Zhen Tian Lei were created when Chinese soldiers packed gunpowder into ceramic or metal containers. In 1044, a military book Wujing Zongyao described various gunpowder recipes in which one can find, according to Joseph Needham, the Chinese also discovered the explosive potential of packing hollowed-out cannonball shells with gunpowder. The mid-14th-century book Huolongjing, written by Jiao Yu, recorded an earlier Song-era cast iron cannon known as the flying-cloud thunderclap cannon, the manuscript stated that, The shells are made of cast iron, as large as a bowl and shaped like a ball. Inside they contain half a pound of divine fire and they are sent flying towards the enemy camp from an eruptor, and when they get there a sound like a thunder-clap is heard, and flashes of light appear. If ten of these shells are fired successfully into the enemy camp, the first cast iron bombshells and grenades did not appear in Europe until 1467. A hoard of several hundred ceramic greandes were discovered during building works in front of a bastion of the Bavarian City of Ingolstadt. Lots of the grenades obtained their original blackpowder loads and igniters, most probably the grenades were intentially dumped the moat of the bastion before the year 1723. In 1643, it is possible that Grenados were thrown amongst the Welsh at Holt Bridge during the English Civil War and these grenades were not very effective and, as a result, saw little use. Improvised grenades were used from the mid-19th century, being especially useful in trench warfare. In the American Civil War, both sides used hand grenades equipped with a plunger that detonated the device on impact, the Union relied on experimental Ketchum Grenades, which had a tail to ensure that the nose would strike the target and start the fuse. The Confederacy used spherical hand grenades that weighed about six pounds and they also used Rains and Adams grenades, which were similar to the Ketchum in appearance and mechanism. Improvised hand grenades were used to great effect by the Russian defenders of Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War
13.
Dynamite
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Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents and stabilizers. It was invented by the Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Geesthacht and it rapidly gained wide-scale use as a safer alternative to gun powder and nitroglycerin. Dynamite was invented by Alfred Nobel and was the first safely manageable explosive stronger than black powder, Nobel obtained patents for his invention in England on 7 May 1867, in Sweden on 19 October 1867. After its introduction, dynamite rapidly gained wide-scale use as an alternative to black powder. Nobel tightly controlled the patents, and unlicensed duplicating companies were shut down. However, a few American businessmen got around the patent by using a different formula. Nobel originally sold dynamite as Nobels Blasting Powder but decided to change the name to dynamite, from the Ancient Greek word δύναμις dýnamis, an industrialist, engineer, and inventor, Alfred Nobels father, Immanuel Nobel, built bridges and buildings in Stockholm. His construction work inspired him to new methods of blasting rock. Immanuels work with later on inspired Alfred to make explosives safer. Today dynamite is used in the mining, quarrying, construction. Dynamite is still the product of choice for trenching applications, Dynamite is occasionally used as an initiator or booster for AN and ANFO explosive charges. Nitroglycerin by itself is a strong explosive, but is extremely shock-sensitive, and degrades over time to even more unstable forms. Dynamite combines nitroglycerin with absorbents and stabilizers, rendering it safe to use, the original composition of dynamite consisted of three parts Explosive Oil, one part diatomaceous earth as the absorbent, and a small admixture of sodium carbonate antacid as the stabilizer. Diatomaceous earth is not usually used today as an absorbent medium and it has replaced by cheaper media like sawdust, wood pulp, flour. Other stabilizers like calcium carbonate or zinc oxide can be used in the place of sodium carbonate, sodium nitrate is added to the medium as an oxidizer that improves the dynamites brisance. Dynamite is usually sold in the form of cardboard cylinders about 20 cm long and about 3.2 cm in diameter, a stick of dynamite thus produced contains roughly 1 MJ of energy. Other sizes also exist, rated by either portion or by weight, Dynamite is usually rated by weight strength, usually from 20% to 60%. For example, 40% dynamite is composed of 40% nitroglycerin and 60% dope, the maximum shelf life of nitroglycerin-based dynamite is recommended as one year from the date of manufacture under good storage conditions
14.
Armenians in the Ottoman Empire
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Armenians in the Ottoman Empire mostly belonged to either the Armenian Apostolic Church or the Armenian Catholic Church. They were part of the Armenian millet until the Tanzimat reforms in the nineteenth century equalized all Ottoman citizens before the law, the Ottomans introduced a number of unique approaches to governing into the traditions of Islam. Islamic culture did not separate religious and secular matters, at first, the Sultan was the highest power in the land and had control over almost everything. However, an organization began to take a more definite shape in the first half of the sixteenth century under Suleyman I. The Ottomans visualized two separate establishments to share power, one responsible for governing a nations citizens and the other its military. The Ottomans left civic control to the civic institutions, historians often label the Ottoman sociopolitical construct the Ottoman System. Noteworthy, however, the term Ottoman System conveys a sense of structural rigidity that probably was nonexistent throughout the Ottoman period, the Armenian populations integration was partly due to the nonexistent structural rigidity throughout the initial period. Armenian people, related to the issues of their own affairs were administered by the civil administration. Townspeople, villagers and farmers formed a class called the reaya, civil and judicial administration was carried out under a separate parallel system of small municipal or rural units called kazas. Also, Sultan was beyond the mentioned control, ecumenical Patriarchate was the leader of the Armenian People. This whole structure was named Armenian case Armenian Millet, during the Byzantine period, the Armenian Church was not allowed to operate in Constantinople, because the Greek Orthodox Church regarded the Armenian Church as heretical. The idea that two separate establishments shared state power gave people a chance to occupy important positions, administrative, the religious-legal, and the social-economic. Certain elite Armenian families in the Ottoman Empire gained the trust of the Sultans and were able to achieve important positions in the Ottoman government, even though their numbers were small compared to the whole Ottoman Armenian population, this caused some resentment among Ottoman nationalists. The life of the rest of the common Armenians was a difficult existence because they were treated as second class citizens. Those elite Armenian families that did achieve success were individuals such as Abraham Pasha who became Ottoman minister of State. Another Armenian by the name of Kapriel Noradounguian became secretary of State for Foreign Affairs of the Ottoman Empire, the Dadian family controlled the entire munitions industry in the Ottoman Empire. Calouste Gulbenkian became one of the advisors of the National Bank of Turkey. Historian A. Tchamkerten writesArmenian achievements in the Empire was not only in trade and they were involved in almost all economic sectors and held the highest levels of responsibility
15.
Armenians
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Armenians are an ethnic group native to the Armenian Highlands. Armenians constitute the population of Armenia and the de facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. There is a diaspora of around 5 million people of full or partial Armenian ancestry living outside of modern Armenia. The largest Armenian populations today exist in Russia, the United States, France, Georgia, Iran, Germany, Ukraine, Lebanon, Brazil and Syria. With the exceptions of Iran and the former Soviet states, the present-day Armenian diaspora was formed mainly as a result of the Armenian Genocide, most Armenians adhere to the Armenian Apostolic Church, a non-Chalcedonian church, which is also the worlds oldest national church. Christianity began to spread in Armenia soon after Jesus death, due to the efforts of two of his apostles, St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew, in the early 4th century, the Kingdom of Armenia became the first state to adopt Christianity as a state religion. The unique Armenian alphabet was invented in 405 AD by Mesrop Mashtots, historically, the name Armenian has come to internationally designate this group of people. It was first used by neighbouring countries of ancient Armenia, the earliest attestations of the exonym Armenia date around the 6th century BC. In his trilingual Behistun Inscription dated to 517 BC, Darius I the Great of Persia refers to Urashtu as Armina (in Old Persian, Armina and Harminuya. In Greek, Αρμένιοι Armenians is attested from about the same time, xenophon, a Greek general serving in some of the Persian expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality in around 401 BC. He relates that the people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians and it is also further postulated that the name Hay comes from one of the two confederated, Hittite vassal states—the Ḫayaša-Azzi. Movses Khorenatsi, the important early medieval Armenian historian, wrote that the word Armenian originated from the name Armenak or Aram, the Armenian Highland lies in the highlands surrounding Mount Ararat, the highest peak of the region. In the Bronze Age, several states flourished in the area of Greater Armenia, including the Hittite Empire, Mitanni, soon after Hayasa-Azzi were Arme-Shupria, the Nairi and the Kingdom of Urartu, who successively established their sovereignty over the Armenian Highland. Each of the nations and tribes participated in the ethnogenesis of the Armenian people. Under Ashurbanipal, the Assyrian empire reached the Caucasus Mountains, yerevan, the modern capital of Armenia, was founded in 782 BC by king Argishti I. T. Gamkrelidze and V. Ivanov proposed the Indo-European homeland around the Armenian Highland, eric P. Hamp in his 2012 Indo-European family tree, groups the Armenian language along with Greek and Ancient Macedonian in the Pontic Indo-European subgroup. In Hamps view the homeland of this subgroup is the northeast coast of the Black Sea and he assumes that they migrated from there southeast through the Caucasus with the Armenians remaining after Batumi while the pre-Greeks proceeded westwards along the southern coast of the Black Sea. However, fresh genetics studies explain Armenian diversity by several mixtures of Eurasian populations that occurred between ~3,000 and ~2,000 b. c
16.
Millet (Ottoman Empire)
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In the Ottoman Empire, a millet was a separate legal court pertaining to personal law under which a confessional community was allowed to rule itself under its own laws. Despite frequently being referred to as a system, before the century the organization of what are now retrospectively called millets in the Ottoman Empire was far from systematic. Rather, non-Muslims were simply given a significant degree of autonomy within their own community, the notion of distinct millets corresponding to different religious communities within the empire would not emerge until the eighteenth century. After the Ottoman Tanzimat reforms, the term was used for legally protected religious minority groups, the word millet comes from the Arabic word millah and literally means nation. The millet system has been called an example of religious pluralism. The millet system has a history in the Middle East and is closely linked to Islamic rules on the treatment of non−Muslim minorities living under Islamic dominion. The concept was used even before the establishment of the Ottoman Empire for the communities of the Church of the East under the Zoroastrian Sassanid Persia in the 4th century. People were bound to their millets by their religious affiliations, rather than their ethnic origins, the millets had a great deal of power – they set their own laws and collected and distributed their own taxes. All that was required was loyalty to the Empire, later, the perception of the millet concept was altered in the 19th century by the rise of nationalism within the Ottoman Empire. After the decline of the Assyrian Church of the East in the 14th century, until the 19th century beside the Muslim millet, each official within each community was in charge of tax collection, education, justice and religious affairs. By doing so, however, the Ottoman administration was simply tolerating these non-Muslim communities and they were allowing them religious freedom in a way that kept them from resisting Ottoman rule. This kept these religious communities from prospering or being regarded as equals to Muslims, social discrimination was just as significant during these times as many Jews were unable to serve within the Ottoman armed forces and were unable to join the Ottoman ruling elite. They were granted freedom, however, at a cost. Armenians formed more than one millets under the Ottoman rule, a wide array of other groups such as Catholics, Karaites and Samaritans was also represented. The Orthodox Christians were included in the Rum Millet, or the Roman nation conquered by Islam, only later did a separate Catholic millet emerge. These groups included the Syriac Orthodox and the Copts, the Syriac Catholic community was recognized as its own millet in 1829. The Chaldean community was recognized as its own millet in 1846, the Syriac Orthodox community in the Ottoman Empire was for long not recognized as its own millet, but part of the Armenian millet. Then, during the Tanzimat reforms, the Syriac Orthodox were granted independent status with the recognition of their own millet in 1873, under the millet system the Jews were organized as a community on the basis of religion, alongside the other millets
17.
Galata Bridge
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The Galata Bridge is a bridge that spans the Golden Horn in Istanbul, Turkey. From the end of the 19th century in particular, the bridge has featured in Turkish literature, theater, poetry, in the years 1502–1503, there were plans to construct the first bridge at the current location. However, the design was not approved by the Sultan. The Wall Street Journal referred to the Project as a. logo for the nations, another Italian artist, Michelangelo, was also invited to design a bridge for Istanbul. Michelangelo rejected the proposal, and the idea of building a bridge across the Golden Horn was shelved until the 19th century, in the early 19th century, Mahmud II had a bridge built a bit further up the waterway, between Azapkapı and Unkapanı. This bridge, known as the Hayratiye, was opened on September 3,1836, the project was carried out by Deputy Lord High Admiral Fevzi Ahmet Paşa using the workers and facilities of the naval arsenal. According to the History of Lutfi, this bridge was built on linked pontoons and was around 500 to 540 m long, the first Galata Bridge at the mouth of the waterway was constructed in 1845 by Valide Sultan, the mother of Sultan Abdülmecid and used for 18 years. It was known as the Cisr-i Cedid or New Bridge to distinguish it from the bridge further up the Golden Horn. This bridge was built of wood, baedekers also called it Sultan Valideh Bridge during this time. On the Karaköy side of the bridge, a couplet by poet İbrahim Şinasi was inscribed and stated that the New Bridge was built by Sultan Abdülmecid I. First to pass over the bridge was Sultan Abdülmecid, and the first to pass below it was the French captain Magnan in his ship the Cygne, for the first three days, crossing the bridge was free. After that, a known as mürüriye was paid to the Naval Ministry. This bridge, completed in 1875, was 480 m long and 14 m wide and it was built at a cost of 105,000 gold liras. It was used until 1912, when it was pulled upstream to replace the old Cisr-i Atik Bridge, the fourth Galata Bridge was built in 1912 by the German firm Hüttenwerk Oberhausen AG for 350,000 gold liras. This floating bridge was 466 m long and 25 m wide and it is the bridge, still familiar to many people today, that was badly damaged in a fire in 1992 and towed up the Golden Horn to make way for the current bridge. The fifth Galata bridge was built by the Turkish construction company STFA just a few meters away from the previous bridge and it was designed and supervised by GAMB. It is a bridge, which is 490 m long with a main span of 80 m. The deck of the bridge is 42 m wide and has three lanes and one walkway in each direction
18.
Golden Horn
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The Golden Horn, also known by its modern Turkish name as Haliç, is a major urban waterway and the primary inlet of the Bosphorus in Istanbul, Turkey. Its Greek and English names mean the same, while its Turkish name, Haliç, simply means estuary, throughout its storied past, the Golden Horn has witnessed many tumultuous historical incidents, and its dramatic vistas have been the subject of countless works of art. The Golden Horn is the estuary of the Alibeyköy and Kağıthane Rivers and it is 7.5 kilometers long, and 750 meters across at its widest. Its maximum depth, where it flows into the Bosphorus, is about 35 meters, at present, the Golden Horn is spanned by five bridges. Moving from upstream to downstream, these are as follows, The first crossing is the Haliç Bridge, completed in 1974, which connects the neighborhoods of Sütlüce and Defterdar. Originally dating back to 1912, the structure is no longer used for vehicular or pedestrian traffic. The third is the Atatürk Bridge, aka Unkapanı Bridge, completed in 1940, the fourth is the Golden Horn Metro Bridge — a pedestrianized railway crossing, completed in 2014, that extends subway line M2 of the Istanbul Metro across the Golden Horn. The fifth bridge is the fifth and most current incarnation of Galata Bridge, completed in 1994, the Byzantine Empire had its naval headquarters there, and walls were built along the shoreline to protect the city of Constantinople from naval attacks. At the entrance to the Horn on the side, a large chain was pulled across from Constantinople to the old Tower of Galata to prevent unwanted ships from entering. Known among the Byzantines as the Megàlos Pyrgos, this tower was destroyed by the Latin Crusaders during the Fourth Crusade in 1204. In 1348, the Genoese built a new tower nearby which they called Christea Turris, there were three notable times when the chain across the Horn was either broken or circumvented. In the 10th century the Kievan Rus dragged their longships out of the Bosphorus, around Galata, and relaunched them in the Horn, in 1204, during the Fourth Crusade, Venetian ships were able to break the chain with a ram. After the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II resettled ethnic Greeks along the Horn in the Phanar, Balat continued to be inhabited by Jews, as during the Byzantine age, though many Jews decided to leave following the takeover of the city. This area was repopulated when Bayezid II invited the Jews who were expelled from Spain to resettle in Balat, in 1502, Leonardo da Vinci produced a drawing of a single-span 240-metre bridge over the Golden Horn as part of a civil engineering project for Sultan Bayezid II. Leonardos drawings and notes regarding this bridge are displayed at the Museo della Scienza e della Tecnologia in Milan. Until the 1980s, the Horn was polluted with waste from the factories, warehouses. It has since been cleaned, and the fish, wildlife. Nowadays, the Golden Horn is settled on both sides, and there are parks along each shore, the Istanbul Chamber of Commerce is also located along the shore, as are several Muslim, Jewish and Christian cemeteries
19.
Bashi-bazouk
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A bashi-bazouk or bashibazouk was an irregular soldier of the Ottoman army. A Bashi-Bazouk may be Turk but also Circassian, Arab, Albanian and they were particularly noted for their lack of discipline. They were armed and maintained by the government, but did not receive pay and they were motivated to fight mostly by expectations of plunder. Though the majority of troops fought on foot, some troops rode on horseback, because of their lack of discipline, they were incapable of undertaking major military operations, but were useful for other tasks such as reconnaissance and outpost duty. However, their uncertain temper occasionally made it necessary for the Turkish regular troops to them by force. The Ottoman army consisted of the following, The Sultans household troops, called Kapıkulu, provincial soldiers, which were fiefed, the most important being Timarli Sipahi and their retainers, but other kinds were also present. Soldiers of subject, protectorate, or allied states Bashi-bazouk usually did not receive regular salaries, an attempt by Husrev Pasha to disband his Albanian bashi-bazouks in favor of his regular forces began the rioting which led to the establishment of Muhammad Alis Khedivate of Egypt. The bashi-bazouk were notorious for being brutal and undisciplined, thus giving the term its second, a notable example of this use is in the comic series The Adventures of Tintin, where the word is often used as an expletive by Captain Haddock. Their use was abandoned by the end of the 19th century, however, self-organized bashi-bazouk troops still appeared later. The term bashibozouk has also used for a mounted force, existing in peacetime in various provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Mercenary Pindari Ottoman warfare, 1500–1700 by Rhoads Murphey, a History of Warfare, The World Publishing Company
20.
Armenian Question
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The term Armenian Question, as used in European history, became commonplace among diplomatic circles and in the popular press after the Congress of Berlin in 1878. As with the Eastern Question, it refers to Europes involvement with the Armenian subjects of the Ottoman Empire, in specific terms, the Armenian question refers to the protection and the freedoms of Armenians from their neighboring communities. The Armenian Question explains the 40 years of Armenian-Ottoman history in the context of English, German, the term Armenian Question is also often used to refer to the question of Turkeys lack of acknowledgement of the events surrounding the Armenian Genocide. Beginning in the century, the Great Powers took issue with the Ottoman Empires treatment of its Christian minorities. By the late 1870s, the Greeks, along several other Christian nations in the Balkans, frustrated with their conditions, had, with the help of the Powers. In 1827-28, Tsar Nicholas I sought help from Persian Armenians in the Russo-Persian War, 1826-1828, promising that after the war, in 1828, the Russians declared the Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829. In 1828, Russia annexed Erivan khanate, Nakhchivan khanate, after the Treaty of Turkmenchay, Armenians still living under Persian rule were encouraged to emigrate to Russian Armenia and 30,000 followed the call. Russia annexed significant portions of territory occupied by the Armenians, as Russia advanced its southern border, it became increasingly involved with Ottoman affairs. Russia was instrumental in obtaining the independence of Romania and Serbia, Russia, and Russian life, attracted Armenians. Many Armenians became educated and adopted Russian ways, Russia was also a path to Europe for Armenians. Russia gained control over a part of Armenia, and became the champion of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire. Most Armenians lived in provinces bordering Russia and not any other European states, by the Treaty of Adrianople, Akhalkalak and Akhaltsikhe were ceded to Russia. This resulted in a wave of emigration, with 25,000 Ottoman Armenians moving to Russian Armenia, the Armenians began to look more toward the Russian Empire as the ultimate guarantors of their security. In March 1878, after the conclusion of the Russo-Turkish War, forced conversion of women and children, arson, protection racket, rape, and murder to the Powers. Article 16 was modified and watered down, and all mention of the Russian forces remaining in the provinces was removed, instead, the Ottoman government was periodically to inform the Great Powers of the progress of the reforms. An Armenian delegation led by Mkrtich Khrimian traveled to Berlin to present the case of the Armenians but, in 1880, the Armenians, especially encouraged by the prime minister Gladstone, broached the Armenian issue with the words, To serve Armenia is to serve the Civilization. On 11 June 1880, the great powers sent to porte an “Identic Note” which asked for the enforcement of Article 61 and this was followed on 2 January 1881 with a British Circular on Armenia sent to the other Powers. Armenian reform program of 11 May 1895 was a set of reforms proposed by European Powers, as it turned out, the reforms were not forthcoming
21.
Edgar Vincent, 1st Viscount D'Abernon
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Edgar Vincent, 1st Viscount DAbernon GCB GCMG PC FRS was a British politician, diplomat, art collector and author. Vincent was the youngest son of Sir Frederick Vincent, 11th Baronet, of Stoke DAbernon and his second wife and he was born at Slinfold, West Sussex and educated at Eton College for the diplomatic service. Instead, he spent five years as a member of the Coldstream Guards before coming into the service as secretary to Lord Edmond FitzMaurice and he was himself appointed Commissioner for the Evacuation of Thessaly and advised the Egyptian government on financial matters from 1883 to 1889. That year he became governor of the Imperial Ottoman Bank, one of his policies was to get the Bank involved in South African mining shares on European stock exchanges. This caused a craze in Constantinople where tens of thousands of people bought South African mining shares. This led to a run on the Bank in late 1895 and then a crash in the values, followed by an international panic. Vincent was heavily condemned for his role in the disaster, though he made a fortune from the shares. In 1896 the banking office in Constantinople was occupied by a group of armed Armenians who threatened to destroy the building with bombs, Vincent escaped through a skylight and notified the Turkish authorities at the Sublime Porte and secured a negotiator from the Russian Embassy. The attackers agreed to surrender their bombs in exchange for passage to exile in France. In 1899 he was elected a Conservative Member of Parliament for Exeter and he was less a true Conservative than a personal devotee of the Conservative leader, A. J. Balfour. He held the seat until losing to a Liberal in 1906 and he opposed the Conservative policy of Tariff Reform and unsuccessfully stood for the Liberal Party in Colchester in December 1910. In July 1914 he was raised to the peerage as Baron DAbernon of Esher, Surrey, upon the recommendation of the Prime Minister, DAbernon was part of the Interallied Mission to Poland in July 1920, during the Polish-Soviet War. Later this experience provided material for his book The Eighteenth Decisive Battle of the World, from 1920 to 1925 DAbernon was the British Ambassador to Berlin. On this assumption progress is impossible, personally I regard the Germans as more reliable and more bound to written engagements than many other nations. Lord Vansittart called DAbernon the pioneer of appeasement, general J. H. Morgan also called DAbernon the apostle of appeasement and did not believe in the possibility, much less the probability, of a German military revival. DAbernon was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1887, promoted to Knight Grand Cross in 1917 and he succeeded his elder brother as 16th Baronet of Stoke dAbernon in 1936. He was also a trustee of the National and Tate Galleries and he was also President of the Royal Statistical Society from 1926 to 1928. DAbernon married the renowned beauty Helen Venetia Duncombe in 1890, together they shared a love of society and the fine arts, especially English painting
22.
Kemaliye
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Kemaliye is both a town in and one of the nine districts of Erzincan Province in the Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey. The town is known for its architecture, including many Ottoman-era houses. It is also notable for its view of the river Karasu flowing south through a gorge above the Keban dam. In 1813, James Playfairs A System of Geography described Eğin as little town in the form of an amphitheatre, at the foot of a mountain, in a fruitful tract that reaches to the Euphrates. The British explorer Francis Rawdon Chesney followed the course of the Euphrates for an expedition between 1835 and 1837, and mentions Eğin as a town of 2700 houses on the right bank. In comparison, he counts about 3000 houses in Erzincan and 2923 families in Malatya, in 1895, the British geographer Charles William Wilson describes Eğin as follows in a travel guide to Asia Minor. An Ottoman historian Vahakn Dadrian reports that in 1896, the town was divided between Armenians and Muslims. He says that Eğin was notable for its prosperity and had escaped the 1895–1896 Hamidian massacres through a ransom payment by the Armenians of 1500 Turkish gold pounds. However, British archaeologist David George Hogarth writing for the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica noted a massacre of Armenians in Eğin on November 8,1895, the stone houses stand in terraced gardens and orchards, and the streets are mere rock ladders. On 21 October 1922, following the Turkish War of Independence, the former name is still known and used locally and sometimes even beyond. Kemaliye was administered as part of Elazığ Province until 1926, in 1938 it was transferred to Erzincan Province. Papken Siuni, leader of the Ottoman Bank takeover, siamanto, Armenian writer, poet and national figure arrested on Red Sunday and killed during the Armenian Genocide. Nikol Galanderian, Armenian composer of childrens songs. net Facebook Page Kemaliye Kaymakamlığı Kemaliye Belediyesi
23.
Grover Cleveland
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Stephen Grover Cleveland was an American politician and lawyer who was the 22nd and 24th President of the United States. He was also the first and to date only President in American history to serve two terms in office. Cleveland was the leader of the pro-business Bourbon Democrats who opposed high tariffs, Free Silver, inflation, imperialism and his crusade for political reform and fiscal conservatism made him an icon for American conservatives of the era. Cleveland won praise for his honesty, self-reliance, integrity, and he fought political corruption, patronage, and bossism. As a reformer Cleveland had such prestige that the wing of the Republican Party, called Mugwumps, largely bolted the GOP presidential ticket. As his second administration began, disaster hit the nation when the Panic of 1893 produced a national depression. It ruined his Democratic Party, opening the way for a Republican landslide in 1894 and for the agrarian, the result was a political realignment that ended the Third Party System and launched the Fourth Party System and the Progressive Era. Cleveland was a formidable policymaker, and he also drew corresponding criticism, critics complained that Cleveland had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nations economic disasters—depressions and strikes—in his second term. Even so, his reputation for probity and good character survived the troubles of his second term, biographer Allan Nevins wrote, n Grover Cleveland, the greatness lies in typical rather than unusual qualities. He had no endowments that thousands of men do not have and he possessed honesty, courage, firmness, independence, and common sense. But he possessed them to a degree other men do not, today, Cleveland is considered by most historians to have been a successful leader, generally ranked among the second tier of American presidents. Stephen Grover Cleveland was born on March 18,1837, in Caldwell, New Jersey to Richard Falley Cleveland, Clevelands father was a Presbyterian minister who was originally from Connecticut. His mother was from Baltimore and was the daughter of a bookseller, on his fathers side, Cleveland was descended from English ancestors, the first of the family having emigrated to Massachusetts from Cleveland, England in 1635. On his mothers side, he was descended from Anglo-Irish Protestants and he was distantly related to General Moses Cleaveland, after whom the city of Cleveland, Ohio, was named. Cleveland, the fifth of nine children, was named Stephen Grover in honor of the first pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of Caldwell and he became known as Grover in his adult life. In 1841, the Cleveland family moved to Fayetteville, New York, neighbors later described him as full of fun and inclined to play pranks, and fond of outdoor sports. In 1850, Clevelands father took a pastorate in Clinton, Oneida County, New York, despite his fathers dedication to his missionary work, the income was insufficient for the large family. Financial conditions forced him to remove Grover from school into a mercantile apprenticeship in Fayetteville
24.
Christendom
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The term cristendom existed in Old English, but it had the sense now taken by Christianity. The current sense of the word of lands where Christianity is the dominant religion emerges in Late Middle English, English Christianity equalling German Christentum, French christianisme. The reason is the fragmentation of Western Christianity at that time both in theological and in political respect. Christendom as a term is thus meaningful in the context of the Middle Ages, and arguably during the European wars of religion. The Christian world is known collectively as the Corpus Christianum. The Christian polity, embodying a less secular meaning, can be compatible with the idea of both a religious and a body, Corpus Christianum. The Corpus Christianum can be seen as a Christian equivalent of the Muslim Ummah, the word Christendom is also used with its other meaning to frame-true Christianity. In its most broad term, it refers to the worlds Christian majority countries, unlike the Muslim world, which has a geo-political and cultural definition that provides a primary identifier for a large swath of the world, Christendom is more complex. For example, the Americas and Europe are considered part of Christendom and it is also less geographically cohesive than the Muslim world, which stretches almost continuously from North Africa to South Asia. There is a common and nonliteral sense of the word that is much like the terms Western world, when Thomas F. Connolly said, There isnt enough power in all Christendom to make that airplane what we want. In the beginning of Christendom, early Christianity was a spread in the Greek/Roman world and beyond as a 1st-century Jewish sect. The post-apostolic period concerns the time roughly after the death of the apostles when bishops emerged as overseers of urban Christian populations, the earliest recorded use of the terms Christianity and Catholic, dates to this period, the 2nd century, attributed to Ignatius of Antioch c. Early Christendom would close at the end of persecution of Christians after the ascension of Constantine the Great and the Edict of Milan in AD313. Christendom has referred to the medieval and renaissance notion of the Christian world as a sociopolitical polity, in this period, members of the Christian clergy wield political authority. This model of relations was accepted by various Church leaders. The Church gradually became an institution of the Empire. Emperor Theodosius I made Nicene Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire with the Edict of Thessalonica of 380, the Byzantine Empire was the last bastion of Christendom. Christendom would take a turn with the rise of the Franks, on Christmas Day 800 AD, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne resulting in the creation of another Christian king beside the Christian emperor in the Byzantine state
25.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
26.
Peter Balakian
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Peter Balakian is an Armenian American poet, writer and academic, the Donald M. and Constance H. Rebar Professor of Humanities at Colgate University. He was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 2016, Balakian was born in 1951, in Teaneck, New Jersey to an Armenian family and was raised in Teaneck and Tenafly, New Jersey. After attending the Tenafly Public Schools, he graduated from Englewood School for Boys and he earned a B. A. from Bucknell University, and M. A. from New York University, and a PhD, in American Civilization, from Brown University. He has taught at Colgate University since 1980 and he is the Donald M. and Constance H. Rebar Professor of the Humanities in the Department of English and director of Colgates creative writing program. He was the first director of Colgates Center for Ethics and World Societies, Balakian is the author of seven books of poems, including, most recently, Ozone Journal. His other books are Father Fisheye, Sad Days of Light, Reply From Wilderness Island, Dyers Thistle, June-tree, New and Selected Poems 1974–2000, Ziggurat, Balakians memoir Black Dog of Fate was winner of the PEN/Albrand Prize for memoir and a New York Times Notable Book. The Burning Tigris, The Armenian Genocide and America’s Response received the 2005 Raphael Lemkin Prize and was a New York Times Notable Book and New York Times, Balakian is also the author of Theodore Roethke’s Far Fields. Balakian was co-founder and co-editor of the poetry magazine Graham House Review and he is the translator of Bloody News From My Friend by the Armenian poet Siamanto. According to the Pulitzer board, Balakians work bear witness to the old losses and tragedies that undergird a global age of danger and he is also a recipient of the Khorenatsi medal. 2016 he was awarded Armenias 2015 Presidential Award for significant contribution to the process of the recognition of the Armenian Genocide, four fine limited editions of Balakians poems have been published by The Press of Appletree Alley. Translations and editions of Balakians books appear in Armenian, Bulgarian, Dutch, German, Greek, Russian, Balakian has lectured widely in the United States and abroad and has appeared often on national television and radio
27.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
28.
Armenian national liberation movement
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The Armenian national liberation movement aimed at the establishment of an Armenian state. It included social, cultural, but primarily political and military movements that reached their height during World War I, influenced by the Age of Enlightenment and the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire, the Armenian national movement developed in the early 1860s. Its emergence was similar to that of movements in the Balkan nations, Armenians generally saw Russia as their natural ally in the fight against Turks although Russia maintained an oppressive policy in the Caucasus. Only after losing its presence in Europe after the Balkan Wars, during World War I, the Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire were systematically exterminated by the government in the Armenian Genocide. According to some estimates, from 1894 to 1923, about 1,500, by 1917, Russia controlled many Armenian-populated areas of the Ottoman Empire. After the October Revolution, however, the Russian troops retreated, the Armenian National Council proclaimed the Republic of Armenia on May 28,1918, thus establishing an Armenian state in the Armenian-populated parts of the Southern Caucasus. By 1920, the Bolshevik Government in Russia and Ankara Government had successfully came to power in their respective countries, the Turkish revolutionaries successfully occupied western half of Armenia, while the Red Army invaded and annexed the Republic of Armenia in December 1920. A friendship treaty was signed between Bolshevik Russia and Kemalist Turkey in 1921, the formerly Russian-controlled parts of Armenia were mostly annexed by the Soviet Union, in parts of which the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic was established. Hundreds of thousands of refugees found themselves in the Middle East, Greece, France. Soviet Armenia existed until 1991, when the Soviet Union disintegrated, nationalism was an important factor in the development of Europe. In the 19th century, a wave of nationalism swept the continent of Europe transforming the countries of the continent. Some new countries, such as Germany and Italy were formed by uniting smaller states with a national identity. Others, such as Romania, Greece, Poland and Bulgaria, were formed by winning their independence, Armenians were living among Ottoman Empire and Russian Empire during the rise of nationalism. In 1827-1828, Tsar Nicholas I in Russo-Persian War, 1826-1828 sought help from Armenians, promising that after the war, in 1828, Russia annexed Yerevan, Nakhichevan, and the surrounding countryside with the Treaty of Turkmenchay. Armenians still living under Persian rule were encouraged to emigrate to Russian Armenia and 30,000 followed the call, in 1828, the Russians declared Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829 and in the Treaty of Adrianople, Akhalkalak and Akhaltsikhe exchanged to Russia. There was a new wave of immigration as 25,000 Ottoman Armenians moved to Russian Armenia, Russia annexed significant portion of the Armenians. In 1897 Russian Census stated that 1,127,212 Armenians were in the Russian Lands, at the same period Armenians in the Ottoman Empire were 1,095,889 Russia, Russian life became a major attraction center for Armenians. There were many Armenians educated and cultured with Russian Ways, Russia was also a path to Europe
29.
1894 Sasun rebellion
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The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party and Armenian Revolutionary Federation were two Armenian organizations of Armenian national movement active in the region. In 1894, Sultan Abdul Hamid II began to target the Armenian people in a precursor of the Hamidian massacres and this persecution strengthened nationalistic sentiment among Armenians. In Sassoun Armenian nationalist ideas were proliferated by Hunchak activists, such as Mihran Damadian, Hampartsoum Boyadjian, the first notable battle in the Armenian resistance movement took place. The Armenians of Sassoun confronted the Ottoman army and Kurdish irregulars at Sassoun, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation also played a significant role in arming the people of the region. Foreign news agents protested vehemently against the Sassoun event, British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone called Hamid the Great Criminal or the Red Sultan, the rest of the Great Powers also protested and demanded the execution of Hamids promised reforms. An investigation committee composed of French, British, and Russian representatives were sent to the region in order to examine the event, in May 1895, the aforementioned foreign powers prepared a set of reforms. However, they never carried out, because they were not actively imposed on Ottoman Turkey, T Russian Empires policies vis-a-vis the Armenian question had changed. In fact, the Russian foreign minister Alexei Lobanov-Rostovsky supported Ottoman integrity, moreover, he was so anti-Armenian that he wanted an Armenia without Armenians. On the other hand, Britain had gained influence and power in former Ottoman Egypt and Cyprus. Meanwhile, Turkey had found a new European ally, Germanys Bismarck, the Ottoman Empire thus felt free to commit further massacres, in 1896. Armenian Revolutionary Federation Social Democrat Hunchakian Party
30.
Khanasor Expedition
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The Khanasor Expedition was an offensive of Armenian fedayees against the Kurdish Mazrik tribe on July 25,1897. In 1896, in the aftermath of the Defense of Van, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation decided to retaliate for that atrocity, resulting in the Khanasor Expedition. The Mazrik tribe were camped in the fields of Khanasor, near Avarayr, the ARF, with the support of the Hunchakians and the Armenakans, organized an attack on the tribe. The operation was the brainchild of Nikol Duman alongside Khanasora Vartan Mehrpanian and Ishkhan Arghoutian, among the Armenian soldiers also there were disagreements. For their settlement the party sent in Tavriz Harutiun Shahrigian and as a result they come to conclusion of holding an action, on 25 July 1897, at dawn,250 Armenian fedayees attacked the Mazrik tribe, killing all the men and sparing only the women and children. The Mazrik chief, Sharaf Beg, managed to escape by wearing womens clothing, the attack ended on 27 July 1897. Although ARF founder Rosdoms brother Garo and 25 other fedayees were among the casualties, as a result, Armenians built up their self-confidence, their belief in their ability to defend themselves was now reinforced. To this day, the ARF remembers the event in commemorative ceremonies honouring the expedition as an important event in the history of the Armenian struggle for freedom, mihran Kurdoghlian, Badmoutioun Hayots, C. hador, Athens, Greece,1996, pg
31.
Battle of Holy Apostles Monastery
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The Battle of Holy Apostles Monastery was an armed conflict between Ottoman Empire forces and Armenian militia at the Holy Apostles Monastery near Mush, Ottoman Empire in November 1901. By the second half of the 19th century, living conditions for the Armenian population in the Mush valley had become intolerable, the repeated failures of promised reforms by Constantinople led to some Armenians initiating local measures for self-defense. The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party and Armenian Revolutionary Federation were two Armenian political groups active in the region, in 1899 several Armenian fedayee commanders were killed, and Andranik Ozanian was given the leadership of all such groups within the Sasun district of Bitlis Vilayet. Under Andraniks command were thirty-eight villages, in November 1901 Andranik came down from the mountains with some 30 experienced fedayeen and some 8 to 10 peasants from Tsronk village. Pursued by Turkish armed forces, Andraniks men were eventually cornered, a regiment of five Turkish battalions, some 1200 men, commanded by the pashas Ferikh and Ali, began besieging the fortified monastery. During this period the Turkish army had heavy losses because of cold weather, after breaking out of Arakelots Monastery, Andranik gained a legendary reputation amongst the provinces Armenians. Andranik is not a human being, he is a ghost, the Kurds believed that when at night Andranik took off his coat, many bullets fell from it. In 1924 in Boston, Andranik published his memoirs, The Battle of Holy Apostles Monastery. Of the events he wrote, It was necessary to show to the Turkish and Kurdish peoples, that an Armenian can undertake a gun, the Battle of Holy Apostles Monastery by Gen. Andranik, wr. Lewon K. Liwlēchean - London,2008, ISBN9781903656808,59 pages General Andranik and the Armenian Revolutionary Movement, by Antranig Chalabian - Southfield,1988, ISBN9780962274114,588 pages
32.
1904 Sasun uprising
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The Sasun uprising or Sasun rebellion of 1904 was an uprising by Armenian militia against the Ottoman Empire in Turkeys Sason region in 1904. The empire wanted to prevent the formation of another semi-autonomous Armenian region in the eastern vilayets after its defeat in the First Zeitun Rebellion, in Sason, the Armenian national liberation movement recruited young Armenians. The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party and the Armenian Revolutionary Federation were two elements of the Armenian national movement which were active in the region, the first Sasun resistance was led by the Armenian national movements militia, which belonged to Hunchak. According to Cyrus Hamlin, the Armenians triggered hostilities, conflicts continued between the Armenian fedayeen and the Muslim Ottomans in Armenian villages. Many Armenians were compelled to accept Islam or Orthodoxy, the latter was protected by the Russian consulate and this consolidation continued during 1902 and 1903. In May 1903, a militia led by Gorgos Marrik arrived in Sasun, Vahan and Hrayr considered it too small, and sent a party east with a request for more troops. In September a group of 150 fedayeen, led by Khan, at the Persian-Turkish border, it was surrounded by Turkish artillery troops and almost completely destroyed. In February 1903 in Sofia, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation agreed to send troops to Sason, by this time, approaches to Sasun had been blocked by a division of the 4th Corps of the Ottoman army. The total force comprised as many as 10,000 soldiers and policemen, in addition to 6, Armenian forces consisted of 200 guerrillas under the command of Vahan, Hrayr and Andranik, along with Kevork Chavoush, Murad of Sebastia, Keri and others. Untrained peasants in 21 villages also took up arms, swelling the insurgency to 1,000, the first military action was undertaken by Kevork Chavush against local Kurds to prevent an attack on five Armenian villages in Kurdish-occupied territory. On January 17,1904, with groups of Murad Sebastatsi and Seyto he attacked the Kurds, the western ARF and the Catholicos tried to organize diplomatic pressure on Turkey. The Catholicos appealed to the powers, English and French ambassadors in Constantinople had audiences with the sultan. The sultan agreed to send armies for the maintenance of law, the ambassadors offered to negotiate on the sultans behalf with the insurgents in Sasun. However, the Russian ambassador delayed, by the time they arrived in Sasun, by March 20,1904, the Turks had finished preparations for addressing the uprising, and armies had plundered a number of boundary villages. Local residents were imprisoned and tortured, but the Ottomans were unable to learn about the insurgents plans, on April 2 the Turks began an unsuccessful attack with mountain guns. On April 10, the Wāli of Bitlis arrived with troops, on April 11, the second battle began. After a four-hour fight the Turks abandoned their horses and weapons and retreated into the mountains, on April 12, Surb Arakelots monastery prior Arakel presented a decree from the Catholicos recommending that the Armenians surrender in exchange for amnesty. The Armenian leaders, requesting a delay in responding, evacuated and burned several villages in Gelieguzan overnight, at dawn on April 13, the Turks began a new approach
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Kevork Chavush
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Kevork Ghazarian commonly known as Kevork Chavush or Gevorg Chaush, was an Armenian fedayee in the Ottoman Empire. Kevork Chavoush was a legendary fedayee whose main goal was to ameliorate the plight of the Armenian peasantry in the face of harassment by marauding Turks, to this end, he advocated armed resistance. Chavoushs extraordinary daring and valor inspired his men as he led the resistance in the region of Daron-Sasun from 1904 until 1907, Kevork Chavush was known to have good relations with some Kurdish leaders of the region. He would openly meet and dine with them and at the time, try to persuade them to not obey orders by the Sultan. This was in vain as the Kurds ended up not joining the Armenian revolutionaries, Kevork Chavush, is called the man with the dagger who was always ready to punish those who molested the defenseless people. Kevork Chavush was born to a family of hunters in Sasun and he received his education in Mushs Arakelots monasterys school. He left school to join Arabo, a leading fedayee at the time, after Arabo was arrested, Chavush tracked down Arabos traitor and assassinated him. From 1885 to 1888, he travelled to and found residence in Aleppo and he worked to raise enough money to buy a rifle. He returned to Taron in 1890 to join his friends, Hampartsoum Boyadjians, in 1894, he participated in the Sasun Resistance against the Hamidian persecution of Armenians. During the battle, Chavush was captured and sentenced to jail for 15 years, in 1896, he met General Zoravar Andranik Ozanyan and participated in various battles, most notable the Second Sasun Resistance in 1904. During his career as a fighter, he was also placed under the command of Serob Aghpyur. During this time, Kevork Chavushs uncle ran into trouble with the guerrillas when he nabbed a woman from a different Armenian village. The case was brought upon Serob Aghbyur who subsequently turned to Chavush and said Kevork, your uncle is the guilty one, Chavush executed his kidnapping uncle but suffered from a severe depression afterwards and isolated himself in order to grieve the loss of his uncle. Kevork Chavush was critically wounded on 25 May 1907 during a firefight at the Battle of Sulukh with the Ottoman army in Sulukh, Mush. Two days later his body was found in Kyosabin-Bashin on 27 May under a bridge, Kevork Chavush remained a leading Armenian guerrilla until his death. To the Armenian people he is a symbol of pride and hope for Armenia to be free and he is considered a great hero to the Armenian nation and her national movement. Chavush was buried in the Armenian cemetery of Kogh
34.
Adana massacre
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The Adana massacre occurred in the Adana Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire in April 1909. A massacre of Armenian Christians by Turkish Muslims in the city of Adana amidst the Ottoman countercoup of 1909 expanded to a series of anti-Armenian pogroms throughout the province, reports estimated that the Adana Province massacres resulted in the deaths of as many as 20, 000–30,000 Armenians. It was reported about 1,300 Assyrians were also killed during the massacres, Turkish and Armenian revolutionary groups had cooperated to secure the deposition of Sultan Abdul Hamid II and the restoration of constitutional rule in 1908. In reaction, on 31 March 1909 a military revolt directed against the Committee of Union, while the revolt lasted only ten days, it precipitated a pogrom and massacres in Adana Province against Armenians that lasted over a month. The massacres were rooted in political, economic, and religious differences, the Armenian segment of the population of Adana was described as the richest and most prosperous, the violence included destruction of tractors and other kinds of mechanized equipment. The Christian-minority Armenians had openly supported the coup against Sultan Abdul Hamid II, the awakening of Turkish nationalism and a popular perception of the Armenians as a separatist, European-controlled entity contributed to the malevolence of their attackers. In 1908, the Young Turk government came to power in a bloodless revolution, the Countercoup of March 1909 wrested control of the government from the secularist Young Turks, and Abdul Hamid II briefly recovered his dictatorial powers. According to one source, when news of a mutiny in Constantinople arrived in Adana, by April 14 the Armenian quarter was attacked by a Muslim mob, and many thousands of Armenians were killed in the ensuing weeks. Other reports emphasize that a skirmish between Armenians and Turks on April 13 set off a riot resulted in the pillaging of the bazaars. Two days later, more than 2,000 Armenians had been killed as a result and they would not have left their sons and brothers scattered widely through the province for harvest without arms, without any hope of escape. During the decline of the Ottoman Empire, the Armenians were also believed to be a target owing to their relative wealth, a report by Englands Adana Vice-Consul Major Charles Doughty-Wylie considers The Causes of the Massacre. From this document the historian Vahakn Dadrian culls the text, Abdul Hamid became celebrated, in context, according to Doughty-Wylie. From the same document, the Turkish political scientist Kamuran Gurun emphasizes that the right to arms had caused a popular fashion of arms-bearing. Nearly 4,437 Armenian dwellings were torched which meant nearly half the town was razed, the tension erupted into riots on April 1,1909, which soon escalated into organized violence against the Armenian population of Adana and in several surrounding cities. By April 18, over 1,000 people were reported dead at Adana alone, with unknown casualties in Tarsus. The Ottoman military was struggling to subdue the violence, similar violence consumed Marash and Hadjin, and the estimates of the death toll soon grew to exceed 5,000. Rose Lambert, an American missionary at Hadjin, wrote in her book how many sought refuge in the compound for safety. The British cruiser HMS Diana was hoped would provide an effect at the port of Alexandretta
35.
Armenian Genocide
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Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and massacre. Most Armenian diaspora communities around the world came into being as a result of the genocide. Raphael Lemkin was explicitly moved by the Armenian annihilation to define systematic and premeditated exterminations within legal parameters, Turkey, the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, denies the word genocide as an accurate term for the mass killings of Armenians that began under Ottoman rule in 1915. It has in recent years been faced with repeated calls to them as genocide. To date,29 countries have recognized the mass killings as genocide, as have most genocide scholars. The western portion of historical Armenia, known as Western Armenia, had come under Ottoman rule following the Peace of Amasya, henceforth, the region was also alternatively referred to as Turkish Armenia or Ottoman Armenia. The Armenian community was made up of three denominations, Armenian Catholic, Armenian Protestant, and Armenian Apostolic, the religion of a vast majority of Armenians. Through the millet system, the Armenian community were allowed to rule themselves under their own system of governance with fairly little interference from the Ottoman government, Ottoman census figures clash with the statistics collected by the Armenian Patriarchate. According to the latter, there were almost three million Armenians living in the empire in 1878, in the Ottoman Empire, in accordance with the dhimmi system implemented in Muslim countries, they, like all other Christians and also Jews, were accorded certain freedoms. The dhimmi system in the Ottoman Empire was largely based upon the Pact of Umar, while the Pact of Umar prohibited non-Muslims from building new places of worship, it was not enforced in all regions of the Ottoman Empire. Since there were no laws concerning religious ghettos, the prohibition of non-Muslims building new places of worship led to their clustering around existing ones and it did not mean religious persecution, it meant unutterable contempt. They were dogs and pigs, and their nature was to be Christians, to be spat upon, if their shadow darkened a Turk, to be outraged, in addition to other legal limitations, Christians were not considered equals to Muslims and several prohibitions were placed on them. They were forbidden to carry weapons or ride horses and camels. Their houses could not overlook those of Muslims, and their religious practices were severely circumscribed, from 1839 to the declaration of a constitution in 1876, the Ottoman government instituted the Tanzimat, a series of reforms designed to improve the status of minorities. Nevertheless, most of the reforms were never implemented because the empires Muslim population rejected the principle of equality for Christians. By the late 1870s, the Greeks, along several other Christian nations in the Balkans, frustrated with their conditions, had, often with the help of the great powers. The Armenians remained, by and large, passive during these years, in the mid-1860s and early 1870s this passivity gave way to new currents of thinking in Armenian society. The Ottoman government considered these grievances and promised to punish those responsible, under growing pressure, the government of Sultan Abdul Hamid II declared itself a constitutional monarchy with a parliament and entered into negotiations with the powers
36.
Armenian resistance during the Armenian Genocide
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During this period the Siege of Van on April 20,1915, and consequent establishment of the Administration for Western Armenia were significant events. The Ottoman parliament passed the Tehcir Law on 29 May 1915, there were previous Armenian resistances within the Ottoman Empire. The Sasun resistance of 1894 was the resistance of the Hunchak militia of the Sassoun region, the Zeitun Rebellion took place in 1895, during the Hamidian massacres. The Defense of Van was the Armenian population in Van defense against the Ottoman Empire in June,1896. The Khanasor Expedition was the Armenian militias response on July 25,1897 to the Defense of Van, the Sasun uprising was the resistance of the Armenian militia in the Sassoun region. Mourat together with his companion, Sepouh, had fought at Sasoun, in 1904, the Armenian irregular units were formed to engage with resistance to Ottoman Forces and were composed of Armenian civilian volunteers. Most of the leaders of the volunteers were also leaders and members of the Armenian national liberation movement, some of the famous leaders were Murad of Sebastia, and Karekin Pastermadjian. Boghos Nubar was the speaker for the Armenian National Assembly who worked with French political. Many of the Armenian volunteers for French Armenian legion were survivors from Musa Dagh, beginning with 1917, the Armenian National Congress asked the Armenian soldiers and officers scattered throughout Russia to be gradually brought together. The plan was to mobilized Armenians of the Caucasus Front against the Ottoman Forces, the Ottoman Third Army was the major force in the Caucasus Campaign that acted against the Armenian volunteer units of the Russian Empire. Mahmut Kamil was the commander of the Third Army, after the Armistice of Mudros, Mahmut Kamil was one of the Malta exiles. In August 1914, during the First Zeitun Resistance the Hunchaks resisted to the Ottoman army in the city Zeitun, in October 20,1914, a patrolling Ottoman unit in Köprüköy discovered Russian rifles cached in Armenian homes in Hasankale. The Third Army received reports of Armenians that served in Russian Army returning to the Ottoman Empire with operational maps, on November 2,1914, the Bergmann Offensive was launched. It was the first engagement of the Caucasus Campaign The Russian success was along the Southern shoulders of the offense where Armenian volunteers were effective and took Karaköse, on February 25,1915, the Directive 8682 was issued and distributed secretly in the form of a ciphered cable. The directive was received by the First, Second, Third, and Fourth Armies, the Iraq Command, I, II, III, IV, V Army Corps, and to the Jandarma Command, the title of the directive was Increased Security Precautions. The directive began with summarising dissident Armenian activity in Bitlis, Aleppo, Dortyol, the directive stated that the Russians and French had influence on activities in these areas. Finally, the directive ordered any ethnic Armenian soldiers should be removed from headquarters staff, talaat Pashas Intelligence Division noted that the Armenian Patriarchate in Constantinople was transmitting military secrets and dispositions to the Russians. It was believed at this time that a seventy-year-old priest was leading Armenians On March 25, in April, around 30,000 Armenians in the city of Van, in addition to the Armenians from surrounding villages, defended themselves during the Siege of Van
Ottoman Empire
Armenian Revolutionary Federation
