1.
Todd-Bath Iron Shipbuilding
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The New England Shipbuilding Corporation was a shipyard located in the city of South Portland, Maine, United States. The two merged in 1943, then continued to produce ships as the New England Shipbuilding Corporations East Yard, New England Shipbuilding ranked 97th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts. Both closed at the end of the war, the two yards built 266 ships,154 in the East Yard,112 in the West Yard. The first 30 East Yard ships were Ocean class cargo ships built for the United Kingdom, the remaining ships were of the Liberty ship design, derived from the Ocean class, and were built for the United States Maritime Commission. Among them was the SS Jeremiah OBrien, a Liberty ship that is preserved as a ship in San Francisco. In contrast to many museum vessels, she is in seaworthy condition in compliance with U. S. Coast Guard and American Bureau of Shipping standards, the ships were launched and they raced to see which one was the fastest, Natasha Allen won. At the peak of production, the yards employed 30,000 people and this article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress
2.
Cargo ships
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A cargo ship or freighter is any sort of ship or vessel that carries cargo, goods, and materials from one port to another. Thousands of cargo carriers ply the worlds seas and oceans each year, cargo ships are usually specially designed for the task, often being equipped with cranes and other mechanisms to load and unload, and come in all sizes. Today, they are almost always built by welded steel, cargo ships/freighters can be divided into five groups, according to the type of cargo they carry. Tankers carry petroleum products or other liquid cargo, dry bulk carriers carry coal, grain, ore and other similar products in loose form. Multi-purpose vessels, as the name suggests, carry different classes of cargo – e. g. liquid, a Reefer ship is specifically designed and used for shipping perishable commodities which require temperature-controlled, mostly fruits, meat, fish, vegetables, dairy products and other foodstuffs. Specialized types of cargo vessels include ships and bulk carriers. Cargo ships fall into two categories that reflect the services they offer to industry, liner and tramp services. Those on a published schedule and fixed tariff rates are cargo liners. Tramp ships do not have fixed schedules, users charter them to haul loads. Generally, the shipping companies and private individuals operate tramp ships. Cargo liners run on fixed schedules published by the shipping companies, each trip a liner takes is called a voyage. However, some cargo liners may carry passengers also, a cargo liner that carries 12 or more passengers is called a combination or passenger-cum-cargo line. The desire to trade routes over longer distances, and throughout more seasons of the year. Before the middle of the 19th century, the incidence of piracy resulted in most cargo ships being armed, sometimes heavily, as in the case of the Manila galleons. They were also escorted by warships. Piracy is still common in some waters, particularly in the Malacca Straits. In 2004, the governments of three nations agreed to provide better protection for the ships passing through the Straits. The waters off Somalia and Nigeria are also prone to piracy, while smaller vessels are also in danger along parts of the South American, Southeast Asian coasts, the words cargo and freight have become interchangeable in casual usage
3.
Todd Shipyards Corporation
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Vigor Shipyards was founded in 1916 as the William H. The Seattle shipyard could trace its history back to 1882, when Robert Moran opened a repair shop at Yeslers Wharf. This shop became the Moran Brothers Shipyard in 1906 and the Seattle Construction & Dry Dock Company at the end of 1911. The shipyard has performed building and maintenance work for, among others, the U. S. and Royal Australian Navies, the United States Coast Guard, and its headquarters and operations are on Harbor Island at the mouth of Seattles Duwamish Waterway. Todd ranked 26th among United States corporations in the value of World War II production contracts, the 105-foot-long hull of Disneylands Mark Twain riverboat was built at Todd Shipyards in San Pedro, California in 1955. In February 2011, Vigor Industrial purchased Todd for US$130 million and this included the Seattle, Everett and Bremerton operations. Today, Vigor Shipyards is a government repair subsidiary of Vigor Industrial, originally, the Coast Guard wanted to acquire 25 Offshore Patrol Cutters and spend about $8 billion for them. In April 2013, it was reported that Vigor proposed an Ulstein X-bow hull in the competition for the OPC vessels. If successful in landing the contract, Vigor would have assembled the vessels at its Portland, however, in February 2014, the USCG announced that Bollinger Shipyards, Eastern Shipbuilding Group, Inc. and General Dynamics Bath Iron Works had been awarded design contracts for the OPC. In total, the 25-ship deal could be worth up to $10.5 billion, locations, Seattle, Washington Bremerton, Washington Everett, Washington Portland, Oregon Los Angeles Division, San Pedro, California. Property is now part of the Port of Los Angeles, and has been converted into Berth 100 / West Basin Container Terminal. Opened 1901, by United Engineering Company, later named Bethlehem-Alameda Shipyard, mostly used as a repair or conversion facility, now closed. Documented by the Historic American Engineering Record as United Engineering Company Shipyard, SS Jacona Todd Shipyards Seattle, Washington
4.
Second World War
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
5.
Liberty ship
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The Liberty ship was a class of cargo ship built in the United States during World War II. Though British in conception, the design was adapted by the United States for its simple, mass-produced on an unprecedented scale, the now iconic Liberty ship came to symbolize U. S. wartime industrial output. The class was developed to meet British orders for transports to replace those torpedoed by German U-boats, the vessels were purchased both for the U. S. fleet and lend-lease deliveries of war materiel to Britain and the Soviet Union. Eighteen American shipyards built 2,710 Liberty ships between 1941 and 1945, easily the largest number of ships produced to a single design and their production mirrored on a much larger scale the manufacture of the Hog Islander and similar standardized ship types during World War I. Only three Liberty Ships are preserved, two as operational museum ships. S, the number was doubled in 1939 and again in 1940 to 200 ships a year. Ship types included two tankers and three types of merchant vessel, all to be powered by steam turbines, limited industrial capacity, especially for reduction gears, meant that relatively few of these ships were built. In 1940 the British government ordered 60 Ocean-class freighters from American yards to replace war losses and these were simple but fairly large with a single 2,500 horsepower compound steam engine of obsolete but reliable design. Britain specified coal-fired plants, because it then had extensive coal mines, the order specified an 18-inch increase in draft to boost displacement by 800 long tons to 10,100 long tons. The accommodation, bridge, and main engine were located amidships, the first Ocean-class ship, SS Ocean Vanguard, was launched on 16 August 1941. The design was modified by the United States Maritime Commission, in part to increase conformity to American construction practices, but more importantly to make it even quicker and cheaper to build. The US version was designated EC2-S-C1, EC for Emergency Cargo,2 for a ship between 400 and 450 feet long, S for steam engines, and C1 for design C1. The new design replaced much riveting, which accounted for one-third of the costs, with welding. It was adopted as a Merchant Marine Act design, and production awarded to a conglomerate of West Coast engineering and construction companies headed by Henry J. Kaiser known as the Six Companies. Liberty ships were designed to carry 10,000 long tons of cargo, usually one type per ship, but, during wartime, generally carried loads far exceeding this. On 27 March 1941, the number of ships was increased to 200 by the Defense Aid Supplemental Appropriations Act and increased again in April to 306. By 1941, the turbine was the preferred marine steam engine because of its greater efficiency compared to earlier reciprocating compound steam engines. Eighteen different companies built the engine. It had the advantage of ruggedness and simplicity
6.
Richmond, California
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Richmond is a city in western Contra Costa County, California, United States. The city was incorporated on August 7,1905, under the McLaughlin Administration, Richmond was the largest city in the United States served by a Green Party mayor. As of the 2010 U. S. Census, the population is at 103,710. The largest, Richmond, Virginia, is the namesake of the California city, the Ohlone Indians were the first inhabitants of the Richmond area, settling an estimated 5,000 years ago. The name Richmond appears to predate actual incorporation by more than fifty years, the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad had its terminus at Richmond. The first post office opened in 1900, Richmond was founded and incorporated in 1905, carved out of Rancho San Pablo, from which the nearby town of San Pablo inherited its name. Until the enactment of prohibition in 1919, the city had the largest winery in the world, in the 1920s the Ku Klux Klan was active in the city. In 1930 the Ford Motor Company opened a plant called Richmond Assembly Plant which moved to Milpitas in the 1960s. The old Ford plant has been a National Historic Place since 1988, the city was a small town at that time, until the onset of World War II which brought on a rush of migrants and a boom in the industrial sector. Standard Oil set up here in 1901, including a what is now the Chevron Richmond Refinery and tank farm. There is a pier into San Francisco Bay south of Point Molate for oil tankers, the western terminus of the Santa Fe Railroad was established in Richmond with ferry connections at Ferry Point in the Brickyard Cove area of Point Richmond to San Francisco. Many of these lived in specially constructed houses scattered throughout the San Francisco Bay Area, including Richmond, Berkeley. A specially built rail line, the Shipyard Railway, transported workers to the shipyards, kaisers Richmond shipyards built 747 Victory and Liberty ships for the war effort, more than any other site in the U. S. The city broke many records and even built one Liberty ship in a five days. On average the yards could build a ship in thirty days, the medical system established for the shipyard workers at the Richmond Field Hospital eventually became todays Kaiser Permanente HMO. It remained in operation until 1993 when it was replaced by the modern Richmond Medical Center hospital, Point Richmond was originally the commercial hub of the city, but a new downtown arose in the center of the city. It was populated by many department stores such as Kress, J. C. Penney, Sears, Macys, during the war the population increased dramatically and peaked at around 120,000 by the end of the war. Once the war ended the workers were no longer needed
7.
South Portland, Maine
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South Portland is a city in Cumberland County, Maine, United States, and is the fourth-largest city in the state, incorporated in 1898. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 25,002, known for its working waterfront, South Portland is situated on Portland Harbor and overlooks the skyline of Portland and the islands of Casco Bay. Due to South Portlands close proximity to air, marine, rail, and highway transportation options, despite the name, South Portland was never part of the city of Portland, but rather part of Cape Elizabeth. However, both Cape Elizabeth and Portland were once part of Falmouth, Cape Elizabeth, and by default, South Portland, broke away from Falmouth in 1765. South Portland is a city of the Portland – South Portland – Biddeford metropolitan area. South Portland was first settled in 1630, and it grew to become a residential community with many farms. The village was raided by natives in Father Rales War, in 1858, the City of Portland purchased land near the Fore River for the Forest City Cemetery. On March 15,1895, it was incorporated as a town after it broke away from Cape Elizabeth, based on a disagreement on a future source of public drinking water. Three years later South Portland became a city, destined to receive its water, like Portland, from Sebago Lake. On South Portlands waterfront is Fort Preble, which is a fort established in 1808 to protect Portland Harbor. It was in operation during several American conflicts, including the United States Civil War, World War I, near Fort Preble is Spring Point Ledge Light, which was constructed by the federal government in 1897 to mark a dangerous rock ledge. In 1940, the Todd-Bath Iron Shipbuilding Corp was established to build ships for Britain. These shipyards built 236 of the 440 foot long Liberty ships, at its peak, the shipyard employed some 30,000 people, including thousands of women, who took over the jobs vacated by men going into the service. The shipyard gradually ceased operations after the war ended in 1945, remnants of the shipyards are visible, and there is a memorial to the shipyard and the workers at Bug Light Park. The park is home to Portland Breakwater Lighthouse, commonly referred to as Bug Light. On July 11,1944, at 4,45 PM, for reasons that were never fully determined, Russell lost control of the plane and crashed into a trailer park in South Portlands Brick Hill neighborhood. 19 people were killed and 20 people were injured — mostly the families of South Portland shipyard workers — making it the worst aviation accident in Maine history. A Long Creek Air Tragedy Memorial was eventually erected to commemorate the crash and honor the victims, over the last few decades, South Portland has become the retail capital of Maine
8.
Henry J. Kaiser
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Henry John Kaiser was an American industrialist who became known as the father of modern American shipbuilding. He established the Kaiser Shipyards, which built Liberty ships during World War II, after which he formed Kaiser Aluminum, Kaiser organized Kaiser Permanente health care for his workers and their families. He led Kaiser-Frazer followed by Kaiser Motors, automobile companies known for the safety of their designs, Kaiser was involved in large construction projects such as civic centers and dams, and invested in real estate. With his wealth, he established the Kaiser Family Foundation, a nonprofit, non-partisan, Kaiser was born on May 9,1882, in Sprout Brook, New York, the son of Franz and Anna Marie Kaiser, ethnic German immigrants. Kaisers first job was as a boy in an Utica, New York. He worked as an apprentice photographer early in life, and was running the studio in Lake Placid by the age of twenty. He used his savings to move to Washington state on the west coast of the United States in 1906, where he started a construction company that fulfilled government contracts. Kaiser met his wife, Bess Fosburgh, the daughter of a Virginia lumberman. They married on April 8,1907, and had two children, Edgar Kaiser, Sr and Henry Kaiser, Jr, in 1914 Kaiser founded a paving company, Henry J. Kaiser Co. Ltd. one of the first to use heavy construction machinery. His firm expanded significantly in 1927 when it received a contract to build roads in Camagüey Province. In 1931 his firm was one of the contractors in building the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River. Henry Kaiser was an advocate of bringing American aid to those suffering from Nazi aggression in Europe. S. Still fretted over preserving its isolationism, many leading industrialists, such as Henry Ford, were pro-Fascist and adamantly against the US entering that conflict until December 7,1941. These ships became known as Liberty ships and were supplemented in the mid-war by improved. He became world-renowned when his teams built a ship in four days, the previous record had been 10 days for the Liberty ship Joseph M. Teal. A visit to a Ford assembly plant by one of his associates led to the decision to use welding instead of riveting for shipbuilding. Welding was advantageous in that it took less strength and it was easier to teach thousands of employees, mostly unskilled laborers, Kaiser adopted the use of subassemblies in ship construction, formerly, hundreds of laborers crowded together to complete a ship. Though this practice had been tried on the East Coast and in Britain, other Kaiser Shipyards were located in Ryan Point on the Columbia River in Washington state and on Swan Island in Portland, Oregon
9.
Seattle-Tacoma Shipbuilding Corporation
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The Seattle-Tacoma Shipbuilding Corporation was a United States corporation which built ships for the US Navy and merchant marine during World War II. The shipyard had existed since the 1920s as part of the Todd Dry Dock & Construction Company, the money enabled the owners to expand the number of ways from three to eight in total. Seattle-Tacoma Shipbuilding produced a significant number of ships during the war, on Liberty Fleet Day 27 September 1941 one of the first Liberty ships the SS Fredrick Funston was launched by Seattle-Tacoma. In 1942 Todd bought out Kaisers holding and some time thereafter the company was reabsorbed into Todd Dry Dock & Construction, Todd sold the Tacoma shipyard to the Navy after the war ended, which in turn sold the site to the Port of Tacoma in 1959. Today the site is set for redevelopment as part of the Ports Commencement Bay Industrial Development District, Todd Pacific Shipyards Incorporated Tacoma WA WWII construction record. Seattle-Tacoma Shipbuilding Corporation, from the Destroyer History website
10.
Bath Iron Works
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Bath Iron Works is a major American shipyard located on the Kennebec River in Bath, Maine. Since its founding in 1884, BIW has built private, commercial and military vessels, the shipyard has built and sometimes designed battleships, frigates, cruisers and destroyers, including the Arleigh Burke class, which are currently among the worlds most advanced surface warships. Since 1995, Bath Iron Works has been a subsidiary of General Dynamics, during World War II, ships built at BIW were considered by sailors and Navy officials to be of superior toughness, giving rise to the phrase Bath-built is best-built. Bath Iron Works was incorporated in 1884 by General Thomas W. Hyde, after the war, Hyde bought a local shop that helped make windlasses and other iron hardware for the wooden ships built in Baths many shipyards. He expanded the business by improving its practices, entering new markets, by 1882, Hyde Windlass was eyeing the new and growing business of iron shipbuilding, two years later, it incorporated as Bath Iron Works. On February 28,1890, BIW won its first contract for complete vessels, the Machias, one of these 190-foot gunboats, was the first ship launched by the company. In 1892, the yard won its first commercial contract for a steel vessel, in the 1890s, the company built several yachts for wealthy sailors. In 1899, General Hyde, suffering from the Brights Disease that would kill him later that year, resigned from management of the shipyard, leaving his sons Edward and that year the shipyard began construction of the Georgia, the only battleship to be built in Bath. The ship dominated the yard for five years until its launching in 1904, the yard faced numerous challenges because of the weight of armor and weapons. In sea trials, the Georgia averaged 19.26 knots for four hours, making her the fastest ship in her class, the company continued to rely on Navy contracts, which provided 86% of the value of new contracts between 1905 and 1917. The yard also produced fishing trawlers, freighters, and yachts throughout the first half of the century, at peak production during World War II, the shipyard launched a destroyer every 17 days. Bath Iron Works ranked 50th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts, in 1981, Falcon Transport ordered two tankers, the last commercial vessels built by BIW. In 1988, the USS Samuel B, Roberts, commissioned two years earlier at Bath, survived a mine explosion that tore a hole in its engine room and flooded two compartments. Over the next two years, BIW repaired the Roberts in unique fashion, the guided missile frigate was towed to the companys dry dock in Portland, Maine, and put up on blocks, where its damaged engine room was cut out of the ship. Meanwhile, workers in Bath built a 315-ton replacement, when it was ready, the module was floated south to Portland, placed on the dry dock, slid into place under the Roberts, jacked up, and welded into place. In 2001, BIW wrapped up an effort to build an enormous concrete platform. Instead of being built on a way so that they could slide into the Kennebec at launch. This greatly reduced the work involved in building and launching the ships, the 750-foot,28, 000-ton dry dock was built by Chinas Jiangdu Yuchai Shipbuilding Company for $27 million
11.
Lloyd's Register
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The organisation dates back to 1760. Its stated aims are to enhance the safety of life, property, historically, as Lloyds Register of Shipping, it was a specifically maritime organisation. During the late 20th century, it diversified into other industries including oil and gas, process industries, nuclear, Lloyds Register is unaffiliated with Lloyds of London. The organisations name came from the 17th-century coffee house in London frequented by merchants, marine underwriters, the coffee house owner, Edward Lloyd, helped them to exchange information by circulating a printed sheet of all the news he heard. In 1760, the Register Society was formed by the customers of the house who assembled the Register of Shipping. Between 1800 and 1833, a dispute between shipowners and underwriters caused them to publish a list each—the Red Book and the Green Book and this brought both parties to the verge of bankruptcy. Agreement was reached in 1834 when they united to form Lloyd’s Register of British and Foreign Shipping, establishing a General Committee, in 1914, with an increasingly international outlook, the organisation changed its name to Lloyds Register of Shipping. Thus the best classification A1, from which the expression A1 or A1 at Lloyds is derived, the Register, with information on all seagoing, self-propelled merchant ships of 100 gross tonnes or greater, is published annually. A vessel remains registered with Lloyds Register until she is sunk, wrecked, hulked, Lloyds Register sold its share of the venture to IHS in 2009. Lloyds Register provides quality assurance and certification for ships, offshore structures, LRs Rules for Ships are derived from principles of naval architecture and marine engineering, and govern safety and operational standards for numerous merchant, military, and privately owned vessels. A ship is known as being in class if she meets all the requirements of LRs Rules. Class can be withdrawn from a ship if she is in violation of any regulations, however, exceptional circumstances may warrant special dispensation from Lloyds Register. Any alteration to the vessel, whether it is an alteration or machinery. Ships are inspected on a basis by a team of Lloyds Register surveyors. Such a survey includes an inspection of the hull to make sure that the line has not been altered. Numerous other inspections such as the condition of hatch and door seals, safety barriers, upon completion the ship is allowed to be operated for another year, and is issued a Load Line Certificate. Lloyd’s Register provide a list of rules and regulations to the public, Lloyds Register also maintains other offices globally, including Hong Kong and Houston, Texas. In 1833 the Österreichischer Lloyd company was formed in the port city of Trieste, consciously modeling itself on the British company
12.
Triple-expansion steam engine
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A compound steam engine unit is a type of steam engine where steam is expanded in two or more stages. Multiple-expansion engines employ additional cylinders, of lower pressure, to extract further energy from the steam. Invented in 1781, this technique was first employed on a Cornish beam engine in 1804, around 1850, compound engines were first introduced into Lancashire textile mills. In a single-expansion steam engine, the steam enters the cylinder at boiler pressure through an inlet valve. The steam pressure forces the piston down the cylinder, until the valve shuts and this cut-off allows much more work to be extracted, since the expansion of the steam is doing additional work beyond that done by the steam at boiler pressure. An earlier cut-off increases the ratio, which in principle allows more energy to be extracted and increases efficiency. This temperature drop would occur if the cylinder were perfectly insulating so that no heat is released from the system. As a result, steam enters the cylinder at high temperature, the changing steam temperature alternately heats and cools the cylinder with every stroke and is a source of inefficiency which increases at higher expansion ratios. Beyond a certain point, further increasing the ratio will actually decrease efficiency due to the increased heating and cooling. A method to lessen the magnitude of this heating and cooling was invented in 1804 by British engineer Arthur Woolf, in the compound engine, high-pressure steam from the boiler first expands in a high-pressure cylinder and then enters one or more subsequent lower pressure cylinders. The complete expansion of the steam occurs across multiple cylinders and, as there is less expansion in each cylinder and this reduces the magnitude of cylinder heating and cooling, making higher expansion ratios practical and increasing the efficiency of the engine. There are other advantages, as the range is smaller, cylinder condensation is reduced. Loss due to condensation is restricted to the LP cylinder, pressure difference is less in each cylinder so there is less steam leakage at the piston and valves. The turning moment is uniform, so balancing is easier. Only the smaller HP cylinder needs to be built to withstand the highest pressure, similarly, components are subject to less strain, so they can be lighter. The reciprocating parts of the engine are lighter, reducing the engine vibrations, the compound could be started at any point in the cycle, and in the event of mechanical failure the compound could be reset to act as a simple, and thus keep running. To derive equal work from lower-pressure steam requires a larger cylinder volume as this steam occupies a greater volume, therefore, the bore, and often the stroke, are increased in low-pressure cylinders, resulting in larger cylinders. Double-expansion engines expand the steam in two stages, but this does not imply that all engines have two cylinders
13.
United States Maritime Commission
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It also formed the United States Maritime Service for the training of seagoing ships officers to man the new fleet. The purpose of the Maritime Commission was multifold as described in the Merchant Marine Acts Declaration of Policy. S, Merchant Marine prior to the Act. Another function given to the Commission involved the formation of the U. S. Maritime Service for the training of seagoing ships officers to man the new fleet, the actual licensing of officers and seamen still resided with the Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation. President Roosevelt nominated Joseph P. Kennedy first head of the Commission, Kennedy held that position until February 1938 when he left to become US Ambassador to Great Britain. The other four members of the Commission in the years before the beginning of World War II were a mix of retired officers and men from disciplines of law. The man most notable in the group Land brought to the Commission was Commander Howard L. Vickery, USN, as a symbol of the rebirth of the U. S. Upon the U. S. entry into World War II, America was requisitioned by the U. S. Navy and became USS West Point. Most of the C2s and C3s were converted to Navy auxiliaries, notably attack cargo ships, attack transports, the Commission also was tasked with the construction of many hundred military type vessels such as Landing Ship, Tank s and Tacoma-class frigates and large troop transports. By the end of the war, U. S. shipyards working under Maritime Commission contracts had built a total of 5,777 oceangoing merchant, in early 1942 both the training and licensing was transferred to the U. S. S. With the end of World War II, both the Emergency and Long Range shipbuilding programs were terminated as there were far too many merchant vessels now for the Nations peacetime needs. In 1946, the Merchant Ship Sales Act was passed to sell off a portion of the ships previously built during the war to commercial buyers. Although not sold outright to nations that were enemies during the war, for the next 25 years, in ports all around the world one could find dozens of ships which had been built during the war but which now were used in peace. Ships not disposed of through the Ship Sales Act were placed one of eight National Defense Reserve Fleet sites maintained on the Atlantic, Pacific. On several occasions in the postwar years ships in the fleets were activated for both military and humanitarian aid missions. The last major mobilization of the NDRF came during the Vietnam War, since then, a smaller fleet of ships called the Ready Reserve Force has been mobilized to support both humanitarian and military missions. The Maritime Commission was abolished on 24 May 1950, and its functions were divided between the U. S. S. Merchant Marine Academy which had built and opened during World War II. 1936, Merchant Marine Act abolishes Shipping Board and establishes Maritime Commission,1937, Joseph P. S. merchant shipping has been held by many agencies since 1917
14.
Emory S. Land
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Vice Admiral Emory Scott Land was an officer in the United States Navy, noted for his contributions to naval architecture, particularly in submarine design. Notable assignments included serving as Chief of the Navys Bureau of Construction and Repair during the 1930s, from Cañon City, Colorado, Land graduated from the United States Naval Academy on May 21,1902. Following two years of sea duty, he became an architect specializing in submarine construction. Land played a key role in the design of the S-class submarines from 1917 to 1919, Land was vice chairman of the Navys postwar V-boat Plans Committee in 1920. He was awarded the Navy Cross for his work on design and construction. From October 1,1932 until April 1,1937, Land was Chief of the Bureau of Construction, in this position, he played a major role in submarine development leading to the highly successful fleet boats of World War II. Land concurrently served as Administrator of the War Shipping Administration, established by Executive Order 9054 on February 7,1942, thus Admiral Land exercised authority over both construction and allocation of non-combatant maritime assets to Army, Navy and commerce. Land Hall, located at the Academy, is named in his honor, on January 15,1946, Vice Admiral Emory S. Land resigned as Chairman of the U. S. Maritime Commission, for outstanding services, He was rewarded the Navys Distinguished Service Medal by the War Department. Land served as President of the Air Transport Association of America from 1946–1957 and this article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
15.
South Portland Shipbuilding Corporation
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The New England Shipbuilding Corporation was a shipyard located in the city of South Portland, Maine, United States. The two merged in 1943, then continued to produce ships as the New England Shipbuilding Corporations East Yard, New England Shipbuilding ranked 97th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts. Both closed at the end of the war, the two yards built 266 ships,154 in the East Yard,112 in the West Yard. The first 30 East Yard ships were Ocean class cargo ships built for the United Kingdom, the remaining ships were of the Liberty ship design, derived from the Ocean class, and were built for the United States Maritime Commission. Among them was the SS Jeremiah OBrien, a Liberty ship that is preserved as a ship in San Francisco. In contrast to many museum vessels, she is in seaworthy condition in compliance with U. S. Coast Guard and American Bureau of Shipping standards, the ships were launched and they raced to see which one was the fastest, Natasha Allen won. At the peak of production, the yards employed 30,000 people and this article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress
16.
USS Conway (DD-507)
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USS Conway, a Fletcher-class destroyer, was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for William Conway, who distinguished himself during the Civil War. Conway was laid down 5 November 1941, launched 16 August 1942 by Bath Iron Works, Bath, Maine, sponsored by the wife of Captain Frank E. Beatty, the ship was commissioned 9 October 1942, Commander N. S. Conway cleared Norfolk 5 December 1942 for Nouméa, and Efate and she put to sea 27 January as her force sailed to meet Japanese ships evacuating troops from Guadalcanal. On 29 and 30 January, her force came under enemy air attack in the Battle of Rennell Island. Conway splashed several enemy planes, and rescued survivors of Chicago, throughout February, she patrolled between Espiritu Santo and Guadalcanal, and between 4 and 6 March, participated in the bombardment of Vila Stanmore and a shipping sweep of Kula Gulf. From 10 March 1943 Conway had patrol duty and conducted training from Efate and she sailed from Efate 15 June in support of the Rendova landings, escorting supply ships, then had the same duty for the New Georgia operations, and conducted bombardments of Kolombangara and Munda. Between 26 July and 12 August, she operated out of Purvis Bay, escorting fueling units and making night raids on Japanese shipping up the Slot. She sailed from Purvis Bay 13 August to take part in the Vella Lavella operation, escorted LSTs and supply ships in to the beach, and then took up patrol north and west of the island. She returned to Guadalcanal 30 August escorting transports carrying the First Marine Raiders, after overhaul in the Fiji Islands and at Sydney, Australia, Conway returned to Southwest Pacific operations in October 1943. On 27 October she participated in the landings in the Treasury Islands. Between 11 and 17 February, she participated in the landings on Green Island, on 8 May, at Majuro, Conway joined the 5th Fleet. After replenishing at Eniwetok, Conway joined in the bombardment of Guam and Tinian. She continued to operate in the Mariana Islands campaign until 12 August, Conway returned to Ulithi 21 November 1944 to join the 7th Fleet. She put to sea at once to patrol in Leyte Gulf, join in a sweep in Camotes Sea. After replenishing at Kossol Roads, Conway covered the Mindoro landings, then patrolled west of Mindoro in the Sulu Sea until 23 December, Conway sailed again 31 December for the initial landings on Lingayen, Corregidor, and Parang, and continued operating in Philippine waters until June 1945. On 7 June, Conway sailed from Subic Bay in the distant covering group for the Brunei Bay operation and she covered minesweeping and fired in preassault bombardment at Balikpapan, guarded an underwater demolition team as it prepared the beach, and conducted bombardment during the actual landings. She rested briefly at Leyte. and then took part in the landings at Saragani Bay, with the close of the war, Conway began patrolling east of Leyte Gulf, and supported minesweeping operations in the Yellow Sea, visiting Okinawa and Tsingtao. Conway was placed out of commission in reserve 25 June 1946, Conway was recommissioned at Boston 8 November 1950, following her conversion to an escort destroyer
17.
USS Cony (DD-508)
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USS Cony, a Fletcher-class destroyer, was a ship of the United States Navy named for Joseph S. Cony, a naval officer during the Civil War. Cony was launched 16 August 1942 by Bath Iron Works Corp, Bath, Maine, sponsored by Mrs. William R. Sleight, a first cousin of Joseph S. The ship was commissioned 30 October 1942 at Boston, Lieutenant Commander Harry D. Johnson in command, Cony escorted a troop convoy from Norfolk to Nouméa, New Caledonia, where she arrived 27 January 1943. She continued patrols and escorted supplies to Vella Lavella until returning to Espiritu Santo 8 September, from 20 September 1943, Cony patrolled through the Solomons, and from 1 to 3 October joined in a sweep against Japanese barges attempting to evacuate Kolombangara. On 27 October, she sailed to cover the landings on the Treasuries, here complete surprise was achieved, but Japanese reaction came quickly, and later that day 10 enemy dive bombers, escorted by 39 enemy fighters, attacked Cony and Philip. She was towed into Port Purvis for emergency repairs, and sailed on to Mare Island Naval Shipyard for a complete overhaul. She sailed from Port Purvis 4 May for Majuro and Pearl Harbor, where she joined the screen of a transport bound for Eniwetok. Cony screened the transports as they unloaded and carried out antisubmarine patrol until 14 July, six days later she sailed for preinvasion bombardment on Tinian, remaining to patrol in the antisubmarine screen when the landings on Tinian began on 24 July. Cony returned to Guadalcanal 24 August 1944 to prepare for the assault on the Palau Islands and she screened carriers as they launched air raids supporting the landings on Peleliu between 15 and 30 September, then put in to Manus to replenish. After voyaging to Manus for replenishment, Cony returned to Leyte Gulf for patrol duties 16 November 1944, on the nights of 29–30 November and 1–2 December she joined in sweeps of Ormoc Bay, hunting Japanese shipping. Targets were few, but her group sent a barge to the bottom on their second foray, and bombarded enemy positions on the shores of the bay in preparation for the landings in Ormoc Bay a few days later. Cony put in to Kossol Roads from 4 to 10 December, then sailed to screen carriers providing air cover for attack groups passing from Leyte to Mindoro, returning to Kossol Roads 19 December. Cony arrived at Manus 23 December 1944 and sailed 8 days later to screen transports to the Lingayen Gulf landings on 9 January 1945. She cleared the Gulf 11 January to screen empty transports and cargo ships to San Pedro Bay, Leyte and she bombarded Parang between 14 and 19 April, and patrolled in Davao Gulf early in May. Returning to San Pedro Bay, Cony sailed on 11 July 1945 to escort transports to landings at Saragani Bay, Mindanao, providing fire support to the forces ashore until 13 July. Through August, she made a voyage between Leyte and Ulithi, and on 8 September, arrived in the approaches of the Yangtze River to act as navigational ship during minesweeping operations. She sailed for home from Shanghai 20 December, and after calling at San Diego and New York, arrived at Charleston, there she was decommissioned and placed in reserve 18 June 1946. Reclassified DDE-508 on 26 March 1949, Cony was converted to a destroyer, specially equipped for antisubmarine warfare
18.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
19.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
20.
Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
21.
Torpedo
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Historically, it was called an automotive, automobile, locomotive or fish torpedo, colloquially called a fish. The term torpedo was originally employed for a variety of devices, from about 1900, torpedo has been used strictly to designate an underwater self-propelled weapon. Todays torpedoes can be divided into lightweight and heavyweight classes, and into straight-running, autonomous homers and they can be launched from a variety of platforms. The word torpedo comes from the name of a genus of rays in the order Torpediniformes. In naval usage, the American Robert Fulton introduced the name to refer to a gunpowder charge used by his French submarine Nautilus to demonstrate that it could sink warships. The concept of a torpedo existed many centuries before it was successfully developed. In 1275, Hasan al-Rammah described. an egg which moves itself, in modern language, a torpedo is an underwater self-propelled explosive, —but historically, the term also applied to primitive naval mines. These were used on an ad hoc basis during the modern period up to the late 19th century. An early submarine, the Turtle, attempted to lay a bomb with a fuse on the hull of HMS Eagle during the American Revolutionary War. In the early 1800s, the American inventor Robert Fulton, while in France and he coined the term torpedo in reference to the explosive charges he outfitted his submarine Nautilus. However, both the French and the Dutch governments were uninterested in the submarine, Fulton then concentrated on developing the torpedo independent of a submarine deployment. However, the British government refused to purchase the invention, stating they did not wish to introduce into naval warfare a system that would give advantage to weaker maritime nations. Fulton carried out a demonstration for the US government on 20 July 1807. Further development languished as Fulton focused on his steam-boat matters, during the War of 1812, torpedoes were employed in attempts to destroy British vessels and protect American harbors. In fact a submarine deployed torpedo was used in an attempt to destroy HMS Ramillies while in New Londons harbor. Hardy to warn the Americans to cease efforts with the use of any boat in this cruel and unheard-of warfare. Torpedoes were used by the Russian Empire during the Crimean War in 1855 against British warships in the Gulf of Finland and they used an early form of chemical detonator. During the American Civil War, the torpedo was used for what is today called a contact mine
22.
Luftwaffe
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The Luftwaffe was the aerial warfare branch of the combined German Wehrmacht military forces during World War II. During the interwar period, German pilots were trained secretly in violation of the treaty at Lipetsk Air Base, with the rise of the Nazi Party and the repudiation of the Versailles Treaty, the Luftwaffe was officially established on 26 February 1935. The Condor Legion, a Luftwaffe detachment sent to aid Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War, provided the force with a testing ground for new doctrines. By the summer of 1939, the Luftwaffe had twenty-eight Geschwaders, during World War II, German pilots claimed roughly 70,000 aerial victories, while over 75,000 Luftwaffe aircraft were destroyed or significantly damaged. Of these, nearly 40,000 were lost entirely, the Luftwaffe proved instrumental in the German victories across Poland and Western Europe in 1939 and 1940. From 1942, Allied bombing campaigns gradually destroyed the Luftwaffes fighter arm, in addition to its service in the West, the Luftwaffe operated over the Soviet Union, North Africa and Southern Europe. In January 1945, during the stages of the Battle of the Bulge, the Luftwaffe made a last-ditch effort to win air superiority. After the defeat of Germany, the Luftwaffe was disbanded in 1946, the Luftwaffe had only two commanders-in-chief throughout its history, Hermann Göring and later Generalfeldmarschall Robert Ritter von Greim. Throughout the war, the force was responsible for war crimes, one of the forerunners of the Luftwaffe, the Imperial German Army Air Service, was founded in 1910 with the name Die Fliegertruppen des deutschen Kaiserreiches, most often shortened to Fliegertruppe. It was renamed Luftstreitkräfte on 8 October 1916, after the defeat of Germany, the service was dissolved on 8 May 1920 under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, which also mandated the destruction of all German military aircraft. Since the Treaty of Versailles forbade Germany to have an air force, to train its pilots on the latest combat aircraft, Germany solicited the help of its future enemy, the Soviet Union, which was also isolated in Europe. This base was known as 4th squadron of the 40th wing of the Red Army. Hundreds of Luftwaffe pilots and technical personnel visited, studied and were trained at Soviet air force schools in locations in Central Russia. The first steps towards the Luftwaffes formation were undertaken just months after Adolf Hitler came to power, in April 1933 the Reichsluftfahrtministerium was established. Görings control over all aspects of aviation became absolute, on 25 March 1933 the Deutschen Luftsportverband absorbed all private and national organizations, while retaining its sports title. On 15 May 1933, all military organizations in the RLM were merged, forming the Luftwaffe. The |Nationalsozialistisches Fliegerkorps was formed in 1937 to give pre-military flying training to male youths, military-age members of the NSFK were drafted to the Luftwaffe. As all such prior NSFK members were also Nazi Party members, the absence of Göring in planning and production matters was fortunate
23.
Murmansk
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The city is named for the Murman Coast, Murman is itself an older Russian term for Norwegians. Although Murmansks population is in decline—299,148,307, 257 ,336, 137 ,468, Murmansk was the last city founded in the Russian Empire. On June 29,1916, Russian Transport Minister Alexander Trepov petitioned to grant urban status to the railway settlement, on July 6,1916, the petition was approved and the town was named Romanov-on-Murman, after the imperial Russian dynasty of Romanovs. On September 21,1916, the ceremony was performed. After the February Revolution of 1917, on April 3,1917, in the winter of 1917 the British North Russia Squadron under Rear Admiral Thomas Kemp was established at Murmansk. From 1918 to 1920, during the Russian Civil War, the town was occupied by the Western powers, who had allied in World War I. On February 13,1926, local self-government was organized in Murmansk for the first time, during a session of the Murmansk City Soviet. Prior to this, the city was governed by the authorities of Alexandrovsky Uyezd, while this plan was not confirmed by the Leningrad Oblast Executive Committee, in 1935–1937 several rural localities of Kolsky and Polyarny Districts were merged into Murmansk anyway. According to the Presidium of the Leningrad Oblast Executive Committee resolution of February 26,1935, however, the provisions of the resolution were not fully implemented, and due to military construction in Polyarnoye, the administrative center was instead moved to Murmansk in the beginning of 1935. In addition to being the center of Murmansk Okrug, Murmansk also continued to serve as the administrative center of Polyarny District until September 11,1938. This status was retained when Murmansk Okrug was transformed into Murmansk Oblast on May 28,1938, the supplies were brought to the city in the Arctic convoys. For the rest of the war, Murmansk served as a point for weapons. This unyielding, stoic resistance was commemorated at the 40th anniversary of the victory over the Germans in the designation of Murmansk as a Hero City on May 6,1985. During the Cold War Murmansk was a center of Soviet submarine, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the nearby city and naval base of Severomorsk remains the headquarters of the Russian Northern Fleet. In 1974, a massive 35. 5-meter tall statue Alyosha, in 1984, the Hotel Arctic, now known as Azimut Hotel Murmansk, opened and became the tallest building above the Arctic Circle. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the City of Murmansk—an administrative unit with the equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the City of Murmansk is incorporated as Murmansk Urban Okrug and they were abolished on June 2,1948. The same city districts were created for the time on June 23,1951
24.
Kola Inlet
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Kola Bay or Murmansk Fjord is a 57-km-long fjord of the Barents Sea that cuts into the northern part of the Kola Peninsula. It is up to 7 km wide and has a depth of 200 to 300 metres, the Tuloma and Kola Rivers discharge into the bay. The eastern shore is craggy and precipitous, the one is comparatively level. The ports of Murmansk and Severomorsk sit on the east side, polyarny, the main base of Russias Northern Fleet, is on the west side of the bay. Semidiurnal tides in the Murmansk Fjord are as high as 4 metres, in winter, the southern part of the bay may be covered in ice. The Kola Bay Bridge spans the Kola Bay near its southern end, list of fjords of Russia This article is based on a translation of the equivalent article of the Russian Wikipedia on 13 July 2008
25.
Japanese submarine I-29
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I-29, code-named Matsu, was a B1 type submarine of the Imperial Japanese Navy used during World War II on two secret missions with Germany. She was sunk while coming back from the second mission and this was the most numerous class of Japanese submarines - almost 20 were built, of which only one survived. These boats were fast, had a range, and carried a seaplane. These were missions enabled under the Axis Powers Tripartite Pact to provide for an exchange of personnel, strategic materials, initially, cargo ships made the exchanges, but when that was no longer possible submarines were used. Only five other submarines had attempted this voyage during World War II, I-30, I-8, I-34. Of these, I-30 was sunk by a mine and I-34 by the British submarine HMS Taurus, later, the famous Japanese submarine I-52 would also share their fate. I-29 participated in supporting the attack on Port Moresby in New Guinea, and also in the futile search for Task Force 16. I-29s reconnaissance of Sydney harbour on 23 May 1942 resulted in the Japanese midget submarine attack on Sydney Harbour, in April 1943, I-29 was tasked with a Yanagi mission. She was commanded by Captain Masao Teraoka, submarine flotilla commander — indicating the importance of the trip and she left Penang with a cargo that included two tons of gold. She met Fregattenkapitän Werner Musenbergs Type IXD-1 U-boat, U-180 on 26 April 1943 off the coast of Mozambique, during this meeting that lasted over 12 hours due to bad weather, the two Axis submarines swapped several important passengers. U-180 transferred Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, a leader of the Indian Independence Movement who was going from Berlin to Tokyo, I-29 in turn transferred two Japanese Navy personnel who were to study U-boat building techniques in Germany, Commander Emi Tetsushiro, and Lieutenant Commander Tomonaga Hideo. Both submarines returned safely to their bases, I-29 landed her important passengers at Sabang on Weh Island, located to the north of Sumatra on 6 May 1943, instead of the Penang, to avoid detection by British spies. Bose and Hasans transfer is the known record of a civilian transfer between two submarines of two different navies in World War II. Also there were exchange of two tonnes of gold ingots as payment from Japan for weapons technology, on December 17,1943, I-29 was dispatched on a second Yanagi mission, this time to Lorient, France under star Japanese submarine Commander Takakazu Kinashi. At Singapore she was loaded with 80 tons of raw rubber,80 tons of tungsten,50 tons of tin, in spite of Allied Ultra decrypts of her mission, I-29 managed to reach Lorient 11 March 1944. On her way she was refueled twice by German vessels, also, she had three close brushes with Allied aircraft tracking her signals. Of special note is the attack of six RAF aircraft including two Tse-tse De Havilland Mosquito F Mk, at least one Ju-88 was shot down by British fighters over Spanish waters. The Kriegsmarine also provide an escort of two destroyers and two torpedo boats, after an uneventful trip she arrived at Singapore on 14 July 1944, disembarking her passengers, though not the cargo
26.
German submarine U-505
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U-505 is a German Type IXC U-boat built for Nazi Germanys Kriegsmarine during World War II. She was captured on 4 June 1944 by United States Navy Task Group 22.3 and her codebooks, Enigma machine, and other secret materials found on board helped the Allied codebreakers. All but one of U-505s crew were rescued by the Navy task group, the submarine was towed to Bermuda in secret and her crew was interned at a US prisoner-of-war camp where they were denied access to International Red Cross visits. The Navy classified the capture as top secret and prevented its discovery by the Germans, in 1954, U-505 was donated to the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois and is now a museum ship. She is one of six U-boats that were captured by Allied forces during World War II, U-505 is one of four German World War II U-boats that survive as museum ships, and one of two Type IXCs still in existence, the other being U-534. German Type IXC submarines were larger than the original Type IXBs. U-505 had a displacement of 1,120 tonnes when at the surface and 1,232 tonnes while submerged. The U-boat had a length of 76.76 m, a pressure hull length of 58.75 m, a beam of 6.76 m, a height of 9.60 m. She had two shafts and two 1.92 m propellers, the boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 meters. The submarine had a surface speed of 18.3 knots. When submerged, the boat could operate for 63 nautical miles at 4 knots, when surfaced, she could travel 13,450 nautical miles at 10 knots. U-505 was fitted with six 53.3 cm torpedo tubes,22 torpedoes, one 10.5 cm SK C/32 naval gun,180 rounds, the boat had a complement of forty-eight. U-505s keel was laid down on 12 June 1940 by Deutsche Werft in Hamburg and she was launched on 25 May 1941 and commissioned on 26 August with Kapitänleutnant Axel-Olaf Loewe in command. On 6 September 1942, Loewe was relieved by Kptlt, on 24 October 1943, Oberleutnant zur See Paul Meyer took command for about two weeks until he was relieved on 8 November by Oblt. z. S. Lange then commanded the boat until her capture on 4 June 1944 and she conducted twelve patrols in her career, sinking eight ships totaling 44,962 gross register tons. Three of these were American, two British, one Norwegian, one Dutch, and one Colombian, following training exercises with the 4th U-boat Flotilla from 26 August 1941 to 31 January 1942, U-505 was assigned as an operational boat to the 2nd U-boat Flotilla on 1 February. She began her first patrol from Kiel on 19 January while still undergoing training. For 16 days, she circumnavigated the British Isles, and docked at Lorient, during her first patrol, U-505 engaged no enemy vessels and was not attacked
27.
German submarine U-109 (1940)
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The German submarine U-109 was a Type IXB U-boat of Nazi Germanys Kriegsmarine that operated during World War II. She conducted nine war-patrols, sinking 12 ships and damaging one, all but one of these successes were during the six patrols she carried out under the command of the U-boat ace, Heinrich Bleichrodt. On 4 May 1943, she was sunk with all hands by a B-24 Liberator, U-109 was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 24 May 1938. Her keel was laid down on 9 March 1940 by DeSchiMAG AG Weser, U-109 was launched on 14 September 1940 and commissioned on 5 December under the command of Hans-Georg Fischer. German Type IXB submarines were larger than the original German Type IX submarines. U-109 had a displacement of 1,051 tonnes when at the surface and 1,178 tonnes while submerged. The U-boat had a length of 76.50 m, a pressure hull length of 58.75 m, a beam of 6.76 m, a height of 9.60 m. She had two shafts and two 1.92 m propellers, the boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres. The submarine had a surface speed of 18.2 knots. When submerged, the boat could operate for 64 nautical miles at 4 knots, when surfaced, she could travel 12,000 nautical miles at 10 knots. U-109 was fitted with six 53.3 cm torpedo tubes,22 torpedoes, one 10.5 cm SK C/32 naval gun,180 rounds, the boat had a complement of forty-eight. U-109 conducted a total of nine war patrols in her career and she also damaged one other of 6,548 GRT. Following training exercises with the 2nd U-boat Flotilla from 5 December 1940 to 30 April 1941, U-109 was transferred to front-line service, U-109 left Kiel on 6 May. For 24 days, she roamed the North Sea and eventually the North Atlantic in search of Allied convoys heading to Britain. It was here that she claimed her first enemy vessel, the British steam merchantman Harpagus, which was torpedoed and sunk on 24 May, following this victory, U-109 entered the German occupied port of Lorient in France. This city was to remain her home base for the remainder of her career, U-109s second and third patrols took place without any victories. Her second voyage began on 28 June 1941 when she left her port of Lorient. For 51 days, she travelled south past Cape Verde in search of any Allied convoys off the coast of Africa, having not found any, U-109 returned to Lorient on 17 August
28.
German submarine U-380
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German submarine U-380 was a Type VIIC U-boat built for Nazi Germanys Kriegsmarine for service during World War II. Her wartime career consisted of 11 patrols and resulted in two ships sunk for 14,063 GRT, one damaged, and another of 7,178 GRT that was later declared a total loss. German Type VIIC submarines were preceded by the shorter Type VIIB submarines, U-380 had a displacement of 769 tonnes when at the surface and 871 tonnes while submerged. She had a length of 67.10 m, a pressure hull length of 50.50 m, a beam of 6.20 m, a height of 9.60 m. She had two shafts and two 1.23 m propellers, the boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres. The submarine had a surface speed of 17.7 knots. When submerged, the boat could operate for 80 nautical miles at 4 knots, U-380 was fitted with five 53.3 cm torpedo tubes, fourteen torpedoes, one 8.8 cm SK C/35 naval gun,220 rounds, and an anti-aircraft gun. The boat had a complement of between forty-four and sixty, U-380 was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 16 October 1939. She was laid down just short of a year later at the Howaldtswerke yard in Kiel, about thirteen months later, U-380 was launched in Kiel on 5 November 1941. She was formally commissioned into the Kriegsmarine later that year, on 22 December, U-380 experienced her first taste of war on her first patrol. While stalking convoy ON-127 on 12 September 1942 in the central Atlantic, the damage was not severe enough to warrant aborting the patrol, but the U-boat broke off her attack. Her first strike against allied shipping would come less than a week later when she torpedoed, all 36 men aboard the merchant survived this attack. The U-boat crew questioned the crew, asking for the ships master, U-380 returned to port on 7 October 1942. Her next patrol, which lasted only 15 days, was still successful, on 11 November 1942, U-380 torpedoed and sank the 11,069 GRT Dutch passenger liner Nieuw Zeeland. The ship had participated in the North African landings of Operation Torch and was returning from that operation. 15 of the 256 souls aboard perished, the remainder were picked up by convoy escorts and it was not until 15 March 1943, while on her fifth patrol, that the U-boat had her next success. The British Liberty Ship Ocean Seaman, traveling with convoy ET-14, was torpedoed, dead in the water, the stricken vessel was taken in tow and beached the next day near Algiers. She was declared a total loss, on 10 May 1943, U-380 rescued five German soldiers who were escaping from Tunisia in a small boat
29.
Algiers
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Algiers is the capital and largest city of Algeria. In 2011, the population was estimated to be around 3,500,000. An estimate puts the population of the metropolitan city to be around 5,000,000. Algiers is located on the Mediterranean Sea and in the portion of Algeria. The casbah and the two form a triangle. A Phoenician commercial outpost called Ikosim which later developed into a small Roman town called Icosium existed on what is now the quarter of the city. The rue de la Marine follows the lines of what used to be a Roman street, Roman cemeteries existed near Bab-el-Oued and Bab Azoun. The city was given Latin rights by Emperor Vespasian, the bishops of Icosium are mentioned as late as the 5th century. The present-day city was founded in 944 by Bologhine ibn Ziri and he had earlier built his own house and a Sanhaja center at Ashir, just south of Algiers. Although his Zirid dynasty was overthrown by Roger II of Sicily in 1148, the city was wrested from the Hammadids by the Almohads in 1159, and in the 13th century came under the dominion of the Ziyanid sultans of Tlemcen. Nominally part of the sultanate of Tlemcen, Algiers had a measure of independence under amirs of its own due to Oran being the chief seaport of the Ziyanids. As early as 1302 the islet of Peñón in front of Algiers harbour had been occupied by Spaniards, thereafter, a considerable amount of trade began to flow between Algiers and Spain. However, Algiers continued to be of little importance until after the expulsion of the Moors from Spain. In 1510, following their occupation of Oran and other towns on the coast of Africa, in 1516, the amir of Algiers, Selim b. Teumi, invited the corsair brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Barbarossa to expel the Spaniards, Aruj came to Algiers, ordered the assassination of Selim, and seized the town and ousted the Spanish in the Capture of Algiers. Hayreddin, succeeding Aruj after the latter was killed in battle against the Spaniards in the Fall of Tlemcen, was the founder of the pashaluk, Algiers from this time became the chief seat of the Barbary pirates. Formally part of the Ottoman Empire but essentially free from Ottoman control, starting in the 16th century Algiers turned to piracy, repeated attempts were made by various nations to subdue the pirates that disturbed shipping in the western Mediterranean and engaged in slave raids as far north as Iceland. The United States fought two wars over Algiers attacks on shipping, among the notable people held for ransom was the future Spanish novelist Miguel de Cervantes, who was captive in Algiers almost five years, and who wrote two plays set in Algiers of the period
30.
Algeria
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Algeria, officially the Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a sovereign state in North Africa on the Mediterranean coast. Its capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the far north. With an area of 2,381,741 square kilometres, Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world, the country is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes. Abdelaziz Bouteflika has been President since 1999, Berbers are the indigenous inhabitants of Algeria. Algeria is a regional and middle power, the North African country supplies large amounts of natural gas to Europe, and energy exports are the backbone of the economy. According to OPEC Algeria has the 16th largest oil reserves in the world, Sonatrach, the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa. Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest defence budget on the continent, most of Algerias weapons are imported from Russia, with whom they are a close ally. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC, the countrys name derives from the city of Algiers. The citys name in turn derives from the Arabic al-Jazāir, a form of the older Jazāir Banī Mazghanna. In the region of Ain Hanech, early remnants of hominid occupation in North Africa were found, neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles similar to those in the Levant. Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques, tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called Aterian. The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called Iberomaurusian and this industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the Maghreb between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC and this life, richly depicted in the Tassili nAjjer paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The amalgam of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a native population that came to be called Berbers. These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages, as Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, by the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the Revolt of the Mercenaries, Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthages North African territory, the Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars
31.
German submarine U-515
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German submarine U-515 was a Type IXC U-boat of Nazi Germanys Kriegsmarine built for service during World War II. She was commissioned in 1942 and sunk in 1944, U-515 completed six operational patrols and sank 23 ships, badly damaged two ships which later sank, and damaged two additional ships. German Type IXC submarines were larger than the original Type IXBs. U-515 had a displacement of 1,120 tonnes when at the surface and 1,232 tonnes while submerged. The U-boat had a length of 76.76 m, a pressure hull length of 58.75 m, a beam of 6.76 m, a height of 9.60 m. She had two shafts and two 1.92 m propellers, the boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres. The submarine had a surface speed of 18.3 knots. When submerged, the boat could operate for 63 nautical miles at 4 knots, when surfaced, she could travel 13,450 nautical miles at 10 knots. U-515 was fitted with six 53.3 cm torpedo tubes,22 torpedoes, one 10.5 cm SK C/32 naval gun,180 rounds, the boat had a complement of forty-eight. U-515s keel was laid down on 8 May 1941 at Deutsche Werft in Hamburg and she was launched on 2 December 1941, commissioned on 21 February 1942 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Werner Henke, and attached to the 4th U-boat Flotilla for training. During this period, U-515 conducted listening tests in early May, torpedo firing tests, U-515 served with the 4th U-boat Flotilla until 31 August 1942. She then joined the 10th U-boat Flotilla for operations, U-515 left Stettin on 8 September 1942 stopping at Kiel to top-up with fuel. U-515 left Lorient on 7 November for her second patrol, while moving along the African coast, on the night of 11 November, she attacked a British depot ship, and was subsequently depth-charged by a British destroyer. While sailing through the mid-Atlantic on 6 December, the U-boat spotted, U-515 patrolled the Azores for about a week, then returned to Lorient on 5 or 6 January 1943. Minor repairs were carried out, and on 20 February 1943 and she sank the British freighter, SS California Star about 335 miles northwest of the Azores on 4 March and on 9 March she sank a second ship, the French freighter Bamako off the west African coast. On 29 April the U-boat was attacked by Catalina flying-boats, U-515 fired at the aircraft with her 20 mm anti-aircraft guns, but did not shoot any down. The aircraft did not cause any damage to her, she submerged after the attack and she continued on her patrol and on 9 May sank the Norwegian freighter Cornville with torpedoes. U-515 completed her third sortie, returning to Lorient on 23 June, in recognition of a successful patrol, all crewmen were given long leaves and many awarded the Iron Cross, Second class
32.
German submarine U-108 (1940)
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German submarine U-108 was a Type IXB U-boat of Nazi Germanys Kriegsmarine that operated during World War II. She was laid down at DeSchiMAG AG Weser in Bremen as yard number 971 on 27 December 1938, launched on 15 July 1940 and commissioned on 22 October under Korvettenkapitän Klaus Scholtz. Her service career began with training as part of the 2nd U-boat Flotilla, she went on to operations, first with the 2nd flotilla, German Type IXB submarines were slightly larger than the original German Type IX submarines, later designated IXA. U-108 had a displacement of 1,051 tonnes when at the surface and 1,178 tonnes while submerged. The U-boat had a length of 76.50 m, a pressure hull length of 58.75 m, a beam of 6.76 m, a height of 9.60 m. She had two shafts and two 1.92 m propellers, the boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres. The submarine had a surface speed of 18.2 knots. When submerged, the boat could operate for 64 nautical miles at 4 knots, when surfaced, she could travel 12,000 nautical miles at 10 knots. U-108 was fitted with six 53.3 cm torpedo tubes,22 torpedoes, one 10.5 cm SK C/32 naval gun,180 rounds, the boat had a complement of forty-eight. U-108 carried out eleven war patrols, during which she sank 25 ships and she was a member of seven wolfpacks. The boats first patrol began with her departure from Wilhelmshaven on 15 February 1941 and she crossed the North Sea and entered the Atlantic via the gap between Iceland and the Faroe Islands, sinking Texelstroom on 22 February. She also sank Effna on the 28th, both met their end south of Iceland. She then docked at Lorient in occupied France on 12 March and she would be based there for most of the rest of her career. Her second foray involved the sinking of HMS Rajputana, a merchant cruiser. The Convoy Commodore, four officer and 35 ratings were lost, U-108 sank Michael E. a CAM ship or Catapult Armed Merchantman, on the submarines third patrol on 2 June 1941 in mid-Atlantic. The latter was a weather ship situated about 500 nmi north of the Azores, patrol number four saw the boat covering the gap between South America and Africa. She departed Lorient on 19 August 1941 and returned on 21 October and she sank Cassequel, a neutral vessel, on 14 December 1941,160 nmi southwest of Cape St. Vincent, Portugal and Ruckinge on the 19th, west of Lisbon as part of her fifth sortie. The U-boat had chased Blink, which had hit by a non-detonating torpedo
33.
Naval mine
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A naval mine is a self-contained explosive device placed in water to damage or destroy surface ships or submarines. Unlike depth charges, mines are deposited and left to wait until they are triggered by the approach of, or contact with, Naval mines can be used offensively—to hamper enemy shipping movements or lock vessels into a harbour, or defensively—to protect friendly vessels and create safe zones. Mines can be laid in many ways, by purpose-built minelayers, refitted ships, submarines and their flexibility and cost-effectiveness make mines attractive to the less powerful belligerent in asymmetric warfare. The cost of producing and laying a mine is usually anywhere from 0. 5% to 10% of the cost of removing it, parts of some World War II naval minefields still exist because they are too extensive and expensive to clear. It is possible for some of these 1940s-era mines to remain dangerous for many years to come, Mines have been employed as offensive or defensive weapons in rivers, lakes, estuaries, seas, and oceans, but they can also be used as tools of psychological warfare. Offensive mines are placed in enemy waters, outside harbours and across important shipping routes with the aim of sinking both merchant and military vessels. Defensive minefields safeguard key stretches of coast from enemy ships and submarines, forcing them into more easily defended areas, minefields designed for psychological effect are usually placed on trade routes and are used to stop shipping from reaching an enemy nation. They are often spread thinly, to create an impression of minefields existing across large areas, a single mine inserted strategically on a shipping route can stop maritime movements for days while the entire area is swept. International law requires nations to declare when they mine an area, the warnings do not have to be specific, for example, during World War II, Britain declared simply that it had mined the English Channel, North Sea, and French coast. Chinese records tell of naval explosives in the 16th century, used to fight against Japanese pirates and this kind of naval mine was loaded in a wooden box, sealed with putty. General Qi Jiguang made several timed, drifting explosives, to harass Japanese pirate ships, although this is the rotating steel wheellocks first use in naval mines, Jiao Yu had described their use for land mines back in the 14th century. The first plan for a sea mine in the West was by Ralph Rabbards, the Dutch inventor Cornelius Drebbel was employed in the Office of Ordnance by King Charles I of England to make weapons, including a floating petard which proved a failure. Weapons of this type were apparently tried by the English at the Siege of La Rochelle in 1627, American David Bushnell developed the first American naval mine for use against the British in the American War of Independence. It was a watertight keg filled with gunpowder that was floated toward the enemy and it was used on the Delaware River as a drift mine. In 1812 Russian engineer Pavel Shilling exploded a mine using an electrical circuit. Russian naval specialists set more than 1500 naval mines, or infernal machines, designed by Moritz von Jacobi and by Immanuel Nobel, the mining of Vulcan led to the worlds first minesweeping operation. During the next 72 hours,33 mines were swept, the Jacobi mine was designed by German born, Russian engineer Jacobi, in 1853. The mine was tied to the sea bottom by an anchor, a cable connected it to a cell which powered it from the shore
34.
Bari
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Bari is the capital city of the Metropolitan City of Bari and of the Apulia region, on the Adriatic Sea, in Italy. It is the second most important economic centre of mainland Southern Italy after Naples, the city itself has a population of about 326,799, as of 2015, over 116 square kilometres, while the urban area has 700,000 inhabitants. The metropolitan area has 1.3 million inhabitants, Bari is made up of four different urban sections. To the south is the Murat quarter, the heart of the city, which is laid out on a rectangular grid-plan with a promenade on the sea. Modern residential zones surrounding the centre of Bari were built during the 1960s and 1970s replacing the old suburbs that had developed along roads splaying outwards from gates in the city walls, in addition, the outer suburbs developed rapidly during the 1990s. The city has an airport named after Pope John Paul II, Karol Wojtyła Airport. The city was founded by the Peucetii. Its harbour, mentioned as early as 181 BC, was probably the one of the districts in ancient times, as it is at present. The first historical bishop of Bari was Gervasius who was noted at the Council of Sardica in 347, the bishops were dependent on the Patriarch of Constantinople until the 10th century. Until the arrival of the Normans, Bari continued to be governed by the Byzantines, throughout this period, and indeed throughout the Middle Ages, Bari served as one of the major slave depots of the Mediterranean, providing a central location for the trade in Slavic slaves. The city was conquered and the Emirate extinguished in 871, due to the efforts of Emperor Louis II, in 885, Bari became the residence of the local Byzantine catapan, or governor. In 1025, under the Archbishop Byzantius, Bari became attached to the see of Rome and was granted provincial status, in 1071, Bari was captured by Robert Guiscard, following a three-year siege. Maio of Bari, a Lombard merchants son, was the third of the admirals of Norman Sicily. The Basilica di San Nicola was founded in 1087 to receive the relics of this saint, the saint began his development from Saint Nicholas of Myra into Saint Nicholas of Bari and began to attract pilgrims, whose encouragement and care became central to the economy of Bari. In 1095 Peter the Hermit preached the first crusade there, the Greeks were not brought over to the Latin way of thinking, and the Great Schism was inevitable. A civil war broke out in Bari in 1117 with the murder of the archbishop, control of Bari was seized by Grimoald Alferanites, a native Lombard, and he was elected lord in opposition to the Normans. By 1123, he had increased ties with Byzantium and Venice, Grimoald increased the cult of St Nicholas in his city. He later did homage to Roger II of Sicily, but rebelled and was defeated in 1132, Bari was occupied by Manuel I Komnenos between 1155 and 1158
35.
Augusta, Sicily
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Augusta is a town and comune in the province of Syracuse, located on the eastern coast of Sicily. The city is one of the harbours in Italy, especially for oil refineries which are in its vicinity. The city is situated in the province of Syracuse and faces the Ionian Sea, the old town is an island, made in the 16th century by cutting an isthmus and is connected to the mainland by two bridges. One bridge was built recently and the other built when the city was founded and is called the Spanish Gate, Augusta is home to two ports. Founded 27 centuries ago, Megara Hyblaea is one of the oldest Greek colonies of Sicily and it was destroyed by its rival Syracuse, was raised from its ruins, then taken by the Romans together with Syracuse during the Second Punic War. It remains a site, a testimony of the organization of a Greek colony of the Archaic period. Upon the ruins of one of its suburbs, Xiphonia, the city of Augusta was founded in 1232 by Emperor Frederick II, after the Angevin domination, it became part of Aragonese Sicily and, from 1362, it was a fief of Guglielmo Raimondo II Moncada. It returned to be a possession in 1560, and was extensively fortified to counter Turkish pirates. In 1675 its harbour was the site of a battle between the Spanish and the English fleets. The town suffered an earthquake and tsunami in 1693. During World War II, Augusta was invaded on July 13,1943 by the Eighth Army of the Allied troops led by the British General Montgomery, the façade is in Neoclassical style. Convent of the Domenican Fathers Church of S. Francesco di Paola Church of Cristo Re Church of Mother Mary SS, assunta Church of Anime Sante del Purgatorio. The Baroque façade is attributed to Filippo Juvarra
36.
Cargo liner
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A cargo liner is a type of merchant ship which carries general cargo and often passengers. They became common just after the middle of the 19th century, a cargo liner has been defined as, A vessel which operated a regular scheduled service on a fixed route between designated ports and carries many consignments of different commodities. Cargo liners transported general freight, from raw materials to manufactures to merchandise, many had cargo holds adapted to particular services, with refrigerator space for frozen meats or chilled fruit, tanks for liquid cargos such as plant oils, and lockers for valuables. Cargo liners typically carried passengers as well, usually in a single class and they differed from ocean liners which focussed on the passenger trade, and from tramp steamers which did not operate on regular schedules. Cargo liners sailed from port to port along routes and on published in advance. The cargo liner developed in the century with the advancement of technology allowing bigger steamships to be built. As cargo liners were faster than cargo ships, they were used for the transport of perishable and high-value goods. At first, they were used in Europe and America as well as across the Atlantic Ocean between Europe and America. The use and increased reliability of the steam engine gave greater fuel efficiency. Alfred Holt pioneered the use of engines in his steamships. By the last third of the 19th century it was possible for a steamship to carry coal to travel 6,000 miles before needing to refuel. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the Panama Canal in 1914 also made the use of cargo liners more profitable, Cargo liners soon comprised the great portion of the British merchant fleet, the largest in the world. With a focus on freight, most cargo liners carried a limited number of passengers, most commonly 12. The decline of the cargo liner came in the 1970s with the introduction of container ships, surviving examples include RMS St Helena and Claymore II. A number of container vessels still offer a small number of berths to paying passengers. Typically a maximum of 12 passengers are carried as the ship would be required to carry a doctor if a greater number were on board. The recreational facilities are used by the crew and may be limited to a lounge, a gym with exercise equipment. Such journeys are of interest to people seeking a travel experience
Belgium
Netherlands
Poland
