1.
Conservation status
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The conservation status of a group of organisms indicates whether the group still exists and how likely the group is to become extinct in the near future. Various systems of conservation status exist and are in use at international, multi-country, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the best known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system. Also included are species that have gone extinct since 500 AD, when discussing the IUCN Red List, the official term threatened is a grouping of three categories, critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category, Data deficient – Not enough data to make an assessment of its risk of extinction Not evaluated – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora aims to ensure that trade in specimens of wild animals. Many countries require CITES permits when importing plants and animals listed on CITES, in the European Union, the Birds and Habitats Directives are the legal instruments that evaluate the conservation status within the EU of species and habitats. NatureServe conservation status focuses on Latin America, United States, Canada, and it has been developed by scientists from NatureServe, The Nature Conservancy, and the network of natural heritage programs and data centers. It is increasingly integrated with the IUCN Red List system and its categories for species include, presumed extinct, possibly extinct, critically imperiled, imperiled, vulnerable, apparently secure, and secure. The system also allows ambiguous or uncertain ranks including inexact numeric ranks, NatureServe adds a qualifier for captive or cultivated only, which has a similar meaning to the IUCN Red List extinct in the wild status. The Red Data Book of the Russian Federation is used within the Russian Federation, in Australia, the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 describes lists of threatened species, ecological communities and threatening processes. The categories resemble those of the 1994 IUCN Red List Categories & Criteria, prior to the EPBC Act, a simpler classification system was used by the Endangered Species Protection Act 1992. Some state and territory governments also have their own systems for conservation status, in Belgium, the Flemish Research Institute for Nature and Forest publishes an online set of more than 150 nature indicators in Dutch. In Canada, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada is a group of experts that assesses and designates which wild species are in danger of disappearing from Canada. Under the Species at Risk Act, it is up to the federal government, in China, the State, provinces and some counties have determined their key protected wildlife species. There is the China red data book, in Finland, a large number of species are protected under the Nature Conservation Act, and through the EU Habitats Directive and EU Birds Directive. In Germany, the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation publishes red lists of endangered species, india has the Wild Life Protection Act,1972, Amended 2003 and the Biological Diversity Act,2002. In Japan, the Ministry of Environment publishes a Threatened Wildlife of Japan Red Data Book, in the Netherlands, the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality publishes a list of threatened species, and conservation is enforced by the Nature Conservation Act 1998. Species are also protected through the Wild Birds and Habitats Directives, in New Zealand, the Department of Conservation publishes the New Zealand Threat Classification System lists
2.
Near Threatened
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The IUCN notes the importance of re-evaluating near-threatened taxa at appropriate intervals. The rationale used for near-threatened taxa usually includes the criteria of vulnerable which are plausible or nearly met, additionally, the 402 conservation-dependent taxa may also be considered near-threatened. Prior to 2001, the IUCN used the version 2.3 Categories and Criteria, with this category system, Near Threatened and Conservation Dependent were both subcategories of the category Lower Risk. IUCN Red List near threatened species, ordered by taxonomic rank, category, IUCN Red List near threatened species, ordered alphabetically
3.
IUCN Red List
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The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, founded in 1964, is the worlds most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature is the main authority on the conservation status of species. A series of Regional Red Lists are produced by countries or organizations, the IUCN Red List is set upon precise criteria to evaluate the extinction risk of thousands of species and subspecies. These criteria are relevant to all species and all regions of the world, the aim is to convey the urgency of conservation issues to the public and policy makers, as well as help the international community to try to reduce species extinction. Major species assessors include BirdLife International, the Institute of Zoology, the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, collectively, assessments by these organizations and groups account for nearly half the species on the Red List. The IUCN aims to have the category of every species re-evaluated every five years if possible, the 1964 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants used the older pre-criteria Red List assessment system. Plants listed may not, therefore, appear in the current Red List, IUCN advise that is best to check both the online Red List and the 1997 plants Red List publication. The 2006 Red List, released on 4 May 2006 evaluated 40,168 species as a whole, plus an additional 2,160 subspecies, varieties, aquatic stocks, on 12 September 2007, the World Conservation Union released the 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Russ Mittermeier, chief of Swiss-based IUCNs Primate Specialist Group, stated that 16,306 species are endangered with extinction,188 more than in 2006, the Red List includes the Sumatran orangutan in the Critically Endangered category and the Bornean orangutan in the Endangered category. The study shows at least 1,141 of the 5,487 mammals on Earth are known to be threatened with extinction, and 836 are listed as Data Deficient. The Red List of 2012 was released 19 July 2012 at Rio+20 Earth Summit, nearly 2,000 species were added, the IUCN assessed a total of 63,837 species which revealed 19,817 are threatened with extinction. With 3,947 described as endangered and 5,766 as endangered. At threat are 41% of amphibian species, 33% of reef-building corals, 30% of conifers, 25% of mammals, the IUCN Red List has listed 132 species of plants and animals from India as Critically Endangered. Extinct – No known individuals remaining, extinct in the wild – Known only to survive in captivity, or as a naturalized population outside its historic range. Critically endangered – Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild, Endangered – High risk of extinction in the wild. Vulnerable – High risk of endangerment in the wild, near threatened – Likely to become endangered in the near future. Does not qualify for a more at-risk category, widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category. Data deficient – Not enough data to make an assessment of its risk of extinction, Not evaluated – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria
4.
Taxonomy (biology)
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Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
5.
Animal
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Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia. The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the group to the choanoflagellates. Animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives and their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs, they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance, most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates, vertebrates have a backbone or spine, and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, the remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs, arthropods, annelids, nematodes, flatworms, cnidarians, ctenophores, the study of animals is called zoology. The word animal comes from the Latin animalis, meaning having breath, the biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges, jellyfish, insects, and humans. Aristotle divided the world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carl Linnaeus, in the first hierarchical classification. In Linnaeuss original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, in 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms, Metazoa and Protozoa. The protozoa were later moved to the kingdom Protista, leaving only the metazoa, thus Metazoa is now considered a synonym of Animalia. Animals have several characteristics that set apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and they are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals. With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges and Placozoa and these include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals
6.
Chordate
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Chordates are deuterostomes, as during the embryo development stage the anus forms before the mouth. They are also bilaterally symmetric coelomates, in the case of vertebrate chordates, the notochord is usually replaced by a vertebral column during development, and they may have body plans organized via segmentation. There are also additional extinct taxa, the Vertebrata are sometimes considered as a subgroup of the clade Craniata, consisting of chordates with a skull, the Craniata and Tunicata compose the clade Olfactores. Of the more than 65,000 living species of chordates, the worlds largest and fastest animals, the blue whale and peregrine falcon respectively, are chordates, as are humans. Fossil chordates are known from at least as early as the Cambrian explosion, Hemichordata, which includes the acorn worms, has been presented as a fourth chordate subphylum, but it now is usually treated as a separate phylum. The Hemichordata, along with the Echinodermata, form the Ambulacraria, the Chordata and Ambulacraria form the superphylum Deuterostomia, composed of the deuterostomes. Attempts to work out the relationships of the chordates have produced several hypotheses. All of the earliest chordate fossils have found in the Early Cambrian Chengjiang fauna. Because the fossil record of early chordates is poor, only molecular phylogenetics offers a prospect of dating their emergence. However, the use of molecular phylogenetics for dating evolutionary transitions is controversial and it has also proved difficult to produce a detailed classification within the living chordates. Attempts to produce family trees shows that many of the traditional classes are paraphyletic. While this has been known since the 19th century, an insistence on only monophyletic taxa has resulted in vertebrate classification being in a state of flux. Although the name Chordata is attributed to William Bateson, it was already in prevalent use by 1880, ernst Haeckel described a taxon comprising tunicates, cephalochordates, and vertebrates in 1866. Though he used the German vernacular form, it is allowed under the ICZN code because of its subsequent latinization, among the vertebrate sub-group of chordates the notochord develops into the spine, and in wholly aquatic species this helps the animal to swim by flexing its tail. In fish and other vertebrates, this develops into the spinal cord, the pharynx is the part of the throat immediately behind the mouth. In fish, the slits are modified to form gills, a muscular tail that extends backwards behind the anus. This is a groove in the wall of the pharynx. In filter-feeding species it produces mucus to gather food particles, which helps in transporting food to the esophagus and it also stores iodine, and may be a precursor of the vertebrate thyroid gland
7.
Bird
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Birds, a subgroup of Reptiles, are the last living examples of Dinosaurs. Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5 cm bee hummingbird to the 2.75 m ostrich. They rank as the class of tetrapods with the most living species, at ten thousand. Birds are the closest living relatives of crocodilians, the fossil record indicates that birds evolved from feathered ancestors within the theropod group of saurischian dinosaurs. True birds first appeared during the Cretaceous period, around 100 million years ago, Birds, especially those in the southern continents, survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world while diversifying during periods of global cooling. Primitive bird-like dinosaurs that lie outside class Aves proper, in the broader group Avialae, have been found dating back to the mid-Jurassic period, around 170 million years ago. Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species, the digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have evolved for swimming. Many species annually migrate great distances, Birds are social, communicating with visual signals, calls, and bird songs, and participating in such social behaviours as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking, and mobbing of predators. The vast majority of species are socially monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous or, rarely, Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised through sexual reproduction. They are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents, most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Some birds, such as hens, lay eggs even when not fertilised, songbirds, parrots, and other species are popular as pets. Guano is harvested for use as a fertiliser, Birds prominently figure throughout human culture. About 120–130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century, human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry, the first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae. Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use, Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy. Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the dinosaur clade Theropoda, Aves and a sister group, the clade Crocodilia, contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria
8.
Galliformes
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The name derives from gallus, Latin for cock or rooster. Common names are gamefowl or gamebirds, landfowl, gallinaceous birds, wildfowl or just fowl are also often used for the Galliformes, but usually these terms also refer to waterfowl, and occasionally to other commonly hunted birds. This group has about 290 species, one or more of which are found in every part of the worlds continents. They are rarer on islands, and in contrast to the closely related waterfowl, are absent from oceanic islands—unless introduced there by humans. Several species have been domesticated during their long and extensive relationships with humans and this order contains five families, Phasianidae, Odontophoridae, Numididae, Cracidae, and Megapodiidae. They are important as seed dispersers and predators in the ecosystems they inhabit, many gallinaceous species are skilled runners and escape predators by running rather than flying. Males of most species are more colorful than the females, males often have elaborate courtship behaviors that include strutting, fluffing of tail or head feathers, and vocal sounds. The living Galliformes were once divided into seven or more families, despite their distinctive appearance, grouse and turkeys probably do not warrant separation as families due to their recent origin from partridge- or pheasant-like birds. The turkeys became larger after their ancestors colonized temperate and subtropical North America, the ancestors of grouse, though, adapted to harsh climates and could thereby colonize subarctic regions. Consequently, the Phasianidae are expanded in current taxonomy to include the former Tetraonidae and Meleagrididae as subfamilies, the Anseriformes and the Galliformes together make up the Galloanserae. They are basal among the living birds, and normally follow the Paleognathae in modern bird classification systems. This was first proposed in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy and has been the one major change of that proposed scheme that was almost universally adopted. However, the Galliformes as they were traditionally delimited are called Gallomorphae in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy and this is not a natural group, however, but rather an erroneous result of the now-obsolete phenetic methodology employed in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy. Phenetic studies do not distinguish between plesiomorphic and apomorphic characters, which leads to basal lineages appearing as monophyletic groups, historically, the buttonquails, mesites and the hoatzin were placed in the Galliformes, too. The former are now known to be adapted to an inland lifestyle, whereas the mesites are probably closely related to pigeons. The relationships of the hoatzin are entirely obscure, and it is treated as a monotypic order Opisthocomiformes to signify this. The earliest galliform-like fossils hail from the Late Cretaceous, most notably those of Austinornis lentus and its partial left tarsometatarsus was found in the Austin Chalk near Fort McKinney, Texas, dating to about 85 million years ago. This bird was quite closely related to Galliformes, but whether it was a part of these or belongs elsewhere in the little-known galliform branch of Galloanserae is not clear
9.
Phasianidae
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The Phasianidae are a family of heavy, groundliving birds which includes pheasants, partridges, junglefowl, chickens, Old World quail, and peafowl. The family includes many of the most popular gamebirds, the family is a large one, and is occasionally broken up into two subfamilies, the Phasianinae, and the Perdicinae. Sometimes, additional families and birds are treated as part of this family, for example, the American Ornithologists Union includes Tetraonidae, Numididae, and Meleagrididae as subfamilies in Phasianidae. They range in weight from 43 g in the case of the quail to 6 kg in the case of the Indian peafowl. If turkeys are included, rather than classified as a separate family, then the considerably heavier wild turkey reaches a maximum weight of more than 17 kg. Length in this family can vary from 12.5 cm in the king quail up to 300 cm in green peafowl. There is generally sexual dimorphism in size, with males tending to be larger than females and they are generally plump, with broad relatively short wings and strong legs. Many have a spur on their legs, a feature shared only with guineafowl, the bill is short and generally strong, particularly in species that dig for food. Males of the species often have brightly coloured plumage as well as facial ornaments such as wattles or crests. Phasianidae is mostly an Old World family, with a distribution that includes most of Europe and Asia, all of Africa except the driest deserts and down into much of eastern Australia, meleagridinae are native to the New World, while Tetraoninae are circumpolar. The greatest diversity of species is in Southeast Asia and Africa, the Congo peacock is specific to the African Congo. The subfamily Perdicinae has a more widespread distribution. Within their range they occupy almost every habitat except for the boreal forests. The family is generally sedentary and resident, although some quails undertake long migrations, several species in the family have been widely introduced around the world, particularly pheasants which have been introduced to Europe, Australia and the Americas, specifically for hunting purposes. Captive populations of peacocks and chickens have also escaped and become feral, most species either specialise in feeding on plant matter or are predatory, although the chicks of most species are insectivorous. In addition to the variation in diet there is an amount of variation in breeding strategies among the Phasianidae. Compared to birds in general there is a number of species that do not engage in monogamy. Nesting usually occurs on the ground, only the tragopans nest higher up in stumps of bushes, nests can vary from mounds of vegetation to slight scrapes in the ground
10.
Turkey (bird)
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The turkey is a large bird in the genus Meleagris, which is native to the Americas. One species, Meleagris gallopavo, is native to the forests of North America, from Mexico, throughout the midwest and eastern United States, the other living species is Meleagris ocellata or the ocellated turkey, native to the forests of the Yucatán Peninsula. Males of both species have a distinctive fleshy wattle or protuberance that hangs from the top of the beak. They are among the largest birds in their ranges, as in many galliformes, the male is larger and much more colorful than the female. Turkeys are classed in the family of Phasianidae in the order of Galliformes. The genus Meleagris is the extant genus in the subfamily Meleagridinae, formerly known as the family Meleagrididae. There are two theories for the derivation of the turkey for this bird, according to Columbia University professor of Romance languages Mario Pei. The name of the North American bird thus became turkey fowl or Indian turkeys, the other theory arises from turkeys coming to England from the Americas via merchant ships from the Middle East where they were domesticated successfully. Again the importers lent the name to the bird, because these merchants were called Turkey merchants as much of the area was part of the Ottoman Empire, hence the name Turkey birds or, soon thereafter, turkeys. In 1550, the English navigator William Strickland, who had introduced the turkey into England, was granted a coat of arms including a turkey-cock in his pride proper, William Shakespeare used the term in Twelfth Night, believed to be written in 1601 or 1602. The lack of context around his usage suggests that the term had widespread reach, in many countries, the names for turkeys have different derivations. Ironically, many of these names incorporate an assumed Indian origin, such as diiq Hindi in Arabian countries, dinde in French, индюшка in Russia, indyk in Poland, and Hindi in Turkey. These are thought to arise from the thought that Christopher Columbus had originally believed that he had reached India rather than the Americas on his voyage, in Portuguese a turkey is a peru, the name is thought to derive from the eponymous country Perú. The anhinga is sometimes called a turkey, from the shape of its tail when the feathers are fully spread for drying. A number of turkeys have been described from fossils, the Meleagridinae are known from the Early Miocene onwards, with the extinct genera Rhegminornis and Proagriocharis. The former is probably a basal turkey, the other a more contemporary bird not very similar to known turkeys, a turkey fossil not assignable to genus but similar to Meleagris is known from the Late Miocene of Westmoreland County, Virginia. In the modern genus Meleagris, a number of species have been described, as turkey fossils are robust and fairly often found. Many of these supposed fossilized species are now considered junior synonyms, one, the well-documented California turkey Meleagris californica, became extinct recently enough to have been hunted by early human settlers
11.
Binomial nomenclature
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Such a name is called a binomial name, a binomen, binominal name or a scientific name, more informally it is also called a Latin name. The first part of the name identifies the genus to which the species belongs, for example, humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. The formal introduction of system of naming species is credited to Carl Linnaeus. But Gaspard Bauhin, in as early as 1623, had introduced in his book Pinax theatri botanici many names of genera that were adopted by Linnaeus. Although the general principles underlying binomial nomenclature are common to these two codes, there are differences, both in the terminology they use and in their precise rules. Similarly, both parts are italicized when a binomial name occurs in normal text, thus the binomial name of the annual phlox is now written as Phlox drummondii. In scientific works, the authority for a name is usually given, at least when it is first mentioned. In zoology Patella vulgata Linnaeus,1758, the original name given by Linnaeus was Fringilla domestica, the parentheses indicate that the species is now considered to belong in a different genus. The ICZN does not require that the name of the person who changed the genus be given, nor the date on which the change was made, in botany Amaranthus retroflexus L. – L. is the standard abbreviation used in botany for Linnaeus. – Linnaeus first named this bluebell species Scilla italica, Rothmaler transferred it to the genus Hyacinthoides, the ICN does not require that the dates of either publication be specified. Prior to the adoption of the binomial system of naming species. Together they formed a system of polynomial nomenclature and these names had two separate functions. First, to designate or label the species, and second, to be a diagnosis or description, such polynomial names may sometimes look like binomials, but are significantly different. For example, Gerards herbal describes various kinds of spiderwort, The first is called Phalangium ramosum, Branched Spiderwort, is aptly termed Phalangium Ephemerum Virginianum, Soon-Fading Spiderwort of Virginia. The Latin phrases are short descriptions, rather than identifying labels, the Bauhins, in particular Caspar Bauhin, took some important steps towards the binomial system, by pruning the Latin descriptions, in many cases to two words. The adoption by biologists of a system of binomial nomenclature is due to Swedish botanist and physician Carl von Linné. It was in his 1753 Species Plantarum that he first began using a one-word trivial name together with a generic name in a system of binomial nomenclature. This trivial name is what is now known as an epithet or specific name
12.
Georges Cuvier
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Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric Cuvier, known as Georges Cuvier, was a French naturalist and zoologist, sometimes referred to as the father of paleontology. Cuvier is also known for establishing extinction as a fact—at the time, in his Essay on the Theory of the Earth Cuvier was interpreted to have proposed that new species were created after periodic catastrophic floods. In this way, Cuvier became the most influential proponent of catastrophism in geology in the early 19th century and his study of the strata of the Paris basin with Alexandre Brongniart established the basic principles of biostratigraphy. Cuvier is also remembered for strongly opposing theories of evolution, which at the time were mainly proposed by Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, Cuvier believed there was no evidence for evolution, but rather evidence for cyclical creations and destructions of life forms by global extinction events such as deluges. Cuvier supported function and rejected Lamarcks thinking and his most famous work is Le Règne Animal. In 1819, he was created a peer for life in honor of his scientific contributions, thereafter, he was known as Baron Cuvier. He died in Paris during an epidemic of cholera, some of Cuviers most influential followers were Louis Agassiz on the continent and in the United States, and Richard Owen in Britain. His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower, Cuvier was born in Montbéliard, France, where his Protestant ancestors had lived since the time of the Reformation. His father, Jean George Cuvier, was a lieutenant in the Swiss Guards, at the time, the town, which was annexed to France on 10 October 1793, belonged to the Duchy of Württemberg. His mother, who was younger than his father, tutored him diligently throughout his early years. During his gymnasium years, he had trouble acquiring Latin and Greek, and was always at the head of his class in mathematics, history. At the age of 10, soon entering the gymnasium, he encountered a copy of Conrad Gessners Historiae Animalium. He then began frequent visits to the home of a relation, all of these he read and reread, retaining so much of the information, that by the age of 12, he was as familiar with quadrupeds and birds as a first-rate naturalist. He remained at the gymnasium for four years, Cuvier spent an additional four years at the Caroline Academy in Stuttgart, where he excelled in all of his coursework. Although he knew no German on his arrival, after nine months of study. Upon graduation, he had no money on which to live as he awaited appointment to an academic office, so in July 1788, he took a job at Fiquainville chateau in Normandy as tutor to the only son of the Comte dHéricy, a Protestant noble. There, during the early 1790s, he began his comparisons of fossils with extant forms, Cuvier regularly attended meetings held at the nearby town of Valmont for the discussion of agricultural topics. There, he acquainted with Henri Alexandre Tessier, who had assumed a false identity
13.
Meleagris
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The turkey is a large bird in the genus Meleagris, which is native to the Americas. One species, Meleagris gallopavo, is native to the forests of North America, from Mexico, throughout the midwest and eastern United States, the other living species is Meleagris ocellata or the ocellated turkey, native to the forests of the Yucatán Peninsula. Males of both species have a distinctive fleshy wattle or protuberance that hangs from the top of the beak. They are among the largest birds in their ranges, as in many galliformes, the male is larger and much more colorful than the female. Turkeys are classed in the family of Phasianidae in the order of Galliformes. The genus Meleagris is the extant genus in the subfamily Meleagridinae, formerly known as the family Meleagrididae. There are two theories for the derivation of the turkey for this bird, according to Columbia University professor of Romance languages Mario Pei. The name of the North American bird thus became turkey fowl or Indian turkeys, the other theory arises from turkeys coming to England from the Americas via merchant ships from the Middle East where they were domesticated successfully. Again the importers lent the name to the bird, because these merchants were called Turkey merchants as much of the area was part of the Ottoman Empire, hence the name Turkey birds or, soon thereafter, turkeys. In 1550, the English navigator William Strickland, who had introduced the turkey into England, was granted a coat of arms including a turkey-cock in his pride proper, William Shakespeare used the term in Twelfth Night, believed to be written in 1601 or 1602. The lack of context around his usage suggests that the term had widespread reach, in many countries, the names for turkeys have different derivations. Ironically, many of these names incorporate an assumed Indian origin, such as diiq Hindi in Arabian countries, dinde in French, индюшка in Russia, indyk in Poland, and Hindi in Turkey. These are thought to arise from the thought that Christopher Columbus had originally believed that he had reached India rather than the Americas on his voyage, in Portuguese a turkey is a peru, the name is thought to derive from the eponymous country Perú. The anhinga is sometimes called a turkey, from the shape of its tail when the feathers are fully spread for drying. A number of turkeys have been described from fossils, the Meleagridinae are known from the Early Miocene onwards, with the extinct genera Rhegminornis and Proagriocharis. The former is probably a basal turkey, the other a more contemporary bird not very similar to known turkeys, a turkey fossil not assignable to genus but similar to Meleagris is known from the Late Miocene of Westmoreland County, Virginia. In the modern genus Meleagris, a number of species have been described, as turkey fossils are robust and fairly often found. Many of these supposed fossilized species are now considered junior synonyms, one, the well-documented California turkey Meleagris californica, became extinct recently enough to have been hunted by early human settlers
14.
Wild turkey
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The wild turkey is an upland ground bird native to North America and is the heaviest member of the diverse Galliformes. It is the species as the domestic turkey, which was originally derived from a southern Mexican subspecies of wild turkey. Although native to North America, the turkey probably got its name from the variety being imported to Britain in ships coming from the Levant via Spain. The British at the time therefore associated the turkey with the country Turkey. Adult wild turkeys have long reddish-yellow to grayish-green legs, the body feathers are generally blackish and dark, sometimes grey brown overall with a coppery sheen that becomes more complex in adult males. Adult males, called toms or gobblers, have a large, featherless, reddish head, red throat, the head has fleshy growths called caruncles. Juvenile males are called jakes, the difference between a male and a juvenile is that the jake has a very short beard. The adult males tail fan feathers will be all the same length. When males are excited, a flap on the bill expands, and this, the wattles. The long fleshy object over a males beak is called a snood, each foot has three toes in front, with a shorter, rear-facing toe in back, males have a spur behind each of their lower legs. Male turkeys have a long, dark, fan-shaped tail and glossy bronze wings, as with many other species of the Galliformes, turkeys exhibit strong sexual dimorphism. The male is larger than the female, and his feathers have areas of red, purple, green, copper, bronze. The preen gland is larger in male turkeys compared to female ones. In contrast to the majority of birds, they are colonized by bacteria of unknown function. Females, called hens, have feathers that are duller overall, in shades of brown, parasites can dull coloration of both sexes, in males, coloration may serve as a signal of health. The primary wing feathers have white bars, Turkeys have 5000 to 6000 feathers. Tail feathers are of the length in adults, different lengths in juveniles. Males typically have a beard, a tuft of hair growing from the center of the breast
15.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
16.
Quintana Roo
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Quintana Roo, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Quintana Roo, is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, make up the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It is divided into ten municipalities and its capital city is Chetumal and it is located in Southeastern Mexico, on the eastern part of the Yucatán Peninsula. Quintana Roo has a coastline to the east with the Caribbean Sea and it also claims territory which gives it a small border with Guatemala in the southwest of the state, although this disputed area is also claimed by Campeche. The Sian Kaan biosphere reserve is located in the state. The statewide population is expanding at a rapid rate due to the construction of hotels, many immigrants come from Yucatán, Campeche, Tabasco, and Veracruz. On February 1,2015, Quintana Roo officially adopted a new zone, Southeastern, which is five hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Reasons cited for the change include coordination of air travel, banking operations, and more daylight hours, the area that makes up modern Quintana Roo was long part of Yucatán, sharing its history. With the Caste War of Yucatán, which started in the 1840s, the independent Maya nation of Chan Santa Cruz was based on what is now the town of Felipe Carrillo Puerto. For decades it maintained independence, having separate trade and treaty relationships with British Honduras. Quintana Roo was made a territory of Mexico by decree of President Porfirio Díaz on November 24,1902 and it was named after an early patriot of the Mexican Republic, Andrés Quintana Roo. The Mexican army succeeded in defeating most of the Maya population of the region during the 1910s, in 1915 the area was again declared to be legally part of the state of Yucatán. Quintana Roo was granted statehood within the United Mexican States on October 8,1974 and it is the Mexican Republics youngest state. According to the Köppen climate classification, much of the state has a tropical wet, the mean annual temperature is 26 °C. The hottest months are April and August where the high is 33 °C while January is coldest month with an average low of 17 °C. Extreme temperatures can range from low of 10 °C in the coldest months to 36 °C in the hottest months, Quintana Roo averages 1,300 mm of precipitation per year, which falls throughout the year, though June to October are the wetter months. Hurricanes can occasionally hit the areas during the hurricane season. The State of Quintana Roo is divided into 11 municipalities, each headed by a municipal president, Quintana Roo ranks sixth among Mexican states according to the United Nations Human Development index. The Yucatán Peninsula is one of the most forested areas of the world in terms of mass per hectare
17.
Campeche
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Campeche, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Campeche, is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It has a coastline to the west with the Gulf of Mexico, the state capital, also called Campeche, was declared a World Heritage Site in 1997. The formation of the state began with the city, which was founded in 1540 as the Spanish began the conquest of the Yucatán Peninsula, during the colonial period, the city was a rich and important port, but declined after Mexico’s Independence. Campeche was part of the province of Yucatán but split off in the mid-19th century, today, much of the state’s economic comeback is due to the finding of petroleum offshore in the 1970s, which has made the coastal cities of Campeche and Ciudad del Carmen important economic centers. The state has important Mayan and colonial sites but they are not as well known or visited as others in the Yucatán. The states executive power rests in the governor of Campeche and the legislative power rests in the Congress of Campeche which is a legislature composed of 35 deputies. The state of Campeche is located in southeast Mexico, on the west side of the Yucatan Peninsula, the territory is 56,858. 84km2, which is 2. 6% of Mexico’s total. It borders the states of Yucatán, Quintana Roo and Tabasco, with the country of Belize to the east, Guatemala to the south and the Gulf of Mexico to the west. Politically, it is divided into municipalities, Calkiní, Calakmul, Campeche, Candelaria, Champotón, Ciudad del Carmen, Escárcega, Hecelchakán, Hopelchén, Palizada. Campeche is a flat area of Mexico with 523 km of shoreline on the Gulf of Mexico. Most of the surface is of sedimentary rock much of which is from marine origin, the area with the highest elevations is near the borders with Guatemala and Quintana Roo. Notable elevations include Cerro Champerico, Cerro los Chinos, Cerro El Ramonal, Cerro El Doce, however, these hills are separated by large expanses of lower flat land. In the south of the municipality of Champotón begin a series of rolling hills known as the Sierra Alta or Puuc and these have only an average altitude of between forty and sixty meters with some reaching 100 meters. There other areas of rolling hills, near the city of Campeche with main ones known as Maxtum, Boxol. Another set is called the Sierra Seybaplaya in the center of the state, away from the coast, these rainforests are interspersed with savannah areas and along the coast are accompanied by areas with sand dunes, mangrove wetlands and estuaries. Species that can be found in the various rainforests include huapaque, cedar, pukte, sapote, dyewood, dzalam and it also includes a number of precious tropical hardwoods such as red cedar, mahogany, ciricote and guayacán. Along the coastal areas, palms such as the coconut. The main wildlife species in the state are the jaguar, ocelot, puma, deer, wild boar, raccoon, hare, ring-tailed cat, there are many bird species including the chachalaca, ducks, quail, pelican, toucan, buzzard and many more
18.
Tabasco
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Tabasco, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Tabasco, is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 17 municipalities and its capital city is Villahermosa and it is located in the southeast of the country bordering the states of Campeche to the northeast, Veracruz to the west and Chiapas to the south, and the Petén department of Guatemala to the southeast. It has a coastline to the north with the Gulf of Mexico, most of the state is covered in rainforest as, unlike most other areas of Mexico, it has plentiful rainfall year round. For this reason, it is covered in small lakes, wetlands. The state is subject to flooding events, with the last occurring in 2007. The state is home to La Venta, the major site of the Olmec civilization. Even though it produces significant quantities of petroleum and natural gas, the state is located in the southeast of Mexico, bordering the states of Campeche, Chiapas and Veracruz with the Gulf of Mexico to the north and the country of Guatemala to the south and east. The state covers 24,731 square kilometres, which is 1. 3% of Mexicos total, the northwestern portion is on the coastal plain of the Gulf of Mexico with the south and east as part of the mountain chain that extends into northern Chiapas. It is divided into seventeen municipalities, there are 36 communities designated as urban with about 3,000 smaller towns and villages. 185 are classified as regional development centers, in 1994, the state was officially divided into two regions, five sub regions for socioeconomic development and geographic documentation. The two major regions are called the Grijalva and the Usumacinta, the Grijalva Region is named after the river on which most of the municipalities here are dependent. The Usumacinta Region is named after the river on which the Centla, Jonuta, Emiliano Zapata, Balancán. It is divided into the Pantanos and Ríos subregions, which are more rural than the Grijalva Region. The environment of the consists of extensive low lying floodplains, mountains. Most of the territory is covered with tropical rainforest and wetlands, there are also areas with savanna, beaches and mangrove forests. Much of the rainforest has suffered due to over logging. The east is formed by low humid plains formed by sediment deposited by a number of rivers, in the Chontalpa zone and in parts of the municipalities of Cental and Jonuta, there are swampy depressions extremely vulnerable to flooding from both river flow and from excessive rainfall. In the south there are some elevations which are part of the central mesa of Chiapas, the most important of these is El Madrigal, La Campana, La Corona, Pomaná, Coconá, Mono Pelado and El Tortuguero
19.
Chiapas
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Chiapas, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Chiapas, is one of the 31 states that, with the Federal District, make up the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It is divided into 122 municipalities and its capital city is Tuxtla Gutiérrez, other important population centers in Chiapas include Ocosingo, Tapachula, San Cristóbal de las Casas, Comitán and Arriaga. Chiapas has a coastline along the Pacific Ocean to the south, in general, Chiapas has a humid, tropical climate. In the north, in the area bordering Tabasco, near Teapa, in the past, natural vegetation at this region was lowland, tall perennial rainforest, but this vegetation has been destroyed almost completely to give way to agriculture and ranching. Rainfall decreases moving towards the Pacific Ocean, but it is abundant enough to allow the farming of bananas. Chiapas is home to the ancient Mayan ruins of Palenque, Yaxchilán, Bonampak and it is also home to one of the largest indigenous populations in the country with twelve federally recognized ethnicities. Much of the history is centered on the subjugation of these peoples with occasional rebellions. The last of these rebellions was the 1994 Zapatista uprising, which succeeded in obtaining new rights for indigenous people, the official name of the state is Chiapas. The name derives from Chiapan or Tepechiapan, the name of an indigenous population, the term, from Nahuatl, may mean sage seed hill or water below the hill. After the Spanish arrived, they established two cities called Chiapas de los Indios and Chiapas de los Españoles, with the name of Provincia de Chiapas for the area around the cities, the first coat of arms of the region dates from 1535 as that of the Ciudad Real. Chiapas painter Javier Vargas Ballinas designed the coat of arms. Hunter gatherers began to occupy the valley of the state around 7000 BCE. The oldest archaeological remains in the seat are located at the Santa Elena Ranch in Ocozocoautla whose finds include tools, in the pre Classic period from 1800 BCE to 300 CE, agricultural villages appeared all over the state although hunter gather groups would persist for long after the era. There is speculation that these were the forefathers of the Olmec, migrating across the Grijalva Valley and onto the plain of the Gulf of Mexico to the north. One of these peoples ancient cities is now the site of Chiapa de Corzo. This is three hundred years before the Mayans developed their calendar, the descendants of Mokaya are the Mixe-Zoque. During the pre Classic era, it is known that most of Chiapas was not Olmec, olmec-influenced sculpture can be found in Chiapas and products from the state including amber, magnetite, and ilmenite were exported to Olmec lands. The Olmecs came to what is now the northwest of the looking for amber with one of the main evidences for this called the Simojovel Ax
20.
Belize
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Belize, formerly British Honduras, is an independent country on the eastern coast of Central America. Belize is bordered on the north by Mexico, on the south and west by Guatemala and its mainland is about 290 km long and 110 km wide. Belize has an area of 22,800 square kilometres and a population of 368,310 and it has the lowest population density in Central America. The countrys population growth rate of 1. 87% per year is the second highest in the region, Belizes abundance of terrestrial and marine species and its diversity of ecosystems gives it a key place in the globally significant Mesoamerican Biological Corridor. Belize has a society, composed of many cultures and languages that reflect its rich history. English is the language of Belize, with Belizean Kriol being the unofficial language. Over half the population is multilingual, with Spanish being the second most common spoken language, Belize is considered a Central American and Caribbean nation with strong ties to both the Latin American and Caribbean regions. Belize is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, Belize is known for its September Celebrations, its extensive coral reefs, and punta music. The origin of the name Belize remains unclear, the earliest known record of the name appears in the journal of the Dominican priest Fray José Delgado, dating to 1677. Delgado recorded the names of three rivers that he crossed while travelling north along the Caribbean coast, Rio Soyte, Rio Xibum. The names of these waterways, which correspond to the Sittee River, Sibun River and it is likely that Delgados Balis was actually the Mayan word belix, meaning muddy-watered. Others have suggested that the name derives from a Spanish pronunciation of the name of the Scottish buccaneer Peter Wallace, there is no proof that Wallace settled in this area and some scholars have characterized this claim as a myth. Writers and historians have suggested other possible etymologies, including postulated French. Many aspects of this culture persist in the area despite nearly 500 years of European domination, prior to about 2500 BC, some hunting and foraging bands settled in small farming villages, they later domesticated crops such as corn, beans, squash, and chili peppers. A profusion of languages and subcultures developed within the Maya core culture, between about 2500 BC and 250 AD, the basic institutions of Maya civilisation emerged. The peak of this occurred during the classic period, which began about 250 AD. The Maya civilisation spread across what is now Belize around 1500 BC, the recorded history of the middle and southern regions is dominated by Caracol, an urban political centre that may have supported over 140,000 people. North of the Maya Mountains, the most important political centre was Lamanai, in the late Classic Era of Maya civilisation, as many as 1 million people may have lived in the area that is now Belize
21.
Guatemala
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With an estimated population of around 15.8 million, it is the most populated state in Central America. Guatemala is a democracy, its capital and largest city is Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción. The territory of modern Guatemala once formed the core of the Maya civilization, most of the country was conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century, becoming part of the viceroyalty of New Spain. Guatemala attained independence in 1821 as part of the Federal Republic of Central America, from the mid to late 19th century, Guatemala experienced chronic instability and civil strife. Beginning in the early 20th century, it was ruled by a series of dictators backed by the United Fruit Company, in 1944, authoritarian leader Jorge Ubico was overthrown by a pro-democratic military coup, initiating a decade-long revolution that led to sweeping social and economic reforms. A U. S. -backed military coup in 1954 ended the revolution, from 1960 to 1996, Guatemala endured a bloody civil war fought between the US-backed government and leftist rebels, including genocidal massacres of the Maya population perpetrated by the military. As of 2014, Guatemala ranks 31st of 33 Latin American and Caribbean countries in terms of the Human Development Index, Guatemalas abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems includes a large number of endemic species and contributes to Mesoamericas designation as a biodiversity hotspot. The country is known for its rich and distinct culture. The name Guatemala comes from the Nahuatl word Cuauhtēmallān, or place of many trees and this was the name the Tlaxcaltecan soldiers who accompanied Pedro de Alvarado during the Spanish Conquest gave to this territory. The first evidence of habitation in Guatemala dates back to 12,000 BC. Evidence, such as obsidian arrowheads found in parts of the country. There is archaeological proof that early Guatemalan settlers were hunters and gatherers, pollen samples from Petén and the Pacific coast indicate that maize cultivation had been developed by 3500 BC. Sites dating back to 6500 BC have been found in the Quiché region in the Highlands, archaeologists divide the pre-Columbian history of Mesoamerica into the Preclassic period, the Classic period, and the Postclassic period. Until recently, the Preclassic was regarded as a period, with small villages of farmers who lived in huts. This period is characterized by urbanisation, the emergence of independent city-states and this lasted until approximately 900 AD, when the Classic Maya civilization collapsed. The Maya abandoned many of the cities of the lowlands or were killed off by a drought-induced famine. The cause of the collapse is debated, but the Drought Theory is gaining currency, supported by such as lakebeds, ancient pollen. A series of prolonged droughts, among other such as overpopulation, in what is otherwise a seasonal desert is thought to have decimated the Maya
22.
Nicolas Huet the Younger
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Nicolas Huet the Younger, aka Nicolas Huet II or as Nicolas Huet le Jeune, was a French natural history illustrator, active 1788–1827. In 1792 he and his two brothers enlisted with the volunteers of Seine-et-Oise, he became a lieutenant and took part in the Battle of Jemappes and he also took part in Napoleon’s scientific and artistic exploration of Egypt between 1798 and 1801, subsequently illustrating the governments report. Huet was a skilled watercolourist and engraver, who acquired a reputation as natural history draughtsman and he also illustrated works by the naturalists Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Georges Cuvier. From 1823 until his death Huet was Professeur d’iconographie des animaux, lambert Frères published a number of his images, and these were engraved by his brother Jean Baptiste, who also engraved Nicolas’ depictions of mammals. He also illustrated l’Histoire naturelle des mollusques terrestres et fluviatiles, on the death of Gerard van Spaendonck in 1822, Nicolas and Pierre-Joseph Redouté took charge of the iconography course at the Muséum d’Histore Naturelle. Nicolas died on 26 December 1830 leaving no children, gallery Les Hüet, Jean Baptiste et ses trois fils - C
23.
Iridescence
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Iridescence is the phenomenon of certain surfaces that appear to gradually change colour as the angle of view or the angle of illumination changes. Examples of iridescence include soap bubbles, butterfly wings and sea shells and it is often created by structural coloration. The word iridescence is derived in part from the Greek word ἶρις îris, meaning rainbow, Iris in turn derives from the goddess Iris of Greek mythology, who is the personification of the rainbow and acted as a messenger of the gods. Goniochromism is derived from the Greek words gonia, meaning angle, iridescence is an optical phenomenon of surfaces in which hue changes with the angle of observation and the angle of illumination. It is often caused by reflections from two or more semi-transparent surfaces in which phase shift and interference of the reflections modulates the incidental light. The thickness of the layers of the material determines the interference pattern, iridescence is also found in plants, animals and many other items. The range of colours of natural iridescent objects can be narrow, iridescence can also be created by diffraction. This is found in items like CDs, DVDs, or cloud iridescence, in the case of diffraction, the entire rainbow of colours will typically be observed as the viewing angle changes. In biology, this type of results from the formation of diffraction gratings on the surface. In biological uses, colours produced other than with pigments or dyes are called structural coloration and it was later found that iridescence in the peacock is due to a complex photonic crystal. The feathers of birds such as kingfishers, Birds-of-paradise, hummingbirds, parrots, starlings, grackles, ducks, the lateral line on the Neon tetra is also iridescent. A single iridescent species of gecko, Cnemaspis kolhapurensis, was identified in India in 2009, the tapetum lucidum, present in the eyes of many vertebrates, is also iridescent. Many groups of plants have developed iridescence as an adaptation to use light in dark environments such as the lower levels of tropical forests. Nanocellulose is sometimes iridescent, as are films of gasoline and some other hydrocarbons. Iridescent products in the cosmetic and clothing industries are often referred as being holographic
24.
Covert feather
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A covert feather or tectrix on a bird is one of a set of feathers, called coverts, which, as the name implies, cover other feathers. The coverts help to smooth airflow over the wings and tail, the ear coverts are small feathers behind the birds eye which cover the ear opening The uppertail and undertail coverts cover the base of the tail feathers above and below. Sometimes these coverts are more specialised, the tail of a peacock is made of very elongated uppertail coverts. Within each group, the form a number of rows. The feathers of the outermost, largest, row are termed greater coverts, those in the row are the median coverts. The underwing has corresponding sets of coverts, in addition the front edge of the wing is covered with a group of feathers called the marginal coverts. Within each group of wing coverts, the rows of feathers overlap each other like roof tiles, mullarney, Killian, Svensson, Lars, Zetterstrom, Dan, Grant, Peter
25.
Comb (anatomy)
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A comb is a fleshy growth or crest on the top of the head of gallinaceous birds, such as turkeys, pheasants, and domestic chickens. Its alternative name cockscomb reflects that combs are generally larger on males than on females, chicken combs are most commonly red, but in other species the color may vary from light grey to deep blue or red, turkey combs can vary in color from bright red to blue. The comb may be an indicator of health or vigor and is used for mate-assessment in some poultry species. Comb shape varies depending on the breed or species of bird. The comb most often refers to chickens in which the most common shape is the comb of a rooster from breeds such as the Leghorn. Other common comb types are the comb or pea comb. Combs are used in cookery, often in combination with wattles or chicken kidneys, combs were formerly used in French cuisine as garnishes. In Italian cuisine, combs are an important ingredient in the sauce called Cibreo, which also includes chicken livers, wattles. It is used as a sauce for tagliatelle and in the molded potato-ricotta ring Cimabella con cibreo, combs are prepared by parboiling and skinning, then cooking in court-bouillon. Rooster combs are often served in Chinese dim sum style dishes, cockscomb cocks comb cocks-comb coxcomb Crest Dubbing - removal of the comb Larousse Gastronomique Snood Wattle
26.
Jaguar
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The jaguar is a big cat, a feline in the Panthera genus, and is the only extant Panthera species native to the Americas. The jaguar is the third-largest feline after the tiger and the lion, the jaguars present range extends from Southwestern United States and Mexico across much of Central America and south to Paraguay and northern Argentina. Apart from a known and possibly breeding population in Arizona and the bootheel of New Mexico and this spotted cat most closely resembles the leopard physically, although it is usually larger and of sturdier build and its behavioral and habitat characteristics are closer to those of the tiger. While dense rainforest is its habitat, the jaguar will range across a variety of forested. Its preferred habitats are swamps and wooded regions, but jaguars also live in scrublands. The jaguar is notable, along with the tiger, as a feline that enjoys swimming, the jaguar is largely a solitary, opportunistic, stalk-and-ambush predator at the top of the food chain. It is a species, playing an important role in stabilizing ecosystems. The jaguar has a powerful bite, even relative to the other big cats. This allows it to pierce the shells of armored reptiles and to employ an unusual killing method, the jaguar is a near threatened species and its numbers are declining. Threats include loss and fragmentation of habitat, while international trade in jaguars or their parts is prohibited, the cat is still frequently killed by humans, particularly in conflicts with ranchers and farmers in South America. Although reduced, its range remains large, given its historical distribution, the jaguar has featured prominently in the mythology of numerous indigenous American cultures, including those of the Maya and Aztec. The word jaguar comes to English from one of the Tupi–Guarani languages, presumably the Amazonian trade language Tupinambá, the Tupian word, yaguara beast, is sometimes translated as dog. The specific word for jaguar is yaguareté, with the suffix -eté meaning real or true, the first component of its taxonomic designation, Panthera, is Latin, from the Greek word for leopard, πάνθηρ, the type species for the genus. Onca is the Portuguese onça, with the cedilla dropped for reasons, found in English as ounce for the snow leopard. It derives from the Latin lyncea lynx, with the letter L confused with the definite article, the jaguar, Panthera onca, is the only extant New World member of the genus Panthera.8 million years ago. Phylogenetic studies generally have shown the clouded leopard is basal to this group, the position of the remaining species varies between studies and is effectively unresolved. Based on morphological evidence, British zoologist Reginald Pocock concluded the jaguar is most closely related to the leopard, however, DNA evidence is inconclusive and the position of the jaguar relative to the other species varies between studies. Fossils of extinct Panthera species, such as the European jaguar, analysis of jaguar mitochondrial DNA has dated the species lineage to between 280,000 and 510,000 years ago, later than suggested by fossil records
27.
Precocial
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In biology, precocial species are those in which the young are relatively mature and mobile from the moment of birth or hatching. The opposite developmental strategy is called altricial where the young are born or hatched helpless and these categories form a continuum, without distinct gaps between them. Precocial species are normally nidifugous, meaning that they leave the nest shortly after birth or hatching, the span between precocial and altricial species is particularly broad in birds. Precocial birds hatch with their eyes open and are covered with feathers that are soon replaced by adult-type feathers. Birds of this kind can also swim and run much sooner after hatching than altricial young, very precocial birds can be ready to leave the nest in a short period of time following hatching. Many precocial chicks are not independent in thermoregulation, and they depend on the parent to brood them with body heat for a short period of time. Precocial birds find their own food, sometimes help or instruction from the parents. Examples of precocial birds include the chicken, many species of ducks and geese, waders, rails. Precociality is found in other animal groups. Familiar examples of mammals are most ungulates, the guinea pig. This last example demonstrates that precociality is not a particularly characteristic, in the evolutionary sense. The phenomenon of imprinting studied by Konrad Lorenz is characteristic of precocial birds, extremely precocial species are called superprecocial. Examples are the Megapode birds, which have full flight feathers, another example is the Blue Wildebeest, whose calves can stand within an average of six minutes from birth and walk within thirty minutes, they can outrun a hyena within a day. Such behavior gives them an advantage over other species, they are 100 times more abundant in the Serengeti ecosystem than hartebeests. They are unable to keep up with their mothers until they are more than a week old, the word precocial is derived from the same root as precocious, implying in both cases early maturity. Precociality is thought to be ancestral in birds, thus, altricial birds tend to be found in the most derived groups. There is some evidence for precociality in Protobirds and Troodontids, precocious puberty Parental investment Starck J. M. Ricklefs R. E. Patterns of Development, The Altricial - Precocial Spectrum. Oxford University Press, New York, NY,1998
28.
BirdLife International
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It is the worlds largest partnership of conservation organisations, with over 120 partner organisations. BirdLife International was founded as in 1922 the International Council for Bird Preservation by American ornithologists T. Gilbert Pearson and it changed its name in 1993 to BirdLife International. In addition to the programmes, there are global programmes. Together these programmes help the partnership to focus and work on common priorities and they provide the framework for planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating conservation work. BirdLife International publishes a magazine, World Birdwatch, which contains recent news and authoritative articles about birds, their habitats. BirdLife International is the official Red List authority for birds, for the International Union for Conservation of Nature, in the 2012 assessment,1,313 species of birds are considered threatened with extinction. This represents 13% of the 10,064 extant bird species in the world
29.
International Union for Conservation of Nature
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The International Union for Conservation of Nature is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying. IUCNs mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of resources is equitable. Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to equality, poverty alleviation. Unlike other international NGOs, IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation and it tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice, and through lobbying and partnerships. The organization is best known to the public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List. IUCN has a membership of over 1200 governmental and non-governmental organizations, some 11,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs approximately 1000 full-time staff in more than 60 countries and its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland. IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, and plays a role in the implementation of several conventions on nature conservation. It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature, in the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its relations with the business sector have caused controversy. It was previously called the International Union for Protection of Nature, establishment In 1947, the Swiss League for the Protection of Nature organised an international conference on the protection of nature in Brunnen. It is considered to be the first government-organized non-governmental organization, the initiative to set up the new organisation came from UNESCO and especially from its first Director General, the British biologist Julian Huxley. At the time of its founding IUPN was the international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation Early years. Its secretariat was located in Brussels and its first work program focused on saving species and habitats, increasing and applying knowledge, advancing education, promoting international agreements and promoting conservation. Providing a solid base for conservation action was the heart of all activities. IUPN and UNESCO were closely associated and they jointly organized the 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature. In preparation for this conference a list of endangered species was drawn up for the first time
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Phasianinae
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The Phasianinae are a subfamily of the pheasant family of landfowl, the order Galliformes. The subfamily includes pheasants, tragopans, junglefowl, peafowl, for example, some partridges are more closely affiliated to pheasants, whereas Old World quails and partridges from the genus Alectoris are closer to junglefowls. Phasianinae are characterised by sexual dimorphism, males being highly ornate with bright colours and adornments such as wattles. Males are usually larger than females and have longer tails, males play no part in rearing the young. They typically eat seeds and some insects and this list is ordered to show presumed relationships between species
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Pheasant
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Pheasants are birds of several genera within the subfamily Phasianinae, of the family Phasianidae in the order Galliformes. The familys native range is restricted to Asia, Pheasants are characterised by strong sexual dimorphism, males being highly decorated with bright colors and adornments such as wattles. Males are usually larger than females and have longer tails, males play no part in rearing the young. Pheasants typically eat seeds and some insects, the best-known is the common pheasant, which is widespread throughout the world in introduced feral populations and in farm operations. Various other pheasant species are popular in aviaries, such as the golden pheasant and this list is ordered to show presumed relationships between species. Madge and McGowan, Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse ISBN 0-7136-3966-0 Videos of pheasants in the Internet Bird Collection
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Congo peafowl
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The Congo peafowl, known as the mbulu by the Congolese, is a species of peafowl native to the Congo Basin. It is one of three extant species of peafowl, the two being the Indian peafowl and the green peafowl. Very little is known about this species and it was only recorded as a species in 1936 by Dr. James Chapin after his failed search for the elusive okapi. Dr. Chapin noticed that the native Congolese headdresses contained long reddish-brown feathers that he couldnt identify with any known species of bird. In 1955 Chapin managed to find seven specimens of the species, the Congo peacock has physical characteristics of both the peafowl and the guineafowl, which may indicate that the Congo peacock is a link between the two families. The male of species is a large bird of up to 64–70 cm in length. Though much less impressive than its Asiatic cousins, the feathers are nevertheless deep blue with a metallic green. It has bare red skin, grey feet, and a black tail with fourteen tail feathers. Its crown is adorned with vertical white elongated hair-like feathers, the female measures up to 60–63 centimetres in length and is generally a chestnut brown bird with a black abdomen, metallic green back, and a short chestnut brown crest. Both sexes resemble immature Asian peafowl, with stuffed birds being erroneously classified as such before they were officially designated as members of a unique species. Like members of the Pavo genus, the Congo peafowl are omnivores with a diet consisting mainly of fruits and insects. The male has a display to that of other species of peafowl. The Congo peafowl is monogamous, though detailed mating information from the wild is still needed, the peacock of the species has a high-pitched gowe calling noise while the peahen emits a low gowah. They have loud duets consisting of rro-ho-ho-o-a from both sexes, the Congo peafowl inhabits and is endemic to the Central Congolian lowland forests of the Democratic Republic of the Congo where it has also been as designated the national bird. Due to ongoing habitat loss, small size, and hunting pressure in some areas. As of 2013 their population in the wild was estimated to be between 2,500 and 9,000 individual adults, the Antwerp Zoo in Belgium and another at the Salonga National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo have started captive breeding programs. Green peafowl Indian peafowl Images and movies of the Congo Peacock — ARKive BirdLife Species Factsheet Congo Peacock —gbwf. org Kimball, R. T, Braun, resolution of the phylogenetic position of the Congo Peafowl, Afropavo congensis, a biogeographic and evolutionary enigma
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Great argus
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The great argus is a species of pheasant. The scientific name of the Great Argus was given by Carl Linnaeus in reference to the many eyes-like pattern on its wings, Argus is a hundred-eyed giant in Greek mythology. There are two subspecies recognized, Nominate argus of the Malay peninsula and Sumatra, and A. a. grayi of Borneo, william Beebe considered the two races to be distinct species, but they have since been lumped. The double-banded argus, Argusianus bipunctatus, was considered a potential second species. Pheasant which is only from the portion of a single primary flight feather. It was described in 1871 from this piece, found in a millinery shipment imported to London. Its origin was hypothesized to be from Java, Indonesia or Tioman Island of Malaysia, parkes vehemently rejected the species validity and argued that the double-banded argus almost certainly represents a mutant form of the great argus. The IUCN, following the principle, listed this taxon as extinct until 2012. It was removed from the IUCN Red list because the IOC has removed this species from its list of bird taxa in 2011. The shaft is thinner than usual and the feather would probably not have been useful for flight. Nothing similar has come to notice ever since, and as the piece is not a composite of two feather halves glued together but a natural specimen, a hoax or fake can be ruled out. The feather is now housed in the British Natural History Museum, the great argus is a brown-plumaged pheasant with a blue head and neck, rufous red upper breast, black hair-like feathers on crown and nape, and red legs. The male is among the largest of all pheasants and he measures 160–200 cm in total length, including a tail of 105–143 cm, and weighs 2. 04–2.72 kg. It has very long tail feathers, the males most spectacular features are its huge, broad and greatly elongated secondary wing feathers decorated with large ocelli. The female is smaller and duller than the male, with shorter tails and she measures 72–76 cm in total length, including a tail of 30–36 cm, and weighs 1. 59–1.7 kg. Young males attain adult plumage in their third year, though the great argus is not as colorful as other pheasants, its display surely ranks among the most remarkable. The male clears an open spot in the forest and prepares a dancing ground, despite displays similar to polygamous birds and though the great argus is thought to be polygamous in the wild, it is actually monogamous. It feeds on forest floor in early morning and evening, unusual among Galliformes, the great argus has no oil gland and the hen lays only two eggs
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Cheer pheasant
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The cheer pheasant, also known as Wallichs pheasant is a vulnerable species of the pheasant family, Phasianidae. It is the member in monotypic genus Catreus. The scientific name commemorates the Danish botanist Nathaniel Wallich and these birds lack the color and brilliance of most pheasants, with buffy gray plumage and long gray crests. Its long tail has 18 feathers and the tail feathers are much longer. The female is smaller in overall size. They breed on cliffs during summer with a clutch of 10 to 11 eggs. In studies conducted in upper Beas Valley, cheer pheasant was found to be sensitive to human disturbance, the cheer pheasant is distributed in the highlands and scrublands of the Himalayas region of India, Nepal, Kashmir and Pakistan. They are found mainly in the west of Nepal, Kumaon, Garhwal, Tehri Garhwal, Simla States, Bussahir, Kullu, surveys in 1981 and 2003 in the Dhorpatan area of western Nepal established 70 calling sites, suggesting substantial numbers exist in this area. In another survey in 2010, cheer pheasant was detected in 21 calling sites in Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh and they are found mainly above 6000 feet altitude and up to 10000 feet in summer. Due to ongoing habitat loss, small size and hunting in some areas. It is listed on Appendix I of CITES, attempts to reintroduce captive-bred cheer pheasants in Pakistan have been unsuccessful. ARKive - images and movies of the Cheer Pheasant BirdLife Species Factsheet
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Chrysolophus
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Chrysolophus is a genus of the pheasant family of birds. The genus name is from Ancient Greek khrusolophos, with golden crest and these are species which have spectacularly plumaged males. The golden pheasant is native to western China, and Lady Amhersts pheasant to Tibet and westernmost China, in places where self-supporting feral populations have become established, such as England, the two species will interbreed to produce hybrids. Despite the males showy appearance, these birds are difficult to see in their natural habitat. Consequently, little is known of their behaviour in the wild and they feed on the ground on grain, leaves and invertebrates, but roost in trees at night. Whilst they can fly, they prefer to run, but if startled they can suddenly burst upwards at great speed, with a distinctive wing sound
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Lady Amherst's pheasant
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The Lady Amhersts pheasant is a bird of the order Galliformes and the family Phasianidae. The genus name is from Ancient Greek khrusolophos, with golden crest, however since late 2015 the species has been believed to be extinct in the wild in Great Britain with no confirmed sightings since March 2015. The adult male is 100–120 cm in length, its accounting for 80 cm of the total length. It is unmistakable with its nuchal cape white black, with a red crest, the long grey tail and rump is red, blue, dark green, white and yellow plumage. The cape can be raised in display and this species is closely related to the golden pheasant, but has a yellow eye, blue-green bare skin around it. The bill is horn-coloured and they had blue-gray legs, the female is much less showy, with a duller mottled brown plumage all over, similar to that of the female common pheasant but with finer barring. She is very like the golden pheasant, but has a darker head. Despite the males showy appearance, these birds are difficult to see in their natural habitat. Consequently, little is known of their behaviour in the wild and they feed on the ground on grain, leaves and invertebrates, but roost in trees at night. Whilst they can fly, they prefer to run, but if startled they can suddenly burst upwards at great speed, the male has a gruff call in the breeding season. Widespread throughout its range, the Lady Amhersts pheasant is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Included here is a closely related breed introduced to Britain in 19th century as Reevess pheasant. Neither the Reeves nor the similar Silver pheasant have Lady Amhersts very distinctive red cap, the Natural History of the British Isles. The Pocket Guide of British Birds
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Golden pheasant
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The golden pheasant or Chinese pheasant is a gamebird of the order Galliformes and the family Phasianidae. The genus name is from Ancient Greek khrusolophos, with golden crest, in England they may be found in East Anglia in the dense forest landscape of the Breckland as well as Tresco on the Isles of Scilly. The adult male is 90–105 cm in length, its accounting for two-thirds of the total length. It is unmistakable with its golden crest and rump and bright red body, the deep orange cape can be spread in display, appearing as an alternating black and orange fan that covers all of the face except its bright yellow eye with a pinpoint black pupil. Males have a golden-yellow crest with a hint of red at the tip, the face, throat, chin, and the sides of neck are rusty tan. The wattles and orbital skin are yellow in colour, and the ruff or cape is light orange. The upper back is green and the rest of the back, the tertiaries are blue whereas the scapulars are dark red. Other characteristics of the plumage are the central tail feathers, black spotted with cinnamon. The upper tail coverts are the colour as the central tail feathers. The male also has a scarlet breast, and scarlet and light chestnut flanks, lower legs and feet are a dull yellow. The female is less showy, with a duller mottled brown plumage similar to that of the female common pheasant. She is darker and more slender than the hen of that species, the females breast and sides are barred buff and blackish brown, and the abdomen is plain buff. She has a face and throat. Some abnormal females may later in their lifetime get some male plumage, lower legs and feet are a dull yellow. Both males and females have yellow legs and yellow bills, despite the males showy appearance, these hardy birds are very difficult to see in their natural habitat, which is dense, dark young conifer forests with sparse undergrowth. Consequently, little is known about their behaviour in the wild and they feed on the ground on grain, leaves and invertebrates, but they roost in trees at night. While they can fly clumsily in short bursts, they prefer to run, if startled, they can suddenly burst upwards at great speed and with a distinctive wing sound. Golden pheasants lay 8-12 eggs at a time and will then incubate these for around 22–23 days and they tend to eat berries, grubs, seeds and other types of vegetation
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Blue eared pheasant
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Its tail of twenty-four elongated bluish grey feathers is curved, loose and dark-tipped. Both sexes are similar with slightly larger male, the blue eared pheasant is found throughout mountain forests of central China. The diet consists mainly of berries and vegetable matter, one of the most common and numerous eared pheasants, the blue eared pheasant is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. List of endangered and protected species of China BirdLife Species Factsheet
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White eared pheasant
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White eared pheasants are a species of eared pheasants that get their name because they are white and have the prominent ear tufts of the genus, not because they have white ears. The indigenous people of Himalaya call them shagga, meaning snow fowl and these gregarious birds live in large flocks, foraging on alpine meadows close to or above the snowline throughout the year. C. crossoptilon are found in China, Qinghai, Sichuan, Yunnan and Tibet, white eared pheasants tend to fly a great deal more than their close relatives, such as the Brown eared pheasant and the blue eared pheasant. All three ecological species are capable of hovering or volplaning over deep snow and they do this with the aid of their great, wide tails. Eared pheasants move across deep snow by whirring their wings and fluttering close to the ground, eared pheasant flight was often described as poor by the hunter collectors of the 18th century who used dogs to flush the birds from the ground for shooting. Eared pheasants do not waste their energy on flying when quadrupeds prey on them because they have adapted many defensive escape behaviors that do not require flight. They have an aptitude for sustained flight—movements that only take them a few hundred yards at a time. Characteristic of these species and C. crossoptilon is the lack of a prominent tailing wing notch, C. crossoptilon forage for tubers and roots in alpine meadows often in the company of yaks or other hoof stock. In winter, white eared pheasants subsist on pine needles, juniper berries, wolf berries, when hard pressed during the most severe winter storms which may blow for weeks at a time, eared pheasants may subsist upon pine pitch and deer, rabbit and yak dung. The Szechuan white eared pheasant, is a bird native to the Szechuan region of China. It is a subspecies of white eared pheasant and this form inhabits high altitudes along exposed rockscapes and may descend to old growth forests in winter. Its wings are dark-grey or violet and it has black tail feathers and wingtips and as well as a patch of black at the top of its head. The primary feathers range from grey to brown. The part of its not covered by feathers has red skin. The Szechuan white eared pheasant will not mate until it is two years old, then it will go into a heated breeding frenzy around the end of April, the breeding will last until June and these pheasants will produce about 4 to 7 eggs per clutch. The incubation period for their eggs is 24–25 days, although there is not much sexual dimorphism among the Szechuan white eared pheasant, the cocks are considerably larger than the hens. It can reach a length of 86–96 cm long and weighs 1400–2050 g for females, Szechuan white eared pheasants have now become a near threatened species. Human development and encroaching on its habitat in agricultural China has reduced the range of the species and it is estimated that 10, 000-50,000 individuals exist in the wild today
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Tibetan eared pheasant
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The Tibetan eared pheasant, also called Elwes eared pheasant, is a species of bird in the family Phasianidae. It is found in southeast Tibet and adjacent northern India, usually 3,000 and 5,000 m elevation, but has been seen down to 2,280 m in winter. Its natural habitats are boreal and temperate forests, seen in bushy and grassy clearings, rhododendron thickets, and tall dense scrub in valleys, this bird is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. They form monogamous pair bonds in the spring, the eggs are laid from May to July, and incubated by the female. The Tibetan eared pheasant grows to a length of between 75 and 85 cm, with females being smaller than males. The beak is reddish-brown, the irises yellowish-orange and the facial skin is red. The head is topped with a crown of black, dense feathers, on either side of which are short. The rest of the head and nape, and a thin collar are white. The rest of the body, wings and tail are bluish-grey, the wings are blackish-brown and the tail bluish-black. The range is restricted to Tibet, northern India and northern Bhutan and its typical habitat is dense scrubby areas in river valleys, grassy hillsides and the verges of both coniferous and deciduous woodland. Although sometimes found at elevations as low as 2,400 m and this pheasant usually forms groups of up to ten individuals. It feeds on the ground, foraging through the plant debris and grasses near woodland edges and among the rhododendron, in areas where it is hunted it may be elusive, retreating into the undergrowth or flying off downhill when scared, but where unmolested it can be quite bold. The birds are believed to be monogamous, with breeding taking place between May and July, one nest was discovered under a fallen tree trunk, it was made from bark and pulp with a mossy lining. The female seems to be responsible for incubating the eggs. C. harmani is rated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being a near-threatened species and this is because its natural habitat is being cleared and in many areas the birds are hunted. Another factor in the decline of the population is a reduction in the number of suitable places for roosting
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Brown eared pheasant
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The brown eared pheasant is a large, 96–100 cm long, dark brown pheasant endemic to the mountain forests of northern China. It has stiff white ear coverts behind the eyes, which look like a moustache, the crown is black with red bare facial skin and its tail of twenty-two elongated white feathers is curved, loose and dark-tipped. Both sexes are similar in plumage, the rarest member in the genus Crossoptilon, its diet consists mainly of roots, bulbs and plant matters. The female lays five to eight large eggs, the eggs are pale stone green in color and take 28 days to hatch. Due to isolated population, deforestation and still hunted although legally protected by China and it is listed on Appendix I of CITES. List of endangered and protected species of China BirdLife Species Factsheet Red Data Book
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Blood pheasant
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The blood pheasant is the only species in genus Ithaginis of the pheasant family. This relatively small, short-tailed pheasant is widespread and fairly common in eastern Himalayas, ranging across India, Nepal, Bhutan, since the trend of the population appears to be slowly decreasing, the species has been evaluated as Least Concern by IUCN in 2009. The blood pheasant is the bird of the Indian state of Sikkim. Blood pheasants have the size of a fowl, about 17 in in length with a short convex, very strong black bill. The tail consists of twelve sub-equal feathers, shafts white, rounded, the ends whitish, both males and females have red feet and a distinct ring of bare skin around the eye that typically is crimson colored, but is orange in a few subspecies. Females are more uniformly colored, being overall dull brown and often with some gray to the nape, although some of the subspecies that have been described are highly distinctive, others are not, and some variation appears to be clinal. Consequently, the number of subspecies is disputed, with various authorities recognizing between 11 and 15. They mainly vary in the plumage of the males, especially the amount of red or black to the throat, forehead, neck, chest and tail, and they move their range depending on the seasons, and are found at higher elevations during the summer. With snow increasing in fall and winter they move to lower elevations
