1.
Oculus VR
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Oculus VR is an American technology company founded by Palmer Luckey in June 2012 in Irvine, California, now based in Menlo Park. It specializes in virtual reality hardware and software products, the campaign proved successful and raised $2.4 Million, ten times the original goal of $250,000. Two pre-production models were released to developers, the Oculus DK1, the consumer product was released on March 28,2016 with an all-new design incorporating specialized VR displays, positional audio, and infrared tracking system. In March 2014, Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg agreed to acquire Oculus for US$2,300,000,000 in cash, the company also partnered with Samsung to develop the Samsung Gear VR in November 2015, for the Samsung Galaxy models. Through MTBSs forums, Palmer developed the idea of creating a new head-mounted display that was more effective than what is currently on the market, and inexpensive for gamers. To develop the new product, Luckey founded Oculus VR with Scaleform co-founders Brendan Iribe and Michael Antonov, engineer Jack McCauley, Nate Mitchell, coincidentally, John Carmack of id Software had been doing his own research on HMDs and happened upon Palmers developments as a fellow MTBS member. During the convention, Carmack introduced a duct taped head-mounted display based on Palmers Oculus Rift prototype, Carmack later left id Software as he was hired as Oculus VRs Chief technology officer. Following the demonstration of the Oculus Rift prototype at E3 in June 2012, on August 1,2012, the company announced a Kickstarter campaign to further develop the product. Oculus announced that the dev kit version of the Oculus Rift would be given as a reward to backers who pledged $300 or more on Kickstarter, there was also a limited run of 100 unassembled Rift prototype kits for pledges over $275 that would ship a month earlier. On December 12,2013, Marc Andreessen joined the board when his firm, Andreessen Horowitz. In total, Oculus VR has raised $91 million with $2.4 million raised via crowdfunding. The deal includes $400 million in cash and 23.1 million common shares of Facebook, valued at $1.6 billion and this move was ridiculed by some backers who felt the acquisition was counter to the independent ideology of crowdfunding. Many Kickstarter backers and game industry figures, such as Minecraft developer Markus Persson, on March 28,2014, it was announced that Michael Abrash had joined the company as Chief Scientist. As of January 2015, the Oculus VR Headquarters has been moved from Irvine, California to Menlo Park, California, Oculus has stated that this move is for their employees to be closer to Silicon Valley. In 2014, Oculus VR founded Oculus Story Studio to pioneer content creation for VR cinema, the studio is led by Creative Director Saschka Unseld, a six year veteran of Pixar. The studio was first launched publicly at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival, in 2014, Samsung partnered with Oculus to develop the Gear VR, after the success of the, in-development, Rift. During the course of 2014-15, two Innovator Editions, in-development versions of the Gear VR mainly sold to developers for sole research and understanding, were developed, manufactured, the devices that the Innovator Editions used were the Note 4, Galaxy S6, and Galaxy S6 Edge. On 20 November 2015, the edition of the Gear VR was released to the public
2.
Virtual reality headset
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A virtual reality headset provides virtual reality for the wearer. VR headsets are used with computer games but they are also used in other applications. They comprise a stereoscopic head-mounted display, stereo sound, and head motion tracking sensors, some VR headsets also have eye tracking sensors and gaming controllers. An early VR headset, the Forte VFX1, was announced at CES in 1994, the VFX-1 has stereoscopic displays, 3-axis head-tracking, and stereo headphones. These VR headsets gave MechWarrior 2 players a new perspective of seeing the battlefield from inside the cockpit of their craft. However, these early headsets failed commercially due to their technology and were described by John Carmack as like looking through toilet paper tubes. In 2012, a campaign began for a VR headset known as Oculus Rift. In March 2014, the parent company Oculus VR was acquired by Facebook for US$2 billion. The final consumer-oriented release of Oculus Rift began shipping on 28 March 2016, in March 2014, Sony demonstrated a prototype headset for PlayStation 4, which was later named PlayStation VR. The Vive was released in April 2016 and PlayStation VR in October 2016, virtual reality headsets and viewers have also been designed for smartphones. Unlike headsets with integrated displays, these units are essentially enclosures which a smartphone can be inserted into, VR content is viewed from the screen of the device itself through lenses acting as a stereoscope, rather than using dedicated internal displays. Samsung Electronics parterned with Oculus VR to co-develop the Samsung Gear VR, virtual reality headsets have significantly higher requirements for latency—the time it takes from a change in input to have a visual effect—than ordinary video games. If the system is too sluggish to react to movement, then it can cause the user to experience virtual reality sickness. According to a Valve engineer, the ideal latency would be 7-15 milliseconds, a major component of this latency is the refresh rate of the display, which has driven the adoption of displays with a refresh rate from 90 Hz to 120 Hz. The graphics processing unit also needs to be powerful to render frames more frequently. Oculus cited the limited processing power of Xbox One and PlayStation 4 as the reason why they are targeting the PC gaming market with their first devices and this is called asynchronous reprojection or asynchronous time warp in Oculus jargon. PlayStation VR synthesizes in-between frames in such manner, so games that render at 60 fps natively result in 120 updates per second, steamVR will also use interleaved reprojection for games that cannot keep up with its 90 Hz refresh rate, dropping down to 45 fps. The simplest technique is applying only projective transformation to the images for each eye, the downsides are that this approach cannot take into account the translation of the head
3.
PenTile matrix family
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PenTile matrix is a family of patented subpixel matrix schemes used in electronic device displays. PenTile is a trademark of Samsung, PenTile matrices are used in AMOLED displays. PenTile Matrix describes the layout of the prototypical subpixel arrangement developed in the early 1990s. The layout consists of a quincunx comprising two red subpixels, two green subpixels, and one central blue subpixel in each unit cell. It was inspired by biomimicry of the retina which has nearly equal numbers of L and M type cone cells. This layout is designed to work with and be dependent upon subpixel rendering that uses only one. That is, that any given input pixel is mapped to either a red-centered logical pixel, PenTile was invented by Candice H. Brown Elliott, for which she was awarded the Society for Information Displays Otto Schade Prize in 2014. In March 2008, Samsung Electronics acquired Clairvoyantes PenTile IP assets, Samsung then funded a new company, Nouvoyance, Inc. to continue development of the PenTile technology. PenTile RGBG layout used in AMOLED and plasma displays uses green pixels interleaved with alternating red, the human eye is most sensitive to green, especially for high resolution luminance information. The green subpixels are mapped to input pixels on a one-to-one basis, the red and blue subpixels are subsampled, reconstructing the chroma signal at a lower resolution. The red and blue subpixels are capable of reconstructing the horizontal and vertical spatial frequencies, diagonal high spatial frequency information in the red and blue channels of the input image are transferred to the green subpixels for image reconstruction. Thus the RG-BG scheme creates a color display with one third fewer subpixels than a traditional RGB-RGB scheme and this is similar to the Bayer filter commonly used in digital cameras. This makes it possible to produce a brighter image compared to an RGB-matrix while using the amount of power. Combined, this optimizes the match of display technology to the mechanisms of human vision. Metamer rendering optimizes the energy distribution between the white subpixel and the red, green, and blue subpixels, W <> RGB. The display driver chip has an RGB to RGBW color vector space converter and gamut mapping algorithm, followed by metamer, when the image has very bright saturated colors, the backlight brightness is maintained at higher levels. The PenTile RGBW also has a high brightness mode that doubles the brightness of the desaturated color image areas, such as black&white text. Motorola MC65 Motorola ES55 Motorola ES400 Motorola Atrix 4G Samsung Galaxy Note 10, one school holds that resolution is defined by the number of red, green, and blue subpixels, in groups of three, in an array in each axis
4.
OLED
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An organic light-emitting diode is a light-emitting diode in which the emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound that emits light in response to an electric current. This layer of organic semiconductor is situated between two electrodes, typically, at least one of these electrodes is transparent, OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens, computer monitors, portable systems such as mobile phones, handheld game consoles and PDAs. A major area of research is the development of white OLED devices for use in lighting applications. There are two families of OLED, those based on small molecules and those employing polymers. Adding mobile ions to an OLED creates an electrochemical cell which has a slightly different mode of operation. OLED displays can use either passive-matrix or active-matrix addressing schemes, an OLED display works without a backlight, thus, it can display deep black levels and can be thinner and lighter than a liquid crystal display. In low ambient light conditions, an OLED screen can achieve a higher contrast ratio than an LCD, andré Bernanose and co-workers at the Nancy-Université in France made the first observations of electroluminescence in organic materials in the early 1950s. They applied high alternating voltages in air to such as acridine orange. The proposed mechanism was either direct excitation of the dye molecules or excitation of electrons, in 1960 Martin Pope and some of his co-workers at New York University developed ohmic dark-injecting electrode contacts to organic crystals. They further described the energetic requirements for hole and electron injecting electrode contacts. These contacts are the basis of charge injection in all modern OLED devices, the proposed mechanism was field-accelerated electron excitation of molecular fluorescence. Also in 1965, W. Helfrich and W. G and their proposed mechanism involved electronic excitation at the contacts between the graphite particles and the anthracene molecules. Roger Partridge made the first observation of electroluminescence from polymer films at the National Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom, the device consisted of a film of poly up to 2.2 micrometers thick located between two charge injecting electrodes. The results of the project were patented in 1975 and published in 1983, hong Kong-born American physical chemist Ching W. Tang and his co-worker Steven Van Slyke at Eastman Kodak built the first practical OLED device in 1987. This was a revolution for the technology, Universal Display Corporation holds the majority of patents concerning the commercialization of OLEDs. A typical OLED is composed of a layer of organic materials situated between two electrodes, the anode and cathode, all deposited on a substrate, the organic molecules are electrically conductive as a result of delocalization of pi electrons caused by conjugation over part or all of the molecule. These materials have conductivity ranging from insulators to conductors, and are therefore considered organic semiconductors. The highest occupied and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals of organic semiconductors are analogous to the valence, originally, the most basic polymer OLEDs consisted of a single organic layer
5.
3D audio effect
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3D audio effects are a group of sound effects that manipulate the sound produced by stereo speakers, surround-sound speakers, speaker-arrays, or headphones. This frequently involves the placement of sound sources anywhere in three-dimensional space, including behind. 3-D audio is the spatial domain convolution of sound waves using Head-related transfer functions and it is the phenomenon of transforming sound waves to mimic natural sounds waves, which emanate from a point in a 3-D space. Using head-related transfer functions and reverberation, the changes of sound on its way from the source to the ear can be simulated. These effects include localization of sound sources behind, above and below the listener, some 3D technologies also convert binaural recordings to stereo recordings. MorrowSoundTrue3D converts binaural, stereo,5.1 and other formats to 8.1 single and multiple zone 3D sound experiences in realtime, 3D Positional Audio effects emerged in the 1990s in PC and Game Consoles. 3D audio techniques have also incorporated in music and video-game style music video arts. The Audioscape research project, provides musicians with a real-time 3D audiovisual content authoring and rendering environment, a site with animations and theory of a system using HRTFs to create 3D Audio, ISVR Virtual Acoustics. True representation of the level for 3D loudspeaker reproduction become possible by the Ambisonics and Wave field synthesis Principle, MorrowSound True3D. Some amusement parks have created attractions based around the principles of 3-D audio, at Disneys Hollywood Studios at the Walt Disney World Resort in Florida. Guests wear special earphones as they watch a film starring comedian Drew Carey. At a point in the film, the screen goes dark while a 3-D audio sound-track immerses the guests in the ongoing story, to ensure that the effect is heard properly, the earphone covers are color-coded to indicate how they should be worn. This is not an effect but a binaural recording. These range from single 8.1 to 64.3 True3D installations, nick Caves novel The Death of Bunny Munro was recorded in audiobook format using 3D audio. The song Propeller Seeds by English artist Imogen Heap was recorded using 3d audio, there has been developments in using 3D audio for DJ performances including the worlds first Dolby Atmos event on 23rd Jan 2016 held at Ministry of Sound, London. The event was a showcase of a 3D audio DJ set performed by Hospital Records owner Tony Colman aka London Elektricity
6.
Six degrees of freedom
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Six degrees of freedom refers to the freedom of movement of a rigid body in three-dimensional space. Serial and parallel manipulator systems are designed to position an end-effector with six degrees of freedom. This provides a relationship between actuator positions and the configuration of the manipulator defined by its forward and inverse kinematics. Robot arms are described by their degrees of freedom and this number typically refers to the number of single-axis rotational joints in the arm, where higher number indicates an increased flexibility in positioning a tool. This is a metric, in contrast to the abstract definition of degrees of freedom which measures the aggregate positioning capability of a system. In 2007, Dean Kamen, inventor of the Segway, unveiled a prototype robotic arm with 14 degrees of freedom for DARPA. Humanoid robots typically have 30 or more degrees of freedom, with six degrees of freedom per arm, five or six in each leg, and several more in torso and neck. The term is important in systems, especially biomechanical systems for analyzing and measuring properties of these types of systems that need to account for all six degrees of freedom. Measurement of the six degrees of freedom is accomplished today through both AC and DC magnetic or electromagnetic fields in sensors that transmit positional and angular data to a processing unit. The data is made relevant through software that integrate the data based on the needs, ascension Technology Corporation has recently created a 6DoF device small enough to fit in a biopsy needle, allowing physicians to better research at minute levels. The new sensor passively senses pulsed DC magnetic fields generated by either a transmitter or a flat transmitter and is available for integration. An example of six degree of movement is the motion of a ship at sea. It is described as, Translation, Moving forward and backward on the X-axis, Moving left and right on the Y-axis. Moving up and down on the Z-axis, rotation Tilting side to side on the X-axis. Tilting forward and backward on the Y-axis, turning left and right on the Z-axis. There are three types of envelope in the Six degrees of freedom. 1- Direct type, Involved a degree can be commanded directly without particularly conditions, 2- Semi-direct type, Involved a degree can be commanded when some specific conditions are met. 3- Non-direct type, Involved a degree when is achieved via the interaction with its environment, transitional type also exists in some vehicles
7.
Xbox One
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The Xbox One is a home video game console developed by Microsoft. It is the first Xbox game console to be released in China, Microsoft marketed the device as an all-in-one entertainment system. The Xbox One mainly competes against consoles such as Sonys PlayStation 4, the console optionally includes a redesigned Kinect sensor, marketed as the Kinect 2.0, providing improved motion tracking and voice recognition for use in its graphical user interface and games. The Xbox One offers the ability for users to record and share clips from gameplay or live-stream directly to Twitch, Ustream, the consoles controller was redesigned over the Xbox 360s, with a redesigned body, D-pad and triggers capable of delivering directional haptic feedback. The Xbox One received mostly positive reception for its refined design, multimedia features. Its original user interface was panned for being nonintuitive, although changes made to it and its Kinect received praise for its improved motion-tracking accuracy, its face recognition logins, and its voice commands. A redesigned model known as Xbox One S was released in August 2016, it has a design, native support for 4K video playback and upscaling. It was praised for its size, its on-screen visual improvements, and its lack of an external power supply. Xbox One is the successor to Xbox 360, Microsofts previous video game console, over the years, the 360 had received a number of small hardware revisions to reduce the units size and improve its reliability. Initial hardware for the 360s successor, commonly referred to by the industry as the Xbox 720, was reportedly under development as early as May 2011, the official developer kit was codenamed Durango, and appeared to be available to developers by mid-2012. The console was unveiled under the name Xbox One on May 21,2013 in a press conference designed to cover the units broad multimedia. A second press event for the console was held during E32013, at that time, Microsoft announced that the console would be released in 21 different markets on November 22,2013, but this was later amended down to 13. The change, which pushed the date for the other eight markets to 2014, was attributed to unforeseen complexity in localizing the devices voice recognition capabilities. Later, in September 2014, the Xbox One was released in 26 markets, including remaining markets in Europe, the Japanese market, from the first announcement to the actual launch of the product, Microsoft made some significant changes to the console. These policies were reversed in June 2013, at the time of the security breach, Microsoft was in the development stage for its next-generation gaming system. Between 2011 and 2013, the hackers spent hundreds of hours searching through Microsofts network copying log-in credentials, source code, technical specifications, Group members say they were driven by an immense curiosity about Microsofts then-unreleased Xbox One console and associated software. The original Xbox Ones exterior casing consists of a two-tone liquid black finish, with finished in a matte grey. The matte side of the top of the consists of a large air vent
8.
HDMI
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HDMI is a digital replacement for analog video standards. HDMI implements the EIA/CEA-861 standards, which video formats and waveforms, transport of compressed, uncompressed, and LPCM audio, auxiliary data. CEA-861 signals carried by HDMI are electrically compatible with the CEA-861 signals used by the visual interface. No signal conversion is necessary, nor is there a loss of quality when a DVI-to-HDMI adapter is used. The CEC capability allows HDMI devices to each other when necessary. Several versions of HDMI have been developed and deployed since initial release of the technology but all use the same cable and connector. Other than improved audio and video capacity, performance, resolution and color spaces, newer versions have optional advanced features such as 3D, Ethernet data connection, production of consumer HDMI products started in late 2003. In Europe either DVI-HDCP or HDMI is included in the HD ready in-store labeling specification for TV sets for HDTV, HDMI began to appear on consumer HDTV camcorders and digital still cameras in 2006. As of January 6,2015, over 4 billion HDMI devices have been sold, the HDMI founders are Hitachi, Panasonic, Philips, Silicon Image, Sony, Thomson, RCA and Toshiba. Digital Content Protection, LLC provides HDCP for HDMI, HDMI has the support of motion picture producers Fox, Universal, Warner Bros. and Disney, along with system operators DirecTV, EchoStar and CableLabs. The HDMI founders began development on HDMI1.0 on April 16,2002, at the time, DVI-HDCP and DVI-HDTV were being used on HDTVs. HDMI1.0 was designed to improve on DVI-HDTV by using a connector and adding audio capability and enhanced YCbCr capability. The first Authorized Testing Center, which tests HDMI products, was opened by Silicon Image on June 23,2003, in California, the first ATC in Japan was opened by Panasonic on May 1,2004, in Osaka. The first ATC in Europe was opened by Philips on May 25,2005, in Caen, the first ATC in China was opened by Silicon Image on November 21,2005, in Shenzhen. The first ATC in India was opened by Philips on June 12,2008, the HDMI website contains a list of all the ATCs. According to In-Stat, the number of HDMI devices sold was 5 million in 2004,17.4 million in 2005,63 million in 2006, and 143 million in 2007. HDMI has become the de facto standard for HDTVs, and according to In-Stat, In-Stat has estimated that 229 million HDMI devices were sold in 2008. On April 8,2008 there were over 850 consumer electronics, on January 7,2009, HDMI Licensing, LLC announced that HDMI had reached an installed base of over 600 million HDMI devices
9.
USB 3.0
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USB3.0 is the third major version of the Universal Serial Bus standard for interfacing computers and electronic devices. Among other improvements, USB3.0 adds the new transfer rate referred to as SuperSpeed USB that can transfer data at up to 5 Gbit/s, which is about ten times as fast as the USB2.0 standard. Manufacturers are recommended to distinguish USB3.0 connectors from their USB2.0 counterparts by blue color-coding of the Standard-A receptacles and plugs, USB3.1, released in July 2013, is the successor standard that replaces the USB3.0 standard. The specification of USB3.0 is similar to that of USB2.0, but with many improvements, earlier USB concepts such as endpoints and the four transfer types are preserved but the protocol and electrical interface are different. The specification defines a separate channel to carry USB3.0 traffic. This gives USB3.0 a potential total bandwidth, if used both ways, of twenty times that of USB2.0. In USB3.0, dual-bus architecture is used to allow both USB2.0 and USB3.0 operations to take place simultaneously, thus providing backward compatibility. Connections are such that they also permit forward compatibility, that is, the structural topology is the same, consisting of a tiered star topology with a root hub at level 0 and hubs at lower levels to provide bus connectivity to devices. The SuperSpeed transaction is initiated by the host making a request followed by a response from the device, the device either accepts the request or rejects it, if accepted, the device sends data or accepts data from the host. If the endpoint is halted, the device shall respond with a STALL handshake, if there is lack of buffer space or data, it responds with a Not Ready signal to tell the host that it is not able to process the request. When the device is ready, it will send an Endpoint Ready to the host which will then reschedule the transaction, the SuperSpeed bus provides for a transfer mode at a nominal rate of 5.0 Gbit/s, in addition to the three existing transfer modes. Accounting for the overhead, the raw data throughput is 4 Gbit/s. Scrambling is implemented using a linear feedback shift register. The LFSR is reset whenever a COM symbol is sent or received, unlike previous standards, the USB3. As with earlier versions of USB, USB3.0 provides power at 5 volts nominal, the available current for low-power SuperSpeed devices is 150 mA, an increase from the 100 mA defined in USB2.0. For high-power SuperSpeed devices, the limit is six unit loads or 900 mA and this move effectively opened the specification to hardware developers for implementation in future products. Manufacturers of USB3.0 host controllers include, but are not limited to, Renesas Electronics, Fresco Logic, ASMedia Technology, Etron, VIA Technologies, Texas Instruments, NEC, as of November 2010, Renesas and Fresco Logic have passed USB-IF certification. Motherboards for Intels Sandy Bridge processors have been seen with Asmedia, on 28 October 2010, Hewlett-Packard released the HP Envy 17 3D featuring a Renesas USB3.0 host controller several months before some of their competitors
10.
USB
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It is currently developed by the USB Implementers Forum. USB was designed to standardize the connection of peripherals to personal computers. It has become commonplace on other devices, such as smartphones, PDAs, USB has effectively replaced a variety of earlier interfaces, such as serial ports and parallel ports, as well as separate power chargers for portable devices. Also, there are 5 modes of USB data transfer, in order of increasing bandwidth, Low Speed, Full Speed, High Speed, SuperSpeed, USB devices have some choice of implemented modes, and USB version is not a reliable statement of implemented modes. Modes are identified by their names and icons, and the specifications suggests that plugs, unlike other data buses, USB connections are directed, with both upstream and downstream ports emanating from a single host. This applies to power, with only downstream facing ports providing power. Thus, USB cables have different ends, A and B, therefore, in general, each different format requires four different connectors, a plug and receptacle for each of the A and B ends. USB cables have the plugs, and the corresponding receptacles are on the computers or electronic devices, in common practice, the A end is usually the standard format, and the B side varies over standard, mini, and micro. The mini and micro formats also provide for USB On-The-Go with a hermaphroditic AB receptacle, the micro format is the most durable from the point of view of designed insertion lifetime. The standard and mini connectors have a lifetime of 1,500 insertion-removal cycles. Likewise, the component of the retention mechanism, parts that provide required gripping force, were also moved into plugs on the cable side. A group of seven companies began the development of USB in 1994, Compaq, DEC, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC, a team including Ajay Bhatt worked on the standard at Intel, the first integrated circuits supporting USB were produced by Intel in 1995. The original USB1.0 specification, which was introduced in January 1996, Microsoft Windows 95, OSR2.1 provided OEM support for the devices. The first widely used version of USB was 1.1, the 12 Mbit/s data rate was intended for higher-speed devices such as disk drives, and the lower 1.5 Mbit/s rate for low data rate devices such as joysticks. Apple Inc. s iMac was the first mainstream product with USB, following Apples design decision to remove all legacy ports from the iMac, many PC manufacturers began building legacy-free PCs, which led to the broader PC market using USB as a standard. The USB2.0 specification was released in April 2000 and was ratified by the USB Implementers Forum at the end of 2001.1 specification, the USB3.0 specification was published on 12 November 2008. Its main goals were to increase the transfer rate, decrease power consumption, increase power output. USB3.0 includes a new, higher speed bus called SuperSpeed in parallel with the USB2.0 bus, for this reason, the new version is also called SuperSpeed
11.
Facebook
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Facebook is an American for-profit corporation and an online social media and social networking service based in Menlo Park, California. Facebook gradually added support for students at other universities. Since 2006, anyone age 13 and older has been allowed to become a user of Facebook, though variations exist in the minimum age requirement. The Facebook name comes from the face book directories often given to United States university students, Facebook may be accessed by a large range of desktops, laptops, tablet computers, and smartphones over the Internet and mobile networks. After registering to use the site, users can create a user profile indicating their name, occupation, schools attended and so on. Additionally, users may join common-interest user groups organized by workplace, school, hobbies or other topics, in groups, editors can pin posts to top. Additionally, users can complain about or block unpleasant people, because of the large volume of data that users submit to the service, Facebook has come under scrutiny for its privacy policies. Facebook makes most of its revenue from advertisements which appear onscreen, Facebook, Inc. held its initial public offering in February 2012, and began selling stock to the public three months later, reaching an original peak market capitalization of $104 billion. On July 13,2015, Facebook became the fastest company in the Standard & Poors 500 Index to reach a market cap of $250 billion, Facebook has more than 1.86 billion monthly active users as of December 31,2016. As of April 2016, Facebook was the most popular social networking site in the world, Facebook classifies users from the ages of 13 to 18 as minors and therefore sets their profiles to share content with friends only. Zuckerberg wrote a program called Facemash on October 28,2003 while attending Harvard University as a sophomore, to accomplish this, Zuckerberg hacked into protected areas of Harvards computer network and copied private dormitory ID images. Facemash attracted 450 visitors and 22,000 photo-views in its first four hours online, the site was quickly forwarded to several campus group list-servers, but was shut down a few days later by the Harvard administration. Zuckerberg faced expulsion and was charged by the administration with breach of security, violating copyrights, Zuckerberg expanded on this initial project that semester by creating a social study tool ahead of an art history final exam. He uploaded 500 Augustan images to a website, each of which was featured with a corresponding comments section and he shared the site with his classmates, and people started sharing notes. The following semester, Zuckerberg began writing code for a new website in January 2004 and he said that he was inspired by an editorial about the Facemash incident in The Harvard Crimson. On February 4,2004, Zuckerberg launched Thefacebook, originally located at thefacebook. com. com and they claimed that he was instead using their ideas to build a competing product. The three complained to The Harvard Crimson and the newspaper began an investigation and they later filed a lawsuit against Zuckerberg, subsequently settling in 2008 for 1.2 million shares. Membership was initially restricted to students of Harvard College, within the first month, eduardo Saverin, Dustin Moskovitz, Andrew McCollum, and Chris Hughes joined Zuckerberg to help promote the website
12.
Kickstarter
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Kickstarter is an American public-benefit corporation based in Brooklyn, New York, that maintains a global crowdfunding platform focused on creativity. The companys stated mission is to bring creative projects to life. People who back Kickstarter projects are offered tangible rewards and/or experiences in exchange for their pledges and this model traces its roots to subscription model of arts patronage, where artists would go directly to their audiences to fund their work. Kickstarter launched on April 28,2009, by Perry Chen, Yancey Strickler, the New York Times called Kickstarter the peoples NEA. Time named it one of the Best Inventions of 2010 and Best Websites of 2011, Kickstarter reportedly raised $10 million funding from backers including NYC-based venture firm Union Square Ventures and angel investors such as Jack Dorsey, Zach Klein and Caterina Fake. The company is based in the Greenpoint section of Brooklyn, andy Baio served as the sites CTO until November 2010, when he joined Expert Labs. Lance Ivy has been Lead Developer since the website launched, on February 14,2013, Kickstarter released an iOS app called Kickstarter for the iPhone. The app is aimed at users who create and back projects and is the first time Kickstarter has had an official mobile presence, and in Spain on May 19,2015. Kickstarter is one of a number of crowdfunding platforms for gathering money from the public, project creators choose a deadline and a minimum funding goal. If the goal is not met by the deadline, no funds are collected, Kickstarter applies a 5% fee on the total amount of the funds raised. Their payments processor applies an additional 3–5% fee, unlike many forums for fundraising or investment, Kickstarter claims no ownership over the projects and the work they produce. The web pages of projects launched on the site are permanently archived, after funding is completed, projects and uploaded media cannot be edited or removed from the site. Kickstarter advises backers to use their own judgment on supporting a project and they also warn project leaders that they could be liable for legal damages from backers for failure to deliver on promises. Projects might also fail even after a fundraising campaign when creators underestimate the total costs required or technical difficulties to be overcome. Asked what made Kickstarter different from other crowdfunding platforms, co-founder Perry Chen said, or, if there’s even an agreed upon definition of what it is. We haven’t actively supported the use of the term because it can provoke more confusion, in our case, we focus on a middle ground between patronage and commerce. People are offering cool stuff and experiences in exchange for the support of their ideas, people are creating these mini-economies around their project ideas. So, you aren’t coming to the site to get something for nothing, on June 21,2012, Kickstarter began publishing statistics on its projects
13.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
14.
Organic light-emitting diode
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An organic light-emitting diode is a light-emitting diode in which the emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound that emits light in response to an electric current. This layer of organic semiconductor is situated between two electrodes, typically, at least one of these electrodes is transparent, OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens, computer monitors, portable systems such as mobile phones, handheld game consoles and PDAs. A major area of research is the development of white OLED devices for use in lighting applications. There are two families of OLED, those based on small molecules and those employing polymers. Adding mobile ions to an OLED creates an electrochemical cell which has a slightly different mode of operation. OLED displays can use either passive-matrix or active-matrix addressing schemes, an OLED display works without a backlight, thus, it can display deep black levels and can be thinner and lighter than a liquid crystal display. In low ambient light conditions, an OLED screen can achieve a higher contrast ratio than an LCD, andré Bernanose and co-workers at the Nancy-Université in France made the first observations of electroluminescence in organic materials in the early 1950s. They applied high alternating voltages in air to such as acridine orange. The proposed mechanism was either direct excitation of the dye molecules or excitation of electrons, in 1960 Martin Pope and some of his co-workers at New York University developed ohmic dark-injecting electrode contacts to organic crystals. They further described the energetic requirements for hole and electron injecting electrode contacts. These contacts are the basis of charge injection in all modern OLED devices, the proposed mechanism was field-accelerated electron excitation of molecular fluorescence. Also in 1965, W. Helfrich and W. G and their proposed mechanism involved electronic excitation at the contacts between the graphite particles and the anthracene molecules. Roger Partridge made the first observation of electroluminescence from polymer films at the National Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom, the device consisted of a film of poly up to 2.2 micrometers thick located between two charge injecting electrodes. The results of the project were patented in 1975 and published in 1983, hong Kong-born American physical chemist Ching W. Tang and his co-worker Steven Van Slyke at Eastman Kodak built the first practical OLED device in 1987. This was a revolution for the technology, Universal Display Corporation holds the majority of patents concerning the commercialization of OLEDs. A typical OLED is composed of a layer of organic materials situated between two electrodes, the anode and cathode, all deposited on a substrate, the organic molecules are electrically conductive as a result of delocalization of pi electrons caused by conjugation over part or all of the molecule. These materials have conductivity ranging from insulators to conductors, and are therefore considered organic semiconductors. The highest occupied and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals of organic semiconductors are analogous to the valence, originally, the most basic polymer OLEDs consisted of a single organic layer
15.
Head-mounted display
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A head-mounted display, both abbreviated HMD, is a display device, worn on the head or as part of a helmet, that has a small display optic in front of one or each eye. A HMD has many uses including in gaming, aviation, engineering, there is also an optical head-mounted display, which is a wearable display that can reflect projected images and allows a user to see through it. A typical HMD has one or two small displays, with lenses and semi-transparent mirrors embedded in eyeglasses, a visor, or a helmet, the display units are miniaturised and may include cathode ray tubes, liquid crystal displays, liquid crystal on silicon, or organic light-emitting diodes. Some vendors employ multiple micro-displays to increase resolution and field of view. HMDs differ in whether they can display only computer-generated imagery, or only live imagery from the physical world, most HMDs can display only a computer-generated image, sometimes referred to as a virtual image. Some HMDs can allow a CGI to be superimposed on a real-world view and this is sometimes referred to as augmented reality or mixed reality. Combining real-world view with CGI can be done by projecting the CGI through a partially reflective mirror and this method is often called optical see-through. Combining real-world view with CGI can also be done electronically by accepting video from a camera and this method is often called video see-through. An optical head-mounted display uses an optical mixer which is made of partly silvered mirrors and it can reflect artificial images, and let real images cross the lens, and let a user look through it. Various methods have existed for see-through HMDs, most of which can be summarized into two families based on curved mirrors or waveguides. Curved mirrors have been used by Laster Technologies, and by Vuzix in their Star 1200 product, various waveguide methods have existed for years. These include diffraction optics, holographic optics, polarized optics, major HMD applications include military, government, and civilian-commercial. In 1962, Hughes Aircraft Company revealed the Electrocular, a compact CRT, ruggedized HMDs are increasingly being integrated into the cockpits of modern helicopters and fighter aircraft. These are usually integrated with the pilots flying helmet and may include protective visors, night vision devices. Military, police, and firefighters use HMDs to display information such as maps or thermal imaging data while viewing a real scene. Recent applications have included the use of HMD for paratroopers, in 2005, the Liteye HMD was introduced for ground combat troops as a rugged, waterproof lightweight display that clips into a standard US PVS-14 military helmet mount. The self-contained color monocular organic light-emitting diode display replaces the NVG tube, the LE has see-through ability and can be used as a standard HMD or for augmented reality applications. The design is optimized to provide high definition data under all lighting conditions, the LE has a low power consumption, operating on four AA batteries for 35 hours or receiving power via standard Universal Serial Bus connection
16.
Palmer Luckey
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Palmer Freeman Luckey is an American entrepreneur. He is the founder of Oculus VR and designer of the Oculus Rift, Luckey ranks #22 on Forbes 2016 list of Americas richest entrepreneurs under 40. Luckey was born and raised in Long Beach, California, with three younger sisters and his father worked at a car dealership. As a child he was homeschooled by his mother, took sailing lessons and he wrote and served as Online Editor for the universitys student-run newspaper, Daily 49er. During his childhood and teenage years, he experimented with a variety of complex projects including coil guns, Tesla coils. He built a PC gaming rig costing tens of thousands of U. S. dollars with an elaborate six-monitor setup and he had an intense interest in virtual reality, and built an extensive private collection of over 50 different head-mounted displays. To fund these projects, he earned at least US$36,000 by fixing and reselling damaged iPhones and working part-time as a groundskeeper, youth sailing coach, in response, he started experimenting with his own designs in 2009. He completed his first prototype, called PR1, at age 17 in his garage in 2010, which featured a 90-degree field of view, low latency. Luckey developed a series of prototypes exploring features like 3D stereoscopy, wireless and he shared regular updates on his progress on MTBS3D, a forum frequented by a small number of virtual reality enthusiasts. His 6th-generation unit was named the Rift, intended to be sold as a kit on Kickstarter crowdfunding website to fellow enthusiasts. He first started Oculus VR in order to facilitate the launch of the Kickstarter campaign. With the resulting attention of thousands of people drawn to the Rift. Dollars in the Rifts Kickstarter campaign, iribe later joined as Oculus VRs CEO, and Michael Antonov joined as chief software architect. Luckey also demoed the unit to Valve, and received Kickstarter endorsements from Valves managing director Gabe Newell, during the Kickstarter campaign, Luckey demoed the Rift to gamers and the press at many gaming conventions, including PAX, Gamescom, and QuakeCon 2012. The Kickstarter campaign was successful, raising US$2.4 million, Oculus VR was acquired by Facebook in March 2014 for US$3 billion, and although his share is not public, Forbes magazine estimated the founders net worth to be $700 million in 2015. He continued to work at Oculus VR on core VR technology until March 2017, Luckey has become the face of virtual reality in gaming and a celebrity among virtual reality enthusiasts, however, he doesnt consider himself to be a celebrity. He has an appearance, he is frequently barefoot, and prefers sandals to shoes even at trade shows. Luckey lives in a house with several others where they regularly play multiplayer videogames
17.
Long Beach, California
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Long Beach is the 36th most populous city in the United States and the 7th most populous in California. It is located on the Pacific Coast of the United States, as of 2010, its population was 462,257. Long Beach is the second largest city in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, the Port of Long Beach is the second busiest container port in the United States and is among the worlds largest shipping ports. The city also maintains a progressively declining oil industry with minor wells located both directly beneath the city as well as offshore, manufacturing sectors include those in aircraft, automotive parts, electronic equipment, audiovisual equipment, petrochemicals, precision metals and home furnishings. Long Beach lies in the corner of Los Angeles County. Downtown Long Beach is approximately 22 miles south of Downtown Los Angeles, indigenous people have lived in coastal Southern California for over 10,000 years, and several successive cultures have inhabited the present-day area of Long Beach. By the 16th-century arrival of Spanish explorers, the dominant group were the Tongva people and they had at least three major settlements within the present-day city. Tevaaxaanga was a settlement near the Los Angeles River, while Ahwaanga and Povuunga were coastal villages. Along with other Tongva villages, they were forced to relocate in the century due to missionization, political change. In 1784 the Spanish Empires King Carlos III granted Rancho Los Nietos to Spanish soldier Manuel Nieto, the Rancho Los Cerritos and Rancho Los Alamitos were divided from this territory. The boundary between the two ran through the center of Signal Hill on a southwest to northeast diagonal. A portion of western Long Beach was originally part of the Rancho San Pedro and its boundaries were in dispute for years, due to flooding changing the Los Angeles River boundary, between the ranchos of Juan Jose Dominguez and Manuel Nieto. In 1843 Jonathan Temple bought Rancho Los Cerritos, having arrived in California in 1827 from New England and he built what is now known as the Los Cerritos Ranch House, a still-standing adobe which is a National Historic Landmark. Temple created a cattle ranch and prospered, becoming the wealthiest man in Los Angeles County. Both Temple and his house played important local roles in the Mexican–American War. On an island in the San Pedro Bay, Mormon pioneers made an attempt to establish a colony. Two years previous Flint, Bixby & Co had also purchased along with Northern California associate James Irvine, to manage Rancho Los Cerritos, the company selected Lewellyns brother Jotham Bixby, the Father of Long Beach. Three years later Bixby bought into the property and would form the Bixby Land Company
18.
John Carmack
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John D. Carmack is an American game programmer, aerospace and virtual reality engineer. Carmack was the programmer of the id video games Commander Keen, Wolfenstein 3D, Doom, Quake, Rage. In August 2013, Carmack took the position of CTO at Oculus VR, Carmack, son of local television news reporter Stan Carmack, grew up in the Kansas City Metropolitan Area where he became interested in computers at an early age. He attended Shawnee Mission East High School in Prairie Village, Kansas and Raytown South High School in nearby Raytown, Carmack was introduced to video games with the 1978 shoot em up title Space Invaders in the arcades during a summer vacation as a child. The 1980 maze chase arcade game Pac-Man also left an impression on him. He cited Shigeru Miyamoto as the game developer he most admired, as reported in David Kushners Masters of Doom, when Carmack was 14, he broke into a school to help a group of kids steal Apple II computers. To gain entry to the building, Carmack concocted a sticky substance of thermite mixed with Vaseline that melted through the windows, however, an overweight accomplice struggled to get through the hole, and opened the window, setting off a silent alarm and alerting police. John was arrested, and sent for psychiatric evaluation, Carmack was then sentenced to a year in a juvenile home. He attended the University of Missouri–Kansas City for two semesters before withdrawing to work as a freelance programmer. Softdisk, a company in Shreveport, Louisiana, hired Carmack to work on Softdisk G-S, introducing him to John Romero. Later, this team would be placed by Softdisk in charge of a new, afterwards, Carmack left Softdisk to co-found id Software. Carmacks engines have also licensed for use in other influential first-person shooters such as Half-Life, Call of Duty. In 2007, when Carmack was on vacation with his wife, he ended up playing games on his cellphone. On August 7,2013, Carmack joined Oculus VR as their CTO, on November 22,2013, he resigned from id Software to work full-time at Oculus VR. Carmacks reason for leaving was because ids parent company ZeniMax Media didnt want to support Oculus Rift, Carmacks role at both companies later became central to a ZeniMax lawsuit against Oculus parent company Facebook, claiming that Oculus stole ZeniMaxs virtual reality intellectual property. The trial jury absolved Carmack of liability, though Oculus and other officers were held liable for trademark, copyright. In February 2017 Carmack sued ZeniMax, claiming the company had refused to pay him the remaining $22.5 million owed him from their purchase of id Software, around 2000, Carmack became interested in rocketry, a hobby of his youth. Reviewing how much money he was spending on customizing Ferraris, Carmack realized he could do significant work in rocketry and he began by giving financial support to a few local amateur groups before starting Armadillo Aerospace
19.
Electronic Entertainment Expo
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The Electronic Entertainment Expo, commonly referred to as E3, is an annual trade fair for the video game industry presented by the Entertainment Software Association. It is used by video game publishers and accessory manufacturers to introduce and advertise upcoming games. E3 used to be an event, individuals who wished to attend were required by the ESA to verify a professional connection to the video-game industry. E3 is usually held in late May or early June at the Los Angeles Convention Center in Los Angeles, the show in 2017 will be held from June 13–15,2017. Before E3, game publishers went to trade shows to display new or upcoming products, these include the Consumer Electronics Show. As the game industry grew rapidly during the early 1990s, industry professionals felt that it had outgrown the older trade shows, according to Tom Kalinske, CEO of Sega America, The CES organizers used to put the video games industry way, way in the back. In 1991 they put us in a tent, and you had to walk past all the vendors to find us. That particular year it was pouring rain, and the rain leaked right over our new Genesis system, I was just furious with the way CES treated the video games industry, and I felt we were a more important industry than they were giving us credit for. Sega did not return to the CES the following year, the first E3 was conceived by IDGs Infotainment World and co-founded by the Interactive Digital Software Association. It coincided with a new generation of consoles, the release of the Sega Saturn, although specifications for the Nintendo Ultra 64 were released, no hardware was displayed. Although the IDSA asked the CES for private meeting space for game developers, patrick Ferrell, CEO of IDGs Infotainment World, sent his vice president of marketing to the meeting, when Ferrell received the CES reply, Infotainment World management announced E3. Needing full industry support, Ferrell negotiated an agreement between IDG and the IDSA and they co-produced the show for several years, the first event was held from May 11–13,1995 in Los Angeles. Keynote speakers included Sega of America president and CEO Thomas Kalinske, Sony Electronic Publishing president Olaf Olafsson and it was one of the largest trade-show debuts in history, with 700,000 square feet of exhibit space and over 48,900 attendees. In its current form, the Expo primarily features presentations from major hardware and software publishers, traditionally including Microsoft, Sony, Activision, Ubisoft, Nintendo and this often includes reveals of new hardware and software products. Following these presentations, the exhibition halls open, allowing attendees to speak to various company representations to get more information on upcoming titles. Here, many developers and publishers will have booths for their products. E3 has traditionally been a closed event expect to members of the game industry. In 2015, ESA distributed 5,000 tickets to the exhibitors to give to their fans, E32016 featured a separate but free E3 Live event at the nearby L. A
20.
Id Software
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Id Software LLC is an American video game developer headquartered in Dallas, Texas. The company was founded on February 1,1991, by four members of the computer company Softdisk, programmers John Carmack and John Romero, game designer Tom Hall, business manager Jay Wilbur was also involved. Id Software made important technological developments in video game technologies for the PC, including work done for the Wolfenstein, Doom, ids work was particularly important in 3D computer graphics technology and in game engines that are heavily used throughout the video game industry. The company was heavily involved in the creation of the first-person shooter genre. Wolfenstein 3D is often considered as the first true FPS, Doom was a game that popularized the genre and PC gaming in general, on June 24,2009, ZeniMax Media acquired the company. In 2015, they opened a studio in Frankfurt, Germany. The founders of id Software met in the offices of Softdisk developing multiple games for Softdisks monthly publishing and these included Dangerous Dave and other titles. In September 1990, John Carmack developed an efficient way that would perform rapid side-scrolling graphics on the PC, upon making this breakthrough, Carmack and Hall stayed up late into the night making a replica of the first level of the popular 1988 NES game Super Mario Bros. 3, inserting stock graphics of Romeros Dangerous Dave character in lieu of Mario, when Romero saw the demo, entitled Dangerous Dave in Copyright Infringement, he realized that Carmacks breakthrough could have potential. Despite their work, Nintendo turned them down, saying they had no interest in expanding to the PC market, miller suggested that they develop shareware games that he would distribute. On December 14,1990, the first episode was released as shareware by Millers company, Apogee, and orders began rolling in. In a legal settlement, the team was required to provide a game to Softdisk every two months for a period of time, but they would do so on their own. On February 1,1991, id Software was founded, the shareware distribution method was initially employed by id Software through Apogee Software to sell their products, such as the Commander Keen, Wolfenstein and Doom games. They would release the first part of their trilogy as shareware, only later did id Software release their games via more traditional shrink-wrapped boxes in stores. Id Software moved from the cube-shaped Mesquite office to a newly built location in Richardson, on June 24,2009, it was announced that id Software had been acquired by ZeniMax Media. The deal would eventually affect publishing deals id Software had before the acquisition, namely Rage, on June 26,2013, id Software president Todd Hollenshead quit after 17 years of service. He was the last of the founders to leave the company. It is presented by the company as a reference to the id, evidence of the reference can be found as early as Wolfenstein 3D with the statement thats id, as in the id, ego, and superego in the psyche appearing in the games documentation
21.
Doom 3
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Doom 3 is a science fiction first-person shooter video game developed by id Software and published by Activision. Doom 3 was first released for Microsoft Windows on August 3,2004. The game was adapted for Linux, as well as being ported by Aspyr Media for Mac OS X. Developer Vicarious Visions ported the game to the Xbox console. British developers Splash Damage also assisted in design for the elements of the game. The game is a reboot of id Softwares Doom franchise, however, the teleportation experiments inadvertently open a gateway to Hell, resulting in a catastrophic invasion by demons. The player, a space marine, must fight through the base. Doom 3 features a game engine, id Tech 4, which has since been licensed out to other developers. The game was a critical and commercial success for id Software, with more than 3.5 million copies of the game sold, it is the most successful game by the developer to date. The game was followed by Resurrection of Evil, an expansion pack developed by Nerve Software in April 2005, a series of novelizations of Doom 3, written by Matthew J. Costello, debuted in February 2008. An expanded and improved BFG Edition was released in the quarter of 2012. Doom 3 is an action game played from a first-person perspective. As with previous Doom games, the objective is to successfully pass through its levels. Doom 3s more story-centered approach, however, means that the player often encounters friendly non-player characters, enemies come in multiple forms and with different abilities and tactics, but fall into two broad categories of either zombies or demons. The corpses of demons are reduced to ashes after death, leaving no trace of their body behind, the games levels are fairly linear in nature and incorporate several horror elements, the most prominent of which is darkness. In addition, the levels are regularly strewn with corpses, dismembered body parts and blood, frequent radio transmissions through the players communications device also add to the atmosphere, by broadcasting certain sounds and messages from non-player characters meant to unsettle the player. Early in the game, during and directly after the event that plunges the base into chaos, the ambient sound is extended to the base itself through such things as hissing pipes, footsteps, and occasional jarringly loud noises from machinery or other sources. Often ambient sounds can be heard that resemble deep breathing, unexplained voices, early in the game, the player is provided with a personal data assistant. PDAs contain security clearance levels, allowing the player to certain areas that are otherwise locked
22.
Doom 3: BFG Edition
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The BFG Edition features enhanced graphics, better audio with more horror effects, a checkpoint save system, and support for 3D displays and HMDs. The game also includes the previous expansion Resurrection of Evil and a new expansion pack called The Lost Mission. Additionally, it includes copies of the original Doom, and Doom II with the expansion No Rest for the Living, the BFG Edition also features the ability to use the flashlight while holding a weapon, in the form of the so-called armor-mounted flashlight. The PC version of Doom 3, BFG Edition requires the Steam client and a valid Steam account for installation, play, the source code of Doom 3 BFG Editions engine was released under the GNU General Public License in November 2012. Id Tech has announced that DOOM3 BFG Edition will be coming for Nvidias Shield Console and it will be running on 1080p at 60 frames per second. It was announced in April 2016 that Doom 3 BFG Edition was now playable on Xbox One via its Backwards Compatibility feature, the player takes the role of the last surviving member of Bravo team, which was seen being ambushed by demons in Doom 3. The Bravo team survivor is contacted by Dr, the array is potentially powerful enough to send an army of demons all the way to Earth, hence Meyers desperation to destroy it. To achieve this goal, the marine must acquire the necessary to activate the Exis Labs teleportation system. In the epilogue, the marine is teleported by Dr. Meyers back to Mars, the reinforcements from Earth arrive to search for another marine who is still missing, eventually, they find him in the Delta Labs complex. The updated graphics, sound design, and inclusion of the new Lost Mission content were praised, the controls overall were considered a step backwards due to the previous generation ports of Doom 3 allowing players to assign weapons to hotkeys. The inability to back to the traditional flashlight mechanic of the original game was also criticized. Doom 3, BFG official website Developer id Software official website Doom 3 article at the Doom Wiki
23.
Inertial measurement unit
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IMUs are typically used to maneuver aircraft, including unmanned aerial vehicles, among many others, and spacecraft, including satellites and landers. Recent developments allow for the production of IMU-enabled GPS devices, an IMU allows a GPS receiver to work when GPS-signals are unavailable, such as in tunnels, inside buildings, or when electronic interference is present. A wireless IMU is known as a WIMU, the IMU is the main component of inertial navigation systems used in aircraft, spacecraft, watercraft, drones, UAV and guided missiles among others. In this capacity, the data collected from the IMUs sensors allow a computer to track a crafts position, and some also include a magnetometer, mostly to assist calibration against orientation drift. Inertial navigation systems contain IMUs which have angular and linear accelerometers to measure changes in position, some IMUs also have a gyroscopic element for maintaining an absolute angular reference. Angular accelerometers measure how the vehicle is rotating in space, generally, there is at least one sensor for each of the three axes, pitch, yaw and roll. Linear accelerometers measure non-gravitational accelerations of the vehicle, since it can move in three axes, there is a linear accelerometer for each axis. A computer continually calculates the current position. First, for each of the six degrees of freedom, it integrates over time the sensed acceleration, together with an estimate of gravity, then it integrates the velocity to calculate the current position. Inertial guidance is difficult without computers, the desire to use inertial guidance in the Minuteman missile and Project Apollo drove early attempts to miniaturize computers. Inertial guidance systems are now combined with satellite navigation systems through a digital filtering system. The inertial system provides short term data, while the satellite system corrects accumulated errors of the inertial system, the term IMU is widely used to refer to a box containing three accelerometers and three gyroscopes and optionally three magnetometers. The accelerometers are placed such that their axes are orthogonal to each other. They measure inertial acceleration, also known as G-forces, Three gyroscopes are placed in a similar orthogonal pattern, measuring rotational position in reference to an arbitrarily chosen coordinate system. Recently, more and more manufacturers also include three magnetometers in IMUs and this allows better performance for dynamic orientation calculation in Attitude and heading reference systems which base on IMUs. IMUs are used in vehicle-installed inertial guidance systems, today almost every commercial or military water-going vessel has one. Most aircraft are equipped with IMUs. IMUs are also used alone on air- and spacecraft, in order to report inertial measurements to a pilot and they are critical during space missions to maneuver manned or unmanned landers and other craft
24.
Stereoscopy
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Stereoscopy is a technique for creating or enhancing the illusion of depth in an image by means of stereopsis for binocular vision. The word stereoscopy derives from Greek στερεός, meaning firm, solid, any stereoscopic image is called a stereogram. Originally, stereogram referred to a pair of images which could be viewed using a stereoscope. Most stereoscopic methods present two offset images separately to the left and right eye of the viewer and these two-dimensional images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of 3D depth. Stereoscopy creates the illusion of depth from given two-dimensional images. One of the functions that occur within the brain as it interprets what the eyes see is assessing the relative distances of objects from the viewer, the two images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of depth. Although the term 3D is ubiquitously used, the presentation of dual 2D images is distinctly different from displaying an image in three full dimensions. The most notable difference is that, in the case of 3D displays, holographic displays and volumetric display do not have this limitation. Just as it is not possible to recreate a full 3-dimensional sound field with just two speakers, it is an overstatement to call dual 2D images 3D. The accurate term stereoscopic is more cumbersome than the common misnomer 3D, although most stereoscopic displays do not qualify as real 3D display, all real 3D displays are also stereoscopic displays because they meet the lower criteria also. Most 3D displays use this method to convey images. It was first invented by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1838, but if it be required to obtain the most faithful resemblances of real objects, shadowing and colouring may properly be employed to heighten the effects. Flowers, crystals, busts, vases, instruments of various kinds, Stereoscopy is used in photogrammetry and also for entertainment through the production of stereograms. Stereoscopy is useful in viewing images rendered from large data sets such as are produced by experimental data. Modern industrial three-dimensional photography may use 3D scanners to detect and record three-dimensional information, the three-dimensional depth information can be reconstructed from two images using a computer by correlating the pixels in the left and right images. Solving the Correspondence problem in the field of Computer Vision aims to create meaningful depth information from two images, anatomically, there are 3 levels of binocular vision required to view stereo images, Simultaneous perception Fusion Stereopsis These functions develop in early childhood. Some people who have strabismus disrupt the development of stereopsis, however orthoptics treatment can be used to improve binocular vision, a persons stereoacuity determines the minimum image disparity they can perceive as depth. It is believed that approximately 12% of people are unable to properly see 3D images, according to another experiment up to 30% of people have very weak stereoscopic vision preventing them from depth perception based on stereo disparity
25.
Crowdfunding
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Crowdfunding is the practice of funding a project or venture by raising monetary contributions from a large number of people. Crowdfunding is a form of crowdsourcing and of alternative finance, in 2015, it was estimated that worldwide over US$34 billion was raised this way. Although the concept can also be executed through mail-order subscriptions, benefit events, Crowdfunding has a long history with several roots. Books have been crowdfunded for centuries, Authors and publishers would advertise book projects in praenumeration or subscription schemes, the book would be written and published if enough subscribers signaled their readiness to buy the book once it was out. The subscription business model is not exactly crowdfunding, since the flow of money only begins with the arrival of the product. The list of subscribers has, though, the power to create the necessary confidence among investors that is needed to risk the publication, war bonds are theoretically a form of crowdfunding military conflicts. A clearer case of modern crowdfunding is Auguste Comtes scheme to issue notes for the support of his further work as a philosopher. The Premiere Circulaire Annuelle adressée par l’auteur du Systeme de Philosophie Positive was published on 14 March 1850, the cooperative movement of the 19th and 20th centuries is a broader precursor. In 1885, when government sources failed to provide funding to build a base for the Statue of Liberty. Crowdfunding on the internet first gained popular and mainstream use in the arts and they subsequently used this method to fund their studio albums. In the film industry, independent writer/director Mark Tapio Kines designed a website in 1997 for his then-unfinished first feature film Foreign Correspondents. By early 1999, he had raised more than US$125,000 on the Internet from at least 25 fans, in 2002, the Free Blender campaign was an early software crowdfunding precursor. The campaign aimed for open-sourcing the Blender 3D computer graphics software by collecting $100,000 from the community while offering additional benefits for donating members, Crowdfunding gained traction after the launch of ArtistShare, in 2003. Following ArtistShare, more crowdfunding sites started to appear on the web such as IndieGoGo, Kickstarter, however, Sellaband, started in 2006 as a music-focused platform, initially controlled the crowdfunding market. This can be contributed to creators and funders, who perceive the platform to be more valuable with more members, later, Kickstarter gained popularity for its wide-ranging focus. However, Sellaband offered revenue sharing, a type of equity crowdfunding and it was later controlled by a German company and heightened security restrictions. The phenomenon of crowdfunding is older than the term crowdfunding, according to wordspy. com, the earliest recorded use of the word was in August 2006. Equity crowdfunding, the backer receives shares of a company, usually in its early stages, reward-based crowdfunding has been used for a wide range of purposes, including motion picture promotion, free software development, inventions development, scientific research, and civic projects
26.
Screen-door effect
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The screen-door effect or fixed-pattern noise is a visual artifact of displays, where the fine lines separating pixels become visible in the displayed image. This can be seen in digital images and regular displays under magnification or at close range. More recently, the screen door effect has been an issue with virtual reality headsets and other head-mounted displays and this results in an image that appears as if viewed through a fine screen or mesh such as those used on anti-insect screen doors. It most commonly appears as a mesh or sometimes as a hexagonal structure. The screen door effect was noticed on the first digital projector, to eliminate this artifact, Dolgoff invented depixelization, which used various optical methods to eliminate the visibility of the spaces between the pixels. The dominant method made use of an array, wherein each micro-lens caused a slightly magnified image of the pixel behind it. Use of an array at a slightly greater distance created new pixel images. Since there were as many micro-lenses as there were original pixels, no resolution was lost and this minimizes the effect by filling the black pixel perimeters with adjacent light. Some older LCD projectors have a more noticeable screen door effect than first generation DLP projectors, use of Dolgoffs depixelization method could also produce a DLP projector without noticeable pixelation. Rainbow effect, an associated with single-chip DLP projectors Silk screen effect Scan line Hi Fi Writer
27.
Distortion (optics)
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In geometric optics, distortion is a deviation from rectilinear projection, a projection in which straight lines in a scene remain straight in an image. It is a form of optical aberration, although distortion can be irregular or follow many patterns, the most commonly encountered distortions are radially symmetric, or approximately so, arising from the symmetry of a photographic lens. These radial distortions can usually be classified as either barrel distortions or pincushion distortions, mathematically, barrel and pincushion distortion are quadratic, meaning they increase as the square of distance from the center. Barrel distortion may be found in wide-angle lenses, and is seen at the wide-angle end of zoom lenses. Mustache distortion is observed particularly on the end of zooms, with certain retrofocus lenses. A certain amount of distortion is often found with visual optical instruments, e. g. binoculars. A graph showing radius transformations will be steeper in the upper end, conversely, barrel distortion is actually a diminished radius mapping for large radii in comparison with small radii. A graph showing radius transformations will be less steep in the upper end, radial distortion that depends on wavelength is called lateral chromatic aberration – lateral because radial, chromatic because dependent on color. This can cause colored fringes in high-contrast areas in the parts of the image. This should not be confused with axial chromatic aberration, which causes aberrations throughout the field, the names for these distortions come from familiar objects which are visually similar. Radial distortion, whilst primarily dominated by low order radial components, can be corrected using Browns distortion model, the Brown–Conrady model corrects both for radial distortion and for tangential distortion caused by physical elements in a lens not being perfectly aligned. The latter is known as decentering distortion. See Zhang for radial distortion discussion, barrel distortion typically will have a negative term for K1 whereas pincushion distortion will have a positive value. Moustache distortion will have a non-monotonic radial geometric series where for some r the sequence will change sign, software can correct those distortions by warping the image with a reverse distortion. This involves determining which distorted pixel corresponds to each undistorted pixel, lateral chromatic aberration can be significantly reduced by applying such warping for red, green and blue separately. An alternative method iteratively computes the undistorted pixel position, calibrated systems work from a table of lens/camera transfer functions, Adobe Photoshop Lightroom and Photoshop CS5 can correct complex distortion. PTlens is a Photoshop plugin or standalone application which corrects complex distortion and it not only corrects for linear distortion, but also second degree and higher nonlinear components. Lensfun is a free to use database and library for correcting lens distortion, dxO Labs Optics Pro can correct complex distortion, and takes into account the focus distance
28.
Gyroscope
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A gyroscope is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation is free to assume any orientation by itself. When rotating, the orientation of this axis is unaffected by tilting or rotation of the mounting, according to the conservation of angular momentum, because of this, gyroscopes are useful for measuring or maintaining orientation. Due to their precision, gyroscopes are used in gyrotheodolites to maintain direction in tunnel mining. Gyroscopes can be used to construct gyrocompasses, which complement or replace magnetic compasses, a gyroscope is a wheel mounted in two or three gimbals, which are a pivoted supports that allow the rotation of the wheel about a single axis. In the case of a gyroscope with two gimbals, the gimbal, which is the gyroscope frame, is mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane determined by the support. This outer gimbal possesses one degree of freedom and its axis possesses none. The inner gimbal is mounted in the frame so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane that is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the gyroscope frame. This inner gimbal has two degrees of rotational freedom, the axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The rotor is constrained to spin about an axis, which is perpendicular to the axis of the inner gimbal. So the rotor possesses three degrees of freedom and its axis possesses two. The wheel responds to a force applied to the axis by a reaction force to the output axis. The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated by consideration of the front wheel of a bicycle. If the wheel is leaned away from the vertical so that the top of the moves to the left. In other words, rotation on one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the third axis, a gyroscope flywheel will roll or resist about the output axis depending upon whether the output gimbals are of a free or fixed configuration. Examples of some free-output-gimbal devices would be the attitude reference gyroscopes used to sense or measure the pitch, roll, the centre of gravity of the rotor can be in a fixed position. Some gyroscopes have mechanical equivalents substituted for one or more of the elements, for example, the spinning rotor may be suspended in a fluid, instead of being pivotally mounted in gimbals. In some special cases, the outer gimbal may be omitted so that the rotor has two degrees of freedom. Essentially, a gyroscope is a top combined with a pair of gimbals, Tops were invented in many different civilizations, including classical Greece, Rome, and China
29.
Accelerometer
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An accelerometer is a device that measures proper acceleration, proper acceleration is not the same as coordinate acceleration. For example, an accelerometer at rest on the surface of the Earth will measure an acceleration due to Earths gravity, by contrast, accelerometers in free fall will measure zero. Accelerometers have multiple applications in industry and science, highly sensitive accelerometers are components of inertial navigation systems for aircraft and missiles. Accelerometers are used to detect and monitor vibration in rotating machinery, accelerometers are used in tablet computers and digital cameras so that images on screens are always displayed upright. Accelerometers are used in drones for flight stabilisation, coordinated accelerometers can be used to measure differences in proper acceleration, particularly gravity, over their separation in space, i. e. gradient of the gravitational field. This gravity gradiometry is useful because absolute gravity is a weak effect, micromachined accelerometers are increasingly present in portable electronic devices and video game controllers, to detect the position of the device or provide for game input. An accelerometer measures proper acceleration, which is the acceleration it experiences relative to freefall and is the acceleration felt by people and objects. Put another way, at any point in spacetime the equivalence principle guarantees the existence of an inertial frame. Such accelerations are popularly denoted g-force, i. e. in comparison to standard gravity, an accelerometer at rest relative to the Earths surface will indicate approximately 1 g upwards, because any point on the Earths surface is accelerating upwards relative to the local inertial frame. The reason for the appearance of an offset is Einsteins equivalence principle. For similar reasons, an accelerometer will read zero during any type of free fall and this includes use in a coasting spaceship in deep space far from any mass, a spaceship orbiting the Earth, an airplane in a parabolic zero-g arc, or any free-fall in vacuum. Another example is free-fall at a high altitude that atmospheric effects can be neglected. However this does not include a fall in air resistance produces drag forces that reduce the acceleration. At terminal velocity the accelerometer will indicate 1 g acceleration upwards, Acceleration is quantified in the SI unit metres per second per second, in the cgs unit gal, or popularly in terms of standard gravity. For the practical purpose of finding the acceleration of objects with respect to the Earth, such as for use in a navigation system. This can be obtained either by calibrating the device at rest, conceptually, an accelerometer behaves as a damped mass on a spring. When the accelerometer experiences an acceleration, the mass is displaced to the point that the spring is able to accelerate the mass at the rate as the casing. The displacement is measured to give the acceleration
30.
Magnetometer
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A compass is a simple example of a magnetometer, one that measures the direction of an ambient magnetic field. Magnetometers are widely used for measuring the Earths magnetic field and in geophysical surveys to detect anomalies of various types. They are also used in the military to detect submarines, consequently, some countries, such as the United States, Canada and Australia, classify the more sensitive magnetometers as military technology, and control their distribution. Magnetic fields are vector quantities characterized by strength and direction. The strength of a field is measured in units of tesla in the SI units. 10,000 gauss are equal to one tesla, measurements of the Earths magnetic field are often quoted in units of nanotesla, also called a gamma. Gaussmeters and teslameters are magnetometers that measure in units of gauss or tesla, in some contexts, magnetometer is the term used for an instrument that measures fields of less than 1 millitesla and gaussmeter is used for those measuring greater than 1 mT. There are two types of magnetometer measurement. Vector magnetometers measure the components of a magnetic field. Total field magnetometers or scalar magnetometers measure the magnitude of the magnetic field. Magnetometers used to study the Earths magnetic field may express the components of the field in terms of declination. Absolute magnetometers measure the magnitude or vector magnetic field, using an internal calibration or known physical constants of the magnetic sensor. Relative magnetometers measure magnitude or vector magnetic field relative to a fixed but uncalibrated baseline, also called variometers, relative magnetometers are used to measure variations in magnetic field. Magnetometers may also be classified by their situation or intended use, stationary magnetometers are installed to a fixed position and measurements are taken while the magnetometer is stationary. Portable or mobile magnetometers are meant to be used while in motion, laboratory magnetometers are used to measure the magnetic field of materials placed within them and are typically stationary. The performance and capabilities of magnetometers are described through their technical specifications, major specifications include Sample rate is the amount of readings given per second. The inverse is the time in seconds per reading. Sample rate is important in mobile magnetometers, the sample rate, bandwidth or bandpass characterizes how well a magnetometer tracks rapid changes in magnetic field
31.
Creative Commons license
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A Creative Commons license is one of several public copyright licenses that enable the free distribution of an otherwise copyrighted work. A CC license is used when an author wants to give people the right to share, use, there are several types of CC licenses. The licenses differ by several combinations that condition the terms of distribution and they were initially released on December 16,2002 by Creative Commons, a U. S. non-profit corporation founded in 2001. There have also been five versions of the suite of licenses, as of 2016, the 4.0 license suite is the most current. In October 2014 the Open Knowledge Foundation approved the Creative Commons CC BY, CC BY-SA, work licensed under a Creative Commons license is governed by applicable copyright law. This allows Creative Commons licenses to be applied to all work falling under copyright, including, books, plays, movies, music, articles, photographs, blogs, Creative Commons does not recommend the use of Creative Commons licenses for software. There are over 35,000 works that are available in hardcopy and have a registered ISBN number, Creative Commons splits these works into two categories, one of which encompasses self-published books. However, application of a Creative Commons license may not modify the rights allowed by fair use or fair dealing or exert restrictions which violate copyright exceptions, furthermore, Creative Commons licenses are non-exclusive and non-revocable. Any work or copies of the work obtained under a Creative Commons license may continue to be used under that license, in the case of works protected by multiple Creative Common licenses, the user may choose either. The CC licenses all grant the rights, such as the right to distribute the copyrighted work worldwide for non-commercial purposes. For software, Creative Commons includes three free licenses created by other institutions, the BSD License, the GNU LGPL, mixing and matching these conditions produces sixteen possible combinations, of which eleven are valid Creative Commons licenses and five are not. Of the five invalid combinations, four include both the nd and sa clauses, which are exclusive, and one includes none of the clauses. Of the eleven valid combinations, the five that lack the by clause have been retired because 98% of licensors requested attribution, to address this issue, Creative Commons asked its affiliates to translate the various licenses to reflect local laws in a process called porting. As of July 2011, Creative Commons licenses have been ported to over 50 jurisdictions worldwide, the latest version 4.0 of the Creative Commons licenses, released on November 25,2013, are generic licenses that are applicable to most jurisdictions and do not usually require ports. No new ports have implemented in version 4.0 of the license. Version 4.0 discourages using ported versions and instead acts as a single global license, since 2004, all current licenses require attribution of the original author, the BY component. The attribution must be given to the best of ability using the information available, generally this implies the following, Include any copyright notices. Cite the authors name, screen name, or user ID, if the work is being published on the Internet, it is nice to link that name to the persons profile page, if such a page exists
32.
Consumer Electronics Show
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The Consumer Electronics Show is an annual trade show organized by the Consumer Technology Association. Held in January at the Las Vegas Convention Center in Las Vegas, Nevada, United States, the first CES was held in June 1967 in New York City. It was a spinoff from the Chicago Music Show, which then had served as the main event for exhibiting consumer electronics. The event had 17,500 attendees and over 100 exhibitors, from 1978 to 1994, CES was held twice each year, once in January in Las Vegas known as Winter Consumer Electronics Show and once in June in Chicago, known as Summer Consumer Electronics Show. The winter show was held in Las Vegas in 1995 as planned. However, the inaugural E3 gaming show was scheduled to be held on the West Coast in May and proved a source of increasing competition, causing the Philadelphia Summer CES show to be cancelled. The 1996 Winter show was held in Las Vegas in January, followed by a Summer show this time in Orlando, Florida. Again, the 1997 Winter show in Las Vegas was very successful, the next Summer show was scheduled to be held in conjunction with Spring COMDEX in Atlanta, however when only two dozen-or-so exhibitors signed on, the CES portion of the show was cancelled. In 1998, the changed to a once-a-year format with Las Vegas as the location. In Las Vegas, the show is one of the largest, taking up to 18 days to set up, run, organizers held the first CES in New York City from June 24 to 28,1967. The 200 exhibitors attracted 17,500 attendees to the Hilton, on view, the latest pocket radios and TVs sporting integrated circuits. In a one-time experiment, the Summer CES1993 was open to the general public, major announcements during this edition were, Capcom unveils Mega Man X First Time in North American. The Blu-ray Group held at the January 2004 CES the first US press conference to promote the Blu-ray Disc format, the 2005 CES was from January 6–9,2005, in Las Vegas, Nevada at the Las Vegas Convention Center. Samsung showed off a 102-inch plasma television, zimiti Ltd won the Best of Innovators award for Personal Electronics. It is the only British company to have won this award, the 2006 exhibition took place on January 5–8,2006 at the Las Vegas Convention Center, the Sands Convention Center, the Alexis Park Hotel and the Las Vegas Hilton Hotel. HDTV was a theme in the Bill Gates keynote as well as many of the other manufacturers speeches. The standards competition between HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc was conspicuous, with some of the first HD movie releases, philips showed a rollable display prototype whose screen can retain an image for several months without electricity. Hillcrest Labs won the Best Of Innovations award in the video category for software and hardware that allows a television to be controlled with natural gestures
33.
Persistence of vision
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The illusion has also been described as retinal persistence, persistence of impressions or simply persistence and other variations. This has been believed to be the explanation for motion perception in cinema and animated films and it is assumed that the illusion that film historians often refer to as persistence of vision is the same as what is known as positive afterimages by psychologists. Early descriptions of the illusion often attributed the effect purely to imperfections of the eye, nerves and parts of the brain later became part of explanations. Sensory memory has been cited as a cause, the fact that a glowing coal appears as a line of light when it is moved around quickly has been used to illustrate the idea of persistence of vision. It is known as the sparklers trail effect, named after the trail that appears when a sparkler is moved around quickly, the effect has been applied in the arts by writing or drawing with a light source recorded by a camera with a long exposure time. A pencil or another rigid straight line can appear as bending and becoming rubbery when it is wiggled fast enough between fingers, or otherwise undergoing rigid motion, Persistence of vision has been discarded as sole cause of the illusion. It is thought that the eye movements of the observer fail to track the motions of features of the object, the effect is known as a magic trick for children. In April 1825 the first Thaumatrope was published by W. Phillips, in 1824 the theory was used to explain the illusion of still spokes seen in a rotating wheel. Further research into this phenomenon resulted in the invention of animated moving images in 1832, the optical illusion of motion appearing as a still image led to an optical illusion of still images appearing as motion. Aristotle noted that the image of the sun remained in his vision after he stopped looking at it, the discovery of persistence of vision is sometimes attributed to the Roman poet Lucretius, although he only mentions it in connection with images seen in a dream. Leonardo da Vinci and Isaac Newton were also curious about the phenomenon, in 1820 a letter to Quarterly Journal of Science noted that the spokes of a rotating wheel seen through fence slats appeared with peculiar curvatures. Writer J. M. asked readers for an explanation, four years later Peter Mark Roget addressed this observation in a paper, “However rapidly the wheel revolves, each individual spoke, during the moment it is viewed, appears to be at rest. Roget claimed that the illusion is due to the fact “that an impression made by a pencil of rays on the retina, if sufficiently vivid and he later read Peter Mark Rogets 1824 article and decided to investigate the phenomenon further. He published his findings in Correspondance Mathématique et Physique in 1828 and 1830 and he referred to Rogets paper and described his associated new findings. Much was similar to what Plateau had published and Faraday later acknowledged this, Faradays experiments of turning wheels in front of the mirror inspired Plateau with the idea for new illusions. In July 1832 Plateau sent a letter to Faraday and added a circle that produced a “completely immobile image of a little. After several attempts and many difficulties Plateau constructed a model of the phénakisticope in November or December 1832. Plateau published his invention in a January 21,1833 letter to Correspondance Mathématique et Physique, simon Stampfer simultaneously and independently invented his very similar Stroboscopischen Scheiben oder optischen Zauberscheiben soon after he read about Faradays findings in December 1832
34.
Samsung Galaxy Note 3
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Samsung Galaxy Note 3 is an Android phablet smartphone produced by Samsung Electronics. The Galaxy Note 3 was unveiled on September 4,2013, Samsung has sold 5 million units of the Galaxy Note 3 within its first month of sale and broke 10 million units sales in just 2 months. The Galaxy Note 3s design was intended to carry a more upscale, with a thickness of 8.3 mm, it is slightly thinner than the Galaxy Note II, and is also slightly lighter. Testing has shown similar performance for both models, the device also includes 3 GB of RAM, a 5. As with other Galaxy Note series devices, the Galaxy Note 3 ships with an S Pen stylus, the Galaxy Note 3 is also the first smartphone to include support for USB3.0, which enables faster data transfers and charging when connected to a compatible port. The Galaxy Note 3 was first made available in black, white, in December 2013, Samsung introduced three new color schemes for select markets, black with gold-colored trim, white with rose gold-colored trim, and red with silver-colored trim. The Galaxy Note 3 comes with Android 4.3 Jelly Bean and Samsungs proprietary TouchWiz NatureUX2.5 user interface and software. The multi-window functionality has also updated with expanded app support, the ability to run multiple instances of a single app. The device also ships with a news aggregator app known as My Magazine, accessible by swiping up from the bottom of the screen, and an updated version of S Note. On January 13,2014, an update to Android 4.4 KitKat was first made available through Samsung Kies in Poland for LTE models, Samsung began rolling out an update to Android 5.0 Lollipop in January 2015. Samsung first teased the unveiling of the Galaxy Note 3 with its announcement of a Samsung Unpacked event on September 4,2013 at IFA Berlin, which contained the tagline Note the date. The international Galaxy Note 3 was released on September 25,2013 in over 140 countries, while its U. S. all Galaxy Note 3s will also include a free one-year subscription to Evernote Premium. While a Samsung spokesperson claimed that the lock would be removed once a valid SIM card is used, although an XDA Developers user developed a tool to clear the carrier blacklist that the system uses, it requires that the phone be rooted. Samsung also stated that it implemented a policy on Galaxy S III, Note II, S4. Its overall design was considered to be cohesive and well thought-out despite Samsungs continuing use of plastic, however, the My Magazine app was panned for being a tacked on gimmick. Samsung Galaxy Note series Comparison of smartphones
35.
Head-related transfer function
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A head-related transfer function is a response that characterizes how an ear receives a sound from a point in space. Generally speaking, the HRTF boosts frequencies from 2 -5 kHz with a resonance of +17 dB at 2,700 Hz. But the response curve is more complex than a bump, affects a broad frequency spectrum. A pair of HRTFs for two ears can be used to synthesize a sound that seems to come from a particular point in space. It is a function, describing how a sound from a specific point will arrive at the ear. Some consumer home entertainment products designed to surround sound from stereo headphones use HRTFs. Some forms of HRTF-processing have also included in computer software to simulate surround sound playback from loudspeakers. Humans have just two ears, but can locate sounds in three dimensions – in range, in direction above and below, in front and to the rear and this is possible because the brain, inner ear and the external ears work together to make inferences about location. Humans estimate the location of a source by taking cues derived from one ear, among the difference cues are time differences of arrival and intensity differences. These modifications encode the source location, and may be captured via a response which relates the source location. This impulse response is termed the head-related impulse response, hRIRs have been used to produce virtual surround sound. The HRTF is the Fourier transform of HRIR, the HRTF is also sometimes known as the anatomical transfer function. HRTFs for left and right ear describe the filtering of a sound source before it is perceived at the left and right ears as xL and xR, respectively. The HRTF can also be described as the modifications to a sound from a direction in free air to the sound as it arrives at the eardrum. These modifications include the shape of the outer ear, the shape of the listeners head and body, the acoustic characteristics of the space in which the sound is played. All these characteristics will influence how a listener can accurately tell what direction a sound is coming from, in the AES69-2015 standard, the Audio Engineering Society has defined the SOFA file format for storing spatially oriented acoustic data like head-related transfer functions. SOFA software libraries and files are collected at the Sofa Conventions website, the associated mechanism varies between individuals, as their head and ear shapes differ. Linear systems analysis defines the function as the complex ratio between the output signal spectrum and the input signal spectrum as a function of frequency
36.
South by Southwest
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South by Southwest is an annual conglomerate of film, interactive media, and music festivals and conferences that take place in mid-March in Austin, Texas, United States. It began in 1987, and has continued to grow in scope and size every year. In 2011, the conference lasted for 10 days with SXSW Interactive lasting for 5 days, Music for 6 days, SXSW is run by the company SXSW, LLC which organizes conferences, trade shows, festivals, and other events. SXSW Music is the largest music festival of its kind in the world, SXSW Music offers artist-provided music and video samples of featured artists at each festival via their official YouTube channel. The music event has grown from 700 registrants in 1987 to over 28,000 registrants, SXSW Film and SXSW Interactive events have grown every year, most recently bringing over 51,000 registrants to Austin every March. Bands must cover their own expenses for travel and lodging at the event, All performers are offered a cash payment or a wristband package that allows access to all music events. SXSW Film Conference spans five days of conference panels and sessions, programming consists of keynote speakers, panels, workshops, mentor sessions and more, with expert filmmakers and industry leaders. In 2015, the SXSW Film Conference programmed over 250 sessions with 735 speakers, the SXSW Film Festival runs nine days, simultaneously with the SXSW Film Conference, and celebrates raw innovation and emerging talent both behind and in front of the camera. The SXSW Film Awards, which occur on the last day of the Film Conference, honor films selected by the Feature, in 2015, the SXSW Film Festival programmed 150 feature films and 106 short films, selected from 7,361 submissions. Past notable world premieres include Furious 7, Neighbors, Chef,21 Jump Street, The Cabin in the Woods, Bridesmaids and Insidious, and the TV series Girls, Silicon Valley and Penny Dreadful. SXSW Interactive is focused on emerging technology, a focus which has earned the festival a reputation as a ground for new ideas. The festival includes a show, speakers, parties. According to a festival organizer Louis Black, SXSW Interactive has probably been the biggest of its kind in the world since 2007, Louis Meyers, a booking agent and musician, was also brought on board. Black came up with the name, as a play on the name of the Alfred Hitchcock film North by Northwest, the event was first held in March 1987. The organizers considered it an event and expected around 150 attendees to show up, but over 700 came. Meyers left Austin and the festival in the early 1990s, but Black, Barbaro, singer-songwriter Michelle Shocked was the keynote speaker at the 1992 South by Southwest. In 1993, SXSW moved into the Austin Convention Center, where it is still held, in 1994, SXSW added a component for film and other media, named the SXSW Film and Multimedia Conference. Johnny Cash was the keynote speaker and that year, the three brothers of the band Hanson were brought to SXSW by their father in order to perform impromptu auditions for music executives, in the hopes of getting industry attention
37.
Telecine
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Telecine is the process of transferring motion picture film into video and is performed in a color suite. The term is used to refer to the equipment used in the post-production process. Telecine enables a motion picture, captured originally on film stock, to be viewed with standard equipment, such as television sets, video cassette recorders, DVD. Within the film industry, it is referred to as a TK. With the advent of popular broadcast television, producers realized they needed more than live television programming, however, the difference in frame rates between film and television meant that simply playing a film into a television camera would result in flickering. Originally the kinescope was used to record the image from a display to film. This could then be re-played directly into a camera for re-display. Non-live programming could also be filmed using the cameras, edited mechanically as normal. As the film was run at the speed as the television. Color was supported by using a video camera, prisms. However, this still left film shot at cinema frame rates as a problem, the obvious solution is to simply speed up the film to match the television frame rates, but this, at least in the case of NTSC, is rather obvious to the eye and ear. This problem is not difficult to fix, however, the solution being to play a selected frame twice. For NTSC, the difference in rates can be corrected by showing every fourth frame of film twice. A more convincing technique is to use 2,3 pulldown, discussed below, PAL uses a similar system,2,2 pulldown. In recent decades, telecine has primarily been a film-to-videotape process, changes since the 1950s have primarily been in terms of equipment and physical formats, the basic concept remains the same. Home movies are video tapes of films that used this technique, the most complex part of telecine is the synchronization of the mechanical film motion and the electronic video signal. Every time the part of the telecine samples the light electronically. This is relatively easy when the film is photographed at the frame rate as the video camera will sample, but when this is not true
38.
Pupillary distance
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Pupillary distance or interpupillary distance is the distance between the centers of the pupils in each eye. This measurement is used when preparing to make prescription eyeglasses, positioning lenses correctly in relation to the centre of the pupils is especially important for higher powered lenses due to the location of the optical centre of the lenses. It can also be relevant to binoculars, they must be adjusted to suit the users IPD, someone with training in the field of optics can accurately measure a persons pupillary distance. There are also mobile phone and web apps that can measure ones pupillary distance, in very young children and babies, where the patient is unlikely to stay still, the optical professional will typically measure from one medial canthus to the other lateral canthus. The typical pupillary distance for adults is around 54–68 mm, while measurements generally fall between 48 and 73 mm, for children the measurement usually ranges from 41 to 55 mm. The 95 percentile adult male in the USA has an IPD of 68 mm and those are each the 5% of USA men at the far range and short range, respectively. For adult females in the USA the figures are 64 and 53 mm, for Europeans the figures are 1 mm less than the above. The IPD is one of the measurements used in anthropometry. The statistical spread of these measurements, usually expressed as percentiles, is used for many purposes, in the case of IPD, it is used in specifying the size range for eyeglasses, binoculars and other optics such as head-mounted display systems. Pupilometer Eyeglass prescription Variation and extrema of human interpupillary distance Optical Abbreviations and Glossary
39.
Degrees of freedom (mechanics)
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In physics, the degree of freedom of a mechanical system is the number of independent parameters that define its configuration. The position of a car moving along a track has one degree of freedom because the position of the car is defined by the distance along the track. A train of rigid cars connected by hinges to an engine still has one degree of freedom because the positions of the cars behind the engine are constrained by the shape of the track. An automobile with highly stiff suspension can be considered to be a body traveling on a plane. This body has three independent degrees of freedom consisting of two components of translation and one angle of rotation, skidding or drifting is a good example of an automobiles three independent degrees of freedom. The position and orientation of a body in space is defined by three components of translation and three components of rotation, which means that it has six degrees of freedom. The exact constraint mechanical design method manages the degrees of freedom to neither underconstrain nor overconstrain a device, the number of rotational degrees of freedom comes from the dimension of the rotation group SO. A non-rigid or deformable body may be thought of as a collection of many minute particles, when motion involving large displacements is the main objective of study, a deformable body may be approximated as a rigid body in order to simplify the analysis. The degree of freedom of a system can be viewed as the number of coordinates required to specify a configuration. This reduces the degree of freedom of the system to five, see also Euler angles The trajectory of an airplane in flight has three degrees of freedom and its attitude along the trajectory has three degrees of freedom, for a total of six degrees of freedom. The mobility formula counts the number of parameters that define the configuration of a set of bodies that are constrained by joints connecting these bodies. Consider a system of n rigid bodies moving in space has 6n degrees of freedom measured relative to a fixed frame. In order to count the degrees of freedom of this system, include the frame in the count of bodies. Then the degree-of-freedom of the system of N = n +1 is M =6 n =6. Joints that connect bodies in this system remove degrees of freedom, specifically, hinges and sliders each impose five constraints and therefore remove five degrees of freedom. It is convenient to define the number of constraints c that a joint imposes in terms of the joints freedom f, where c =6 − f. In the case of a hinge or slider, which are one degree of freedom joints, have f =1, the result is that the mobility of a system formed from n moving links and j joints each with freedom fi, i =1. J, is given by M =6 n − ∑ i =1 j =6 + ∑ i =1 j f i Recall that N includes the fixed link, there are two important special cases, a simple open chain, and a simple closed chain
40.
Haswell (microarchitecture)
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Haswell is the codename for a processor microarchitecture developed by Intel as the fourth-generation core successor to the Ivy Bridge microarchitecture. Intel officially announced CPUs based on this microarchitecture on June 4,2013 at Computex Taipei 2013, with Haswell, which uses a 22 nm process, Intel also introduced low-power processors designed for convertible or hybrid ultrabooks, designated by the Y suffix. Haswell CPUs are used in conjunction with the Intel 8 Series chipsets, Intel 9 Series chipsets, the Haswell architecture is specifically designed to optimize the power savings and performance benefits from the move to FinFET transistors on the improved 22 nm process node. Haswell has been launched in three forms, Desktop version, Haswell-DT Mobile/Laptop version, Haswell-MB BGA version,47 W and 57 W TDP classes. All other models have GT3, GT2 or GT1 integrated graphics, see also Intel HD and Iris Graphics for more details. Due to the low power requirements of tablet and UltraBook platforms, Haswell-ULT, native support for dual-channel DDR3 memory, with up to 32 GB of RAM on LGA1150 variants 64 KB L1 cache and 256 KB L2 cache per core A total of 16 PCI Express 3. The instruction decode queue, which holds instructions after they have been decoded, is no longer statically partitioned between the two threads that each core can service, new sockets and chipsets, LGA1150 for desktops, and rPGA947 and BGA1364 for the mobile market. Z97 and H97 chipsets for the Haswell Refresh and Broadwell, in Q22014, LGA 2011-v3 with X99 chipset for the enthusiast-class desktop platform Haswell-E. Intel Transactional Synchronization Extensions for the Haswell-EX variant, hardware graphics support for Direct3D11.1 and OpenGL4.3. Intel 10.18.14.4578 driver is the last planned release on Windows 7/8.1. DDR4 for the enthusiast and enterprise/server segments and for the Enthusiast-Class Desktop Platform Haswell-E Variable Base clock like LGA2011, four versions of the integrated GPU, GT1, GT2, GT3 and GT3e, where GT3 version has 40 execution units. Haswells predecessor, Ivy Bridge, has a maximum of 16 EUs, GT3e version with 40 EUs and on-package 128 MB of embedded DRAM, called Crystalwell, is available only in mobile H-SKUs and desktop R-SKUs. Effectively, this eDRAM is a Level 4 cache, it is shared dynamically between the on-die GPU and CPU, and serving as a cache to the CPUs Level 3 cache. Optional support for Thunderbolt technology and Thunderbolt 2.0 Fully integrated voltage regulator, new advanced power-saving system, due to Haswells new low-power C6 and C7 sleep states, not all power supply units are suitable for computers with Haswell CPUs. 37,47,57 W thermal design power mobile processors,35,45,65,84,88,95 and 130–140 W TDP desktop processors. 15 W TDP processors for the Ultrabook platform leading to reduced heat, which results in thinner as well as lighter Ultrabooks, shrink of the Platform Controller Hub, from 65 nm to 32 nm. Haswell-EP variant, released in September 2014, with up to 18 cores and marketed as the Xeon E5-1600 v3, Haswell-EX variant is expected to be released in 2015, with 18 cores and functioning TSX. Up to 35 MB total unified cache for Haswell-EP and up to 40 MB for Haswell-EX, LGA 2011-v3 socket replaces LGA2011 for the Haswell EP, the new socket has the same number of pins, but it is keyed differently due to electrical incompatibility
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AMD Radeon Rx 200 series
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The Rx 200 series is a family of GPUs developed by AMD. A preview was seen on September 25,2013 and these GPUs are manufactured on a 28 nm Gate-Last process through TSMC or Common Platform Alliance. The Rx 200 series was announced on September 25,2013, non-disclosure agreements were lifted on October 15, except for the R9 290X, and pre-orders opened on October 3. This article is about all products under the AMD Radeon Rx 200 Series brand, a GPU implementing Graphics Core Next 3 is found on the R9285 branded products. A GPU implementing Graphics Core Next 2 is found on R7260, R7 260X, R9290, R9 290X, and R9 295X2 branded products. A GPU implementing Graphics Core Next 1 is found on R9270, 270X,280, 280X, R7240,250, 250X,265, a GPU implementing TeraScale 2 is found on R5 235X and below branded products. The AMD Eyefinity-branded on-die display controllers were introduced in September 2009 in the Radeon HD5000 Series and have been present in all products since, AMD TrueAudio was introduced with the AMD Radeon Rx 200 Series, but can only be found on the dies of GCN 2/3 products. AMDs SIP core for video acceleration, Unified Video Decoder and Video Coding Engine, are found on all GPUs and supported by AMD Catalyst and by the free, Radeon GPUs once performed better in cryptocurrency mining than their Nvidia GeForce counterparts. This led to limited supply and huge price increases in Q4 of 2013, since Q2 of 2014 availability of AMD GPUs as well as pricing has, in most cases, returned to normal. Because many of the products in the range are rebadged versions of Radeon HD products, for example, the Radeon HD7770 and Radeon R7 250X both use the Cape Verde XT chip so have identical specifications and will work in CrossFire mode. This provides an upgrade option for anyone who owns an existing Radeon HD card and has a CrossFire compatible motherboard. The Radeon R9 295X2 was released on April 21,2014, press samples were shipped in a metal case. It is the first reference card to utilize a closed looped liquid cooler, the R9 295x2 has essentially two R9 290x GPUs each with 4GB GDDR5 VRAM. The Radeon R9 290X, codename Hawaii XT, was released on October 24,2013 and features 2816 Stream Processors,176 TMUs,64 ROPs, the R9 290X had a launch price of $549. The Radeon R9290 and R9 290X were announced on September 25,2013, the R9290 is based on AMDs Hawaii Pro chip and R9 290X on Hawaii XT. R9290 and R9 290X will support AMD TrueAudio, Mantle, Direct3D11.2, a limited Battlefield 4 Edition pre-order bundle of R9 290X that includes Battlefield 4 was available on October 3,2013, with reported quantity being 8,000. The R9290 had a price of $399. The Radeon R9285 was announced on August 23,2014 at AMDs 30 years of graphics celebration and it was the first card to feature AMDs GCN3 microarchitecture, in the form of a Tonga-series GPU
42.
X86-64
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X86-64 is the 64-bit version of the x86 instruction set. It supports vastly larger amounts of memory and physical memory than is possible on its 32-bit predecessors. X86-64 also provides 64-bit general-purpose registers and numerous other enhancements and it is fully backward compatible with 16-bit and 32-bit x86 code. The original specification, created by AMD and released in 2000, has been implemented by AMD, Intel, the AMD K8 processor was the first to implement the architecture, this was the first significant addition to the x86 architecture designed by a company other than Intel. Intel was forced to suit and introduced a modified NetBurst family which was fully software-compatible with AMDs design. VIA Technologies introduced x86-64 in their VIA Isaiah architecture, with the VIA Nano, the x86-64 specification is distinct from the Intel Itanium architecture, which is not compatible on the native instruction set level with the x86 architecture. AMD64 was created as an alternative to the radically different IA-64 architecture, the first AMD64-based processor, the Opteron, was released in April 2003. AMDs processors implementing the AMD64 architecture include Opteron, Athlon 64, Athlon 64 X2, Athlon 64 FX, Athlon II, Turion 64, Turion 64 X2, Sempron, Phenom, Phenom II, FX, Fusion and Ryzen. The primary defining characteristic of AMD64 is the availability of 64-bit general-purpose processor registers, 64-bit integer arithmetic and logical operations, the designers took the opportunity to make other improvements as well. Some of the most significant changes are described below, pushes and pops on the stack default to 8-byte strides, and pointers are 8 bytes wide. Additional registers In addition to increasing the size of the general-purpose registers, AMD64 still has fewer registers than many common RISC instruction sets or VLIW-like machines such as the IA-64. However, an AMD64 implementation may have far more internal registers than the number of architectural registers exposed by the instruction set, additional XMM registers Similarly, the number of 128-bit XMM registers is also increased from 8 to 16. Larger virtual address space The AMD64 architecture defines a 64-bit virtual address format and this allows up to 256 TB of virtual address space. The architecture definition allows this limit to be raised in future implementations to the full 64 bits and this is compared to just 4 GB for the x86. This means that very large files can be operated on by mapping the entire file into the address space, rather than having to map regions of the file into. Larger physical address space The original implementation of the AMD64 architecture implemented 40-bit physical addresses, current implementations of the AMD64 architecture extend this to 48-bit physical addresses and therefore can address up to 256 TB of RAM. The architecture permits extending this to 52 bits in the future, for comparison, 32-bit x86 processors are limited to 64 GB of RAM in Physical Address Extension mode, or 4 GB of RAM without PAE mode. Any implementation therefore allows the physical address limit as under long mode
43.
Microsoft Windows
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Microsoft Windows is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft. It consists of families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry with the OS typically associated with IBM PC compatible architecture. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows Embedded and Windows Phone, defunct Windows families include Windows 9x, Windows 10 Mobile is an active product, unrelated to the defunct family Windows Mobile. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20,1985, Microsoft Windows came to dominate the worlds personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. Apple came to see Windows as an encroachment on their innovation in GUI development as implemented on products such as the Lisa. On PCs, Windows is still the most popular operating system, however, in 2014, Microsoft admitted losing the majority of the overall operating system market to Android, because of the massive growth in sales of Android smartphones. In 2014, the number of Windows devices sold was less than 25% that of Android devices sold and this comparison however may not be fully relevant, as the two operating systems traditionally target different platforms. As of September 2016, the most recent version of Windows for PCs, tablets, smartphones, the most recent versions for server computers is Windows Server 2016. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console, Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector of the computing industry. It now consists of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the time and share the same kernel. Windows, The operating system for personal computers, tablets. The latest version is Windows 10, the main competitor of this family is macOS by Apple Inc. for personal computers and Android for mobile devices. Windows Server, The operating system for server computers, the latest version is Windows Server 2016. Unlike its clients sibling, it has adopted a strong naming scheme, the main competitor of this family is Linux. Windows PE, A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as an operating system, used for installing Windows on bare-metal computers. The latest version is Windows PE10.0.10586.0, Windows Embedded, Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resource-limited to be called a full-fledged computer. The following Windows families are no longer being developed, Windows 9x, Microsoft now caters to the consumers market with Windows NT. Windows Mobile, The predecessor to Windows Phone, it was a mobile operating system
44.
Windows 7
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Windows 7 is a personal computer operating system developed by Microsoft. It is a part of the Windows NT family of operating systems, Windows 7 was released to manufacturing on July 22,2009, and became generally available on October 22,2009, less than three years after the release of its predecessor, Windows Vista. Windows 7s server counterpart, Windows Server 2008 R2, was released at the same time, Windows 7 continued improvements on Windows Aero with the addition of a redesigned taskbar that allows applications to be pinned to it, and new window management features. Other new features were added to the system, including libraries, the new file sharing system HomeGroup. A new Action Center interface was added to provide an overview of system security and maintenance information. Windows 7 also shipped with updated versions of several applications, including Internet Explorer 8, Windows Media Player. Windows 7 was a success for Microsoft, even prior to its official release. Originally, a version of Windows codenamed Blackcomb was planned as the successor to Windows XP, major features were planned for Blackcomb, including an emphasis on searching and querying data and an advanced storage system named WinFS to enable such scenarios. However, an interim, minor release, codenamed Longhorn, was announced for 2003, by the middle of 2003, however, Longhorn had acquired some of the features originally intended for Blackcomb. Development of Longhorn was also restarted, and thus delayed, in August 2004, a number of features were cut from Longhorn. Blackcomb was renamed Vienna in early 2006, as such, adoption of Vista in comparison to XP remained somewhat low. In July 2007, six months following the release of Vista, it was reported that the next version of Windows would then be codenamed Windows 7. Bill Gates, in an interview with Newsweek, suggested that Windows 7 would be more user-centric, Gates later said that Windows 7 would also focus on performance improvements. Senior Vice President Bill Veghte stated that Windows Vista users migrating to Windows 7 would not find the kind of device compatibility issues they encountered migrating from Windows XP, an estimated 1,000 developers worked on Windows 7. These were broadly divided into core operating system and Windows client experience, in October 2008, it was announced that Windows 7 would also be the official name of the operating system. The first external release to select Microsoft partners came in January 2008 with Milestone 1, at PDC2008, Microsoft demonstrated Windows 7 with its reworked taskbar. On December 27,2008, the Windows 7 Beta was leaked onto the Internet via BitTorrent. According to a performance test by ZDNet, Windows 7 Beta beat both Windows XP and Vista in several key areas, including boot and shutdown time and working with files, such as loading documents
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Linux
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Linux is a Unix-like computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open-source software development and distribution. The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17,1991 by Linus Torvalds, the Free Software Foundation uses the name GNU/Linux to describe the operating system, which has led to some controversy. Linux was originally developed for computers based on the Intel x86 architecture. Because of the dominance of Android on smartphones, Linux has the largest installed base of all operating systems. Linux is also the operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe computers. It is used by around 2. 3% of desktop computers, the Chromebook, which runs on Chrome OS, dominates the US K–12 education market and represents nearly 20% of the sub-$300 notebook sales in the US. Linux also runs on embedded systems – devices whose operating system is built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system. This includes TiVo and similar DVR devices, network routers, facility automation controls, televisions, many smartphones and tablet computers run Android and other Linux derivatives. The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free, the underlying source code may be used, modified and distributed—commercially or non-commercially—by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License. Typically, Linux is packaged in a known as a Linux distribution for both desktop and server use. Distributions intended to run on servers may omit all graphical environments from the standard install, because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any intended use. The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&Ts Bell Laboratories in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, first released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in assembly language, as was common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, it was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie, the availability of a high-level language implementation of Unix made its porting to different computer platforms easier. Due to an earlier antitrust case forbidding it from entering the computer business, as a result, Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs, freed of the legal obligation requiring free licensing, the GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, has the goal of creating a complete Unix-compatible software system composed entirely of free software. Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software Foundation, by the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system were completed, although low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete. Linus Torvalds has stated that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time, although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Torvalds has also stated that if 386BSD had been available at the time, although the complete source code of MINIX was freely available, the licensing terms prevented it from being free software until the licensing changed in April 2000
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