1.
Turkish language
–
Outside of Turkey, significant smaller groups of speakers exist in Germany, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Northern Cyprus, Greece, the Caucasus, and other parts of Europe and Central Asia. Cyprus has requested that the European Union add Turkish as an official EU language, in 1928, as one of Atatürks Reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with a Latin alphabet. The distinctive characteristics of Turkish are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination, the basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb. Turkish has no classes or grammatical gender. Turkish has a strong T–V distinction and usage of honorifics, Turkish uses second-person pronouns that distinguish varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a person out of respect. Turkic languages belong to the Altaic language group, the Turkic family comprises some 30 living languages spoken across Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of languages, a subgroup of the Turkic language family, there is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and the other Oghuz Turkic languages, including Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia, erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan, these date back to the second Turk Kaghanate. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, following the adoption of Islam c. Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry, was influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a reform to replace loanwords of Arabic. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the terms of Arabic or Persian origin. The past few decades have seen the work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance, however, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, political party—also failed to meet with popular approval, some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings, for example betik is now used to mean script in computer science
Turkish language
–
Old Turkic inscription with the
Orkhon script (c. 8th century).
Kyzyl, Russia
Turkish language
–
Countries where Turkish is an official language
Turkish language
–
Road signs in
Prizren,
Republic of Kosovo. Official languages are:
Albanian (top),
Serbian (middle) and Turkish (bottom).
Turkish language
–
Map of the main subgroups of
Turkish dialects.
2.
Maid
–
The most widespread standard for configuring multiple hard disk drives is RAID, which comes in a number of standard configurations and non-standard configurations. SPAN or BIG, A method of combining the free space on multiple hard drives from JBoD to create a spanned volume. Such a concatenation is sometimes also called BIG/SPAN, a SPAN or BIG is generally a spanned volume only, as it often contains mismatched types and sizes of hard disk drives. JBOD is an architecture using multiple hard drives exposed as individual devices, a spanned volume provides no redundancy, so failure of a single hard drive amounts to failure of the whole logical volume. Redundancy for resilience and/or bandwidth improvement may be provided, in software, concatenation or spanning of drives is not one of the numbered RAID levels, but it is a popular method for combining multiple physical disk drives into a single logical disk. Drives are merely concatenated together, end to beginning, so they appear to be a large disk. It may be referred to as SPAN or BIG, in the adjacent diagram, data are concatenated from the end of disk 0 to the beginning of disk 1, end of disk 1 to the beginning of disk 2. If RAID0 were used, then disk 0 and disk 2 would be truncated to 28 blocks, what makes a SPAN or BIG different from RAID configurations is the possibility for the selection of drives. The initial release of Microsofts Windows Home Server employs drive extender technology and this storage is presented to the user as a single set of network shares. This feature was removed from Windows Home Server in its subsequent major release, Greyhole, a disk-pooling application, implements what it calls a storage pool. This pool is created by presenting to the user, through Samba shares, Greyhole also provides data redundancy through software - the user can configure, per share, the number of file copies that Greyhole is to maintain. Greyhole will then ensure that for each file in such shares, the user will only ever see one copy of each file. MAID is an architecture using hundreds to thousands of hard drives for providing nearline storage of data, MAID is designed for Write Once, Read Occasionally applications. Compared to RAID technology, MAID has increased storage density, and decreased cost, electrical power, however, these advantages are at the cost of much increased latency, significantly lower throughput, and decreased redundancy. Drives designed for multiple spin-up/down cycles are more expensive. Latency may be as high as tens of seconds, MAID can supplement or replace tape libraries in hierarchical storage management. To allow a more gradual tradeoff between time and power savings, some MAIDs such as Nexsans AutoMAID incorporate drives capable of spinning down to a lower speed. Large scale disk storage systems based on MAID architectures allow dense packaging of drives and are designed to have only 25% of disks spinning at any one time, nested RAID levels Non-standard RAID levels Standard RAID levels PCGuide – Just A Bunch Of Disks
Maid
3.
Seraglio
–
A seraglio or serail is the sequestered living quarters used by wives and concubines in an Ottoman household. The term harem is a term for domestic spaces reserved for women in a Muslim family. The etymology of this Italian word is unclear, in the context of the turquerie fashion, the seraglio became the subject of works of art, the most famous perhaps being Mozarts Singspiel, Die Entführung aus dem Serail. In Montesquieus Persian Letters, one of the characters, a Persian from the city of Isfahan, is described as an occupant of a seraglio. The Seraglio may refer specifically to the Topkapı Palace, the residence of the former Ottoman Sultans in Istanbul, the term can also refer to other traditional Turkish palaces—every imperial prince had his own—and other grand houses built around courtyards. In modern Italian the word is spelled serraglio and it may refer to a wall or structure for containment, for example of caged wild animals, or for defence, such as the Serraglio of Villafranca di Verona, a defensive wall built by the Scaligeri. The Seraglio is also an island on which Mantua is located
Seraglio
–
The gate of a seraglio. (
Topkapı Palace,
Istanbul)
Seraglio
–
An illustration of the women's quarters in a seraglio, by
John Frederick Lewis
Seraglio
–
Main entrance to a hall in a seraglio.
Seraglio
–
Sultan
Selim III holding an audience in front of the Gate of Felicity. Courtiers are assembled in a strict protocol, by
Konstantin Kapıdağlı (
Topkapı Palace,
Istanbul).
4.
Court ladies
–
A lady-in-waiting or Court Lady is a female personal assistant at a court, royal or feudal, attending on a royal woman or a high-ranking noblewoman. Historically, in Europe, a lady-in-waiting was often a noblewoman from a family in good society, although she may or may not have received compensation for the service she rendered, a lady-in-waiting was considered more of a companion to her mistress than a servant. In courts where polygamy was practiced, a lady was formally available to the monarch for sexual services. Lady-in-waiting or court lady is often a term for women whose relative rank, title. The development of the office of lady-in-waiting in Europe is connected to that of the development of a royal court, in the late 12th-century, the queens of France are confirmed to have had their own household, and noblewomen are mentioned as ladies-in-waiting. A number of tribes and cultural areas in the African continent, within certain traditional states of the Bini and Yoruba peoples in Nigeria, the queen mothers and high priestesses were considered ritually male due to their social eminence. Due to this fact, they were often attended on by women who belonged to their harems in much the way as their actually male counterparts were served by women who belonged to theirs. This resulted in a mix of Burgundian and Spanish customs when the Austrian court model was created, the first rank of the female courtiers was the Obersthofmeisterin, who was second in rank after the empress herself, and responsible for all the female courtiers. Second rank belonged to the ayas, essentially governesses of the imperial children, the rest of the female noble courtiers consisted of the Hoffräulein, unmarried females from the nobility who normally served temporarily until marriage. The Hoffräulein could sometimes be promoted to Kammerfräulein, the Austrian court model was the role model for the princely courts in Germany. The German court model in turn became the model of the early modern Scandinavian courts of Denmark. The Kingdom of Belgium was founded in 1830, after which a court was founded. The ladies-in waiting have historically been chosen by the Queen herself from among the Catholic noble houses of Belgium, the chief functions at court were undertaken by members of the higher nobility, involving much contact with the royal ladies. Belgian princesses were assigned a lady upon their 18th birthday, princess Clementine was given a Dame by her father, a symbolic act of adulthood. When the Queen entertains, the ladies welcome guests and assist the hostess in sustaining conversation and this system has formally remained roughly the same. However, in practice, many offices have since then left vacant. For example, in recent times, Maids of Honour have only appointed for coronations. The duties of ladies-in-waiting at the Tudor court were to act as royal companions, Tudor queens often had wide personal latitude in selection of their ladies-in-waiting
Court ladies
–
Marie Louise of Savoy-Carignan, Princesse de Lamballe was lady-in-waiting to Queen
Marie Antoinette of France.
Court ladies
–
The Countess of Airlie, the lady-in-waiting of
Queen Mary
Court ladies
–
Lettice Knollys, Countess of Essex and Leicester
5.
Ottoman Empire
–
After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
Ottoman Empire
–
Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. Painting from 1523.
Ottoman Empire
–
Flag (1844–1923)
Ottoman Empire
–
Battle of Mohács in 1526
Ottoman Empire
–
Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha defeats the
Holy League of
Charles V under the command of
Andrea Doria at the
Battle of Preveza in 1538.
6.
Sultan
–
Sultan is a noble title with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning strength, authority, rulership, derived from the verbal noun سلطة sulṭah, the dynasty and lands ruled by a sultan are referred to as a sultanate. A feminine form of sultan, used by Westerners, is Sultana or Sultanah, but Turkish and Ottoman Turkish also uses sultan for imperial lady, because Turkish grammar uses the same words for women and men. However, this styling misconstrues the roles of wives of sultans, in a similar usage, the wife of a German field marshal might be styled Frau Feldmarschall. The female leaders in Muslim history are known as sultanas. Special case in Brunei, the Queen Consort is known as Raja Isteri with suffix Pengiran Anak if the queen consort is a royal princess. Among those modern hereditary rulers who wish to emphasize their secular authority under the rule of law and these are generally secondary titles, either lofty poetry or with a message, e. g. g. Sultan ul-Mujahidin as champion of jihad, ghaznavid Sultanate Sultans of Great Seljuk Seljuk Sultanate of Rum Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, the Osmanli Elisu Sultanate and a few others. A Sultan ranked below a Khan and this usage underlines the Ottoman conception of sovereign power as family prerogative. Western tradition knows the Ottoman ruler as sultan, but Ottomans themselves used padişah or hünkar to refer to their ruler, the emperors formal title consisted of sultan together with khan. In formal address, the children were also entitled sultan, with imperial princes carrying the title before their given name. Example, Şehzade Sultan Mehmed and Mihrimah Sultan, son and daughter of Suleiman the Magnificent, henceforth, the mother of the reigning sultan was the only person of non imperial blood to carry the title sultan. In Kazakh Khanate a Sultan was a lord from the ruling dynasty elected by clans, the best of sultans was elected as khan by people at Kurultai. See ru, Казахские султаны In a number of states under Mongol or Turkic rule. These administrations were often decimal, using originally princely titles such as khan, malik, in the Persian empire, the rank of sultan was roughly equivalent to that of a modern-day captain in the West, socially in the fifth-rank class, styled Ali Jah
Sultan
–
Royal and noble ranks in Iran, Turkey, Caucasus, Pakistan and Afghanistan
Sultan
–
Sultan
Mehmed II is considered one of the most famous
Ottoman sultans.
Sultan
–
Ottoman Sultan
Mehmed IV attended by a eunuch and two pages.
Sultan
–
Artistic representation of
Saladin, the first
Ayyubid sultan of
Egypt and
Syria.
7.
Jules Joseph Lefebvre
–
Jules Joseph Lefebvre was a French figure painter, educator and theorist. Lefebvre was born in Tournan-en-Brie, Seine-et-Marne, on 14 March 1836 and he entered the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts in 1852 and was a pupil of Léon Cogniet. He won the prestigious Prix de Rome in 1861, between 1855 and 1898, he exhibited 72 portraits in the Paris Salon. In 1891, he became a member of the French Académie des Beaux-Arts and he was professor at the Académie Julian in Paris. Lefebvre is chiefly important as an excellent and sympathetic teacher who numbered many Americans among his 1500 or more pupils, tarbell, who became an American Impressionist painter. Another pupil was the miniaturist Alice Beckington, many of his paintings are single figures of beautiful women. Among his best portraits were those of M. L. Reynaud, Lefebvre died in Paris on 24 February 1911. org 42 images by Jules Joseph Lefebvre Art Renewal Centre – Lefebvre Gallery Paintingiant art--Jules Joseph Lefebvre
Jules Joseph Lefebvre
–
Jules Joseph Lefebvre.
Jules Joseph Lefebvre
–
Jules Lefebvre in his studio.
Jules Joseph Lefebvre
–
Jules Lefebvre: Vittoria Colonna, (1861)
Jules Joseph Lefebvre
–
Clémence Isaure
8.
Concubine
–
The woman in such a relationship is referred to as a concubine. The prevalence of concubinage and the status of rights and expectations of a concubine have varied between cultures as well as the rights of children of a concubine. Whatever the status and rights of the concubine, they were inferior to those of the wife. Historically, concubinage was frequently entered into voluntarily as it provided a measure of security for the woman involved. Involuntary or servile concubinage sometimes involved sexual slavery of one member of the relationship, nevertheless, sexual relations outside marriage were not uncommon, especially among royalty and nobility, and the woman in such relationships was commonly described as a mistress. However, the children of such relationships were counted as illegitimate and were barred from inheriting the title or estates. While various forms of sexual relationships and co-habitation short of marriage have become increasingly common in the Western world. The terms concubinage and concubine are used primarily when referring to non-marital partnerships of earlier eras. In modern usage, a domestic relationship is commonly referred to as co-habitation. Concubinage was highly popular before early 20th century all over Asia, the main function of concubinage was producing additional heirs, as well as bring males pleasure. Children of concubines had lower rights in account to inheritance, which was regulated by Dishu system, after that, even concubinage has been legally banned, the relationship between mistresses and their men are highly affected by it. In China, successful men often had concubines until the practice was outlawed after the Communist Party of China came to power in 1949, the standard Chinese term translated as concubine was qiè 妾, a term used since ancient times, which means female slave. Concubines resembled wives in that they were recognized sexual partners of a family member and were expected to bear children from him. Unofficial concubines, are of lower status, and children of her are considered illegitimate, in English the term concubine is also used for what the Chinese refer to as pínfēi consorts of emperors, some of very high rank. In premodern China, it was illegal and socially disreputable for a man to have more than one wife at a time, but he could have concubines. At first a man could have as many concubines as he could afford, however, from the Eastern Han onward, the higher ranking and the more noble an identity a man possessed, the more concubines he was permitted to have. A concubines treatment and situation were highly variable and were influenced by the status of the male to whom she was engaged. In the Book of Rites chapter on “The Pattern of the Family” it says, “If there were betrothal rites, she became a wife, and if she went without these, Concubines could be taken without any of the ceremonies used in marriages
Concubine
–
Consorts and children of the
Qianlong Emperor,
Qing dynasty, 18th century
Concubine
–
Illustration from the
Morgan Bible of the Benjaminites taking women of Shiloh as concubines.
Concubine
–
Harem, by
Doroshevich, c. 1905
Concubine
–
Women of the Harem by
Jules Laurens, circa 1847
9.
Social stratification
–
Social stratification is a societys categorization of people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power. As such, stratification is the social position of persons within a social group, category, geographic region. The upper-stratum, the middle-stratum, and the lower stratum, moreover, a social stratum can be formed upon the bases of kinship or caste, or both. Determining the structures of social stratification arises from inequalities of status among persons, therefore, generally, the greater the social complexity of a society, the more social strata exist, by way of social differentiation. Social stratification is a used in the social sciences to describe the relative social position of persons in a given social group, category. In modern Western societies, stratification is often classified into three major divisions of social class, upper class, middle class, and lower class. Each of these classes can be subdivided into smaller classes. Social strata may also be delineated on the basis of kinship ties or caste relations, the concept of social stratification is often used and interpreted differently within specific theories. So-called conflict theories, such as Marxism, point to the inaccessibility of resources, talcott Parsons, an American sociologist, asserted that stability and social order are regulated, in part, by universal values. Such values are not identical with consensus but can as well be an impetus for ardent social conflict as it has multiple times through history. Parsons never claimed that universal values, in and by themselves, indeed, the constitution of society is a much more complicated codification of emerging historical factors. Theorists such as Ralf Dahrendorf alternately note the tendency toward an enlarged middle-class in modern Western societies due to the necessity of a workforce in technological economies. Various social and political perspectives concerning globalization, such as dependency theory, four principles are posited to underlie social stratification. First, social stratification is socially defined as a property of a society rather than individuals in that society, second, social stratification is reproduced from generation to generation. Third, social stratification is universal but variable, fourth, social stratification involves not just quantitative inequality but qualitative beliefs and attitudes about social status. Although stratification is not limited to complex societies, all complex societies exhibit features of stratification, the term stratification system is sometimes used to refer to the complex social relationships and social structure that generate these observed inequalities. Social mobility is the movement of individuals, social groups or categories of people between the layers or strata in a stratification system and this movement can be intragenerational or intergenerational. Such mobility is used to classify different systems of social stratification
Social stratification
–
The 1911 "
Pyramid of Capitalist System " cartoon is an example of socialist
critique of capitalism and of social stratification
10.
Valide Sultan
–
Valide sultan was the title held by the legal mother of a ruling Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. The title was first used in the 16th century for Hafsa Sultan, consort of Selim I and mother of Suleiman the Magnificent, normally, this title was held by the living mother of a reigning sultan. The mothers who died before their sons accession to the throne were never bestowed with the title of valide sultan, in special cases, there were grandmothers and stepmothers of a reigning sultan who assumed the title valide sultan. The word valide literally means mother in Ottoman Turkish, the Turkish pronunciation of the word valide is. Sultan is an Arabic word originally meaning authority or dominion, by the beginning of the 16th century, this title, carried by both men and women of the Ottoman dynasty, was replacing other titles by which prominent members of the imperial family had been known. Consequently, the title valide hatun also turned into valide sultan and this usage underlines the Ottoman conception of sovereign power as family prerogative. Western tradition knows the Ottoman ruler as sultan, but the Ottomans themselves used padişah or hünkar to refer to their ruler, the emperor’s formal title consisted of sultan together with khan. In formal address, the children were also entitled sultan, with imperial princes carrying the title before their given name. Example, Şehzade Sultan Mehmed and Mihrimah Sultan, son and daughter of Suleiman the Magnificent, henceforth, the mother of the reigning sultan was the only person of non imperial blood to carry the title sultan. Title valide carried before or after given name, according to a genealogical website, the formal way of addressing a valide is Devletlû İsmetlu Vâlide Sultân Aliyyetüş-Şân Hazretleri. Valide sultan was perhaps the most important position in the Ottoman Empire after the sultan himself, as the mother to the sultan, by Islamic tradition, the valide sultan would have a significant influence on the affairs of the empire. She had great power in the court and her own rooms, Valide sultan also traditionally had access to considerable economic resources and often funded major architectural projects. In particular during the 17th century, in a known as the Sultanate of Women. The most powerful and well-known of all sultans in the history of the Ottoman Empire were Nurbanu Sultan, Safiye Sultan. Most harem women who were slaves were never married to the sultans. Nevertheless, their children were considered legitimate under Islamic law if recognized by the father. The list does not include the complete list of mothers of the Ottoman sultans, most who held the title of valide sultan were the biological mothers of the reigning sultans. In special cases, there were grandmothers and stepmothers of the sultans who assumed the title of valide sultan, like Kösem Sultan
Valide Sultan
–
A bust of
Ayşe Hafsa Sultan, first Valide Sultan
Valide Sultan
–
Reconstructed scene of a Valide Sultan and her attendants in her apartments at
Topkapı Palace.
11.
Queen consort
–
A queen consort is the wife of a reigning king. In Brunei, the wife of the Sultan is known as a Raja Isteri with prefix Pengiran Anak, equivalent with queen consort in English, a queen consort usually shares her husbands social rank and status. She holds the equivalent of the kings monarchical titles, but historically, she does not share the kings political. A queen regnant is a queen in her own right with all the powers of a monarch, where some title other than that of king is held by the sovereign, his wife is referred to by the feminine equivalent, such as princess consort or empress consort. In monarchies where polygamy has been practiced in the past, or is practiced today. In Morocco, King Mohammed VI has broken with tradition and given his wife, Lalla Salma, prior to the reign of King Mohammed VI, the Moroccan monarchy had no such title. In Thailand, the king and queen must both be of royal descent, the kings other consorts are accorded royal titles that confer status. Other cultures maintain different traditions on queenly status, a Zulu chieftain designates one of his wives Great Wife, which would be the equivalent to queen consort. Conversely, in Yorubaland, all of a chiefs princess consorts are essentially of equal rank, in general, the consorts of monarchs have no power per se, even when their position is constitutionally or statutorily recognized. In some cases, the queen consort has been the power behind her husbands throne, e. g. Maria Luisa of Parma. Past queens consort, Queen Jang, consort to Sukjong of Joseon
Queen consort
–
Anne of Bohemia and Hungary, consort of
Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor
Queen consort
–
Royal, noble and
chivalric ranks
Queen consort
–
Queen
Sophia Magdalene wearing the crown of the Queen of Sweden.
12.
W. S. Gilbert
–
Sir William Schwenck Gilbert was an English dramatist, librettist, poet and illustrator best known for the fourteen comic operas produced in collaboration with the composer Sir Arthur Sullivan. The most famous of these include H. M. S, Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance and one of the most frequently performed works in the history of musical theatre, The Mikado. The popularity of works was supported for over a century by year-round performances of them, in Britain and abroad, by the repertory company that they founded. Eleven of the Savoy operas continue to be performed in the English-speaking world and beyond by opera companies, repertory companies, schools. Lines from these works have become part of the English language, such as short, sharp shock, What, and Let the punishment fit the crime. Gilberts creative output included over 75 plays and libretti, and numerous stories, poems and lyrics. He also began to write burlesques and his first comic plays, developing a unique absurdist and he also developed a realistic method of stage direction and a reputation as a strict theatre director. M. S. Pinafore and The Pirates of Penzance, in the 1880s, Gilbert focused on the Savoy operas, including Patience, Iolanthe, The Mikado, The Yeomen of the Guard and The Gondoliers. Gilbert won the lawsuit, but the argument caused hurt feelings among the partnership. Although Gilbert and Sullivan were persuaded to collaborate on two last operas, they were not as successful as the previous ones, in later years, Gilbert wrote several plays, and a few operas with other collaborators. He retired, with his wife and ward, Nancy McIntosh, to a country estate, Gilbert died of a heart attack while attempting to rescue a young woman to whom he was giving a swimming lesson in the lake at his home. Gilbert was born at 17 Southampton Street, Strand, London and his father, also named William, was briefly a naval surgeon, who later became a writer of novels and short stories, some of which were illustrated by his son. Gilberts mother was the former Anne Mary Bye Morris, the daughter of Thomas Morris, Gilberts parents were distant and stern, and he did not have a particularly close relationship with either of them. They quarrelled increasingly, and following the break-up of their marriage in 1876, his relationships with them, especially his mother, Gilbert was nicknamed Bab as a baby, and then Schwenck, after his fathers godparents. As a child, Gilbert travelled to Italy in 1838 and then France for two years with his parents, who returned to settle in London in 1847. He then attended Kings College London, graduating in 1856, instead he joined the Civil Service, he was an assistant clerk in the Privy Council Office for four years and hated it. In 1859 he joined the Militia, a volunteer force formed for the defence of Britain, with which he served until 1878. In 1863 he received a bequest of £300 that he used to leave the service and take up a brief career as a barrister
W. S. Gilbert
–
W. S. Gilbert
W. S. Gilbert
–
One of Gilbert's illustrations for his
Bab Ballad "Gentle Alice Brown"
W. S. Gilbert
–
Sir Arthur Sullivan
W. S. Gilbert
–
Engaged (1877) was Gilbert's most successful non-musical play
13.
Patience (opera)
–
Patience, or, Bunthornes Bride, is a comic opera in two acts with music by Arthur Sullivan and libretto by W. S. Gilbert. Henceforth, the Gilbert and Sullivan comic operas would be known as the Savoy Operas, Patience was the sixth operatic collaboration of fourteen between Gilbert and Sullivan. It ran for a total of 578 performances, which was seven more than the earlier work. Pinafore, and the second longest run of any work of theatre up to that time. Called Art for Arts Sake, the movement valued its ideals of beauty above any pragmatic concerns, although the output of poets, painters and designers was prolific, some argued that the movements art, poetry and fashion was empty and self-indulgent. That the movement was so popular and also so easy to ridicule as a meaningless fad helped make Patience a big hit, the same factors made a hit out of The Colonel, a play by F. C. Burnand based partly on the cartoons of George du Maurier in Punch magazine. The Colonel beat Patience to the stage by several weeks, modern productions of Patience have sometimes updated the setting of the opera to an analogous era such as the hippie 1960s, making a flower-child poet the rival of a beat poet. The two poets in the opera are given to reciting their own verses aloud, principally to the chorus of rapturous maidens. The style of poetry Bunthorne declaims strongly contrasts with Grosvenors, the formers, emphatic and obscure, bears a marked resemblance to Swinburnes poetry in its structure, style and heavy use of alliteration. The latters, simpler and pastoral, echoes elements of Coventry Patmore, Gilbert scholar Andrew Crowther comments, Bunthorne was the creature of Gilberts brain, not just a caricature of particular Aesthetes, but an original character in his own right. According to Gilberts biographer Edith Browne, the character, Patience, was made up. Patience was not the first satire of the movement played by Richard DOyly Cartes company at the Opera Comique. Grossmith himself had written a sketch in 1876 called Cups and Saucers that was revived as a piece to H. M. S. Pinafore in 1878, which was a satire of the blue pottery craze, a popular misconception holds that the central character of Bunthorne, a Fleshly Poet, was intended to satirise Oscar Wilde, but this identification is retrospective. Rossetti had been attacked for immorality by Robert Buchanan in an article called The Fleshly School of Poetry, published in The Contemporary Review for October 1871, nonetheless, Wildes biographer Richard Ellmann suggests that Wilde is a partial model for both Bunthorne and his rival Grosvenor. Carte, the producer of Patience, was also Wildes booking manager in 1881 as the poets popularity took off, although a satire of the aesthetic movement is dated today, fads and hero-worship are evergreen, and Gilbert’s pen was rarely sharper than when he invented Reginald Bunthorne. Gilbert originally conceived Patience as a tale of rivalry between two curates and of the ladies who attended upon them
Patience (opera)
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1881 Programme for Patience
Patience (opera)
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George Grossmith as Bunthorne
Patience (opera)
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Aesthetic dress (left and right) contrasted with
'fashionable attire' (centre), 1881
Patience (opera)
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"Rapturous maidens" await Bunthorne
14.
Gilbert and Sullivan
–
Gilbert and Sullivan refers to the Victorian-era theatrical partnership of the librettist W. S. Gilbert and the composer Arthur Sullivan and to the works they jointly created. The two men collaborated on fourteen comic operas between 1871 and 1896, of which H. M. S, Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado are among the best known. Sullivan, six years Gilberts junior, composed the music, contributing memorable melodies that could convey both humour and pathos and their operas have enjoyed broad and enduring international success and are still performed frequently throughout the English-speaking world. Gilbert and Sullivan introduced innovations in content and form that influenced the development of musical theatre through the 20th century. The operas have influenced political discourse, literature, film. Producer Richard DOyly Carte brought Gilbert and Sullivan together and nurtured their collaboration and he built the Savoy Theatre in 1881 to present their joint works and founded the DOyly Carte Opera Company, which performed and promoted Gilbert and Sullivans works for over a century. Gilbert was born in London on 18 November 1836 and his father, William, was a naval surgeon who later wrote novels and short stories, some of which included illustrations by his son. Director and playwright Mike Leigh described the Gilbertian style as follows, With great fluidity and freedom, First, within the framework of the story, he makes bizarre things happen, and turns the world on its head. Thus the Learned Judge marries the Plaintiff, the soldiers metamorphose into aesthetes, and so on and his genius is to fuse opposites with an imperceptible sleight of hand, to blend the surreal with the real, and the caricature with the natural. In other words, to tell a perfectly outrageous story in a deadpan way. Gilbert developed his theories on the art of stage direction. At the time Gilbert began writing, theatre in Britain was in disrepute, Gilbert helped to reform and elevate the respectability of the theatre, especially beginning with his six short family-friendly comic operas, or entertainments, for Thomas German Reed. At a rehearsal for one of these entertainments, Ages Ago, the composer Frederic Clay introduced Gilbert to his friend, two years later, Gilbert and Sullivan would write their first work together. Those two intervening years continued to shape Gilberts theatrical style, Sullivan was born in London on 13 May 1842. His father was a bandmaster, and by the time Arthur had reached the age of eight. In school he began to compose anthems and songs, in 1856, he received the first Mendelssohn Scholarship and studied at the Royal Academy of Music and then at Leipzig, where he also took up conducting. His graduation piece, completed in 1861, was a suite of music to Shakespeares The Tempest. Revised and expanded, it was performed at the Crystal Palace in 1862 and was an immediate sensation and he began building a reputation as Englands most promising young composer, composing a symphony, a concerto, and several overtures, among them the Overture di Ballo, in 1870
Gilbert and Sullivan
–
W. S. Gilbert
Gilbert and Sullivan
–
Arthur Sullivan
Gilbert and Sullivan
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One of Gilbert's illustrations for his
Bab Ballad "Gentle Alice Brown"
Gilbert and Sullivan
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An early poster showing scenes from The Sorcerer, Pinafore, and Trial by Jury
15.
Mistress (lover)
–
A mistress is a relatively long-term female lover and companion who is not married to her partner, especially when her partner is married. Generally, the relationship is stable and at least semi-permanent, but the couple does not live together openly and the relationship is usually, but not always, secret. There is often also the implication that the mistress is kept – i. e. that her lover is paying for some of her living expenses, the term mistress was originally used as a neutral feminine counterpart to mister or master. Historically the term has denoted a kept woman, who was maintained in a lifestyle by a wealthy man so that she would be available for his sexual pleasure. Such a woman could move between the roles of a mistress and a courtesan depending on her situation and environment, historically, a man kept a mistress. As the term implies, he was responsible for her debts and provided for her in much the way as he did his wife. In more recent times, it is likely that the mistress has a job of her own. There is usually an emotional and possibly social relationship between a man and his mistress, whereas the relationship to a prostitute is predominantly sexual. The keeping of a mistress in Europe was not confined to royalty and nobility, any man who could afford a mistress could have one, regardless of social position. A wealthy merchant or a noble might have a kept woman. Being a mistress was typically an occupation for a woman who, if she were fortunate. The ballad The Three Ravens extolls the loyal mistress of a slain knight and it is noteworthy that the ballad-maker assigned this role to the knights mistress rather than to his wife. In the courts of Europe, particularly Versailles and Whitehall in the 17th and 18th centuries, a king might have numerous mistresses, but have a single favourite mistress or official mistress, as with Louis XV and Madame de Pompadour. The mistresses of both Louis XV and Charles II were often considered to exert influence over their lovers. Other than wealthy merchants and kings, Alexander VI is but one example of a Pope who kept mistresses, while the extremely wealthy might keep a mistress for life, such was not the case for most kept women. Occasionally the mistress is in a position both financially and socially to her lover. In literature, D. H. Lawrences work Lady Chatterleys Lover portrays a situation where a woman becomes the mistress of her husbands gamekeeper, until recently, a womans taking a socially inferior lover was considered much more shocking than the reverse situation. As divorce became more acceptable, it was easier for men to divorce their wives and marry the women who, in earlier years
Mistress (lover)
–
Madame de Pompadour, mistress of
Louis XV of France, circa 1750.
Mistress (lover)
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Eugène Delacroix 's c. 1825 painting
Louis d'Orléans Showing His Mistress
Mistress (lover)
–
Domitila de Castro, long-term mistress of Emperor
Pedro I of Brazil.
16.
Paramour
–
Extramarital sex occurs when a married person engages in sexual activity with someone other than his or her spouse. From a different perspective, it applies to a single person having sex with a married person. Where extramarital sexual relations breach a norm, it may also be referred to as adultery, fornication, philandery. These terms may also carry moral or religious consequences in civil or religious law, engagement in extramarital sex has been associated with individuals who have a higher libido than their partner. American researcher Alfred Kinsey found in his 1950-era studies that 50% of American males, depending on studies, it was estimated that 26–50% of men and 21–38% of women, or 22. 7% of men and 11. 6% of women had extramarital sex. Other authors say that between 20% and 25% of Americans had sex with other than their spouse. Durexs Global Sex Survey has found that 44% of adults worldwide have had extramarital sex. According to a 2004 United States survey, 16% of married partners have had sex, nearly twice as many men as women. There were also studies that have shown rates of extramarital sex as low as 2. 5%. Extramarital sex is considered to be immoral by Christianity, who base this primarily on passages like 1 Corinthians 6, 9-10 and it is listed as a sin here and in other passages. Hinduism condemns extramarital sex as sinful, traditional interpretations of Islamic law prescribe severe punishments for zina, or extramarital sex, by both men and women. Premarital sex could be punished by up to 100 lashes, while adultery is punishable by stoning, the Torah prescribes the death penalty through stoning for adultery, which is defined as having sex with a woman who is married to another man. Two witnesses of good character had to testify in court for the case to be considered by the judges. Israelite and historic Jewish society was polygynous, so the status of the man was irrelevant. Any physical punishments for any sins were in effect at the times of Judges, now, any physical punishment is prohibited by Judaism—as no proper judicial process can be provided until the Holy Temple is rebuilt by the Messiah. Extramarital sex is not illegal in countries and most states in the United States. Virginia prosecuted John Bushey for adultery in 2001, other states allow jilted spouses to sue their ex-partners lovers for alienation of affections. Extramarital sex is illegal in some Muslim countries, including Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Kuwait, Maldives, Morocco, Oman, Mauritania, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Sudan, extra-pair copulation Honor killing On-again, off-again relationship Swinging Threesome
Paramour
–
Bonding between a mother and child
Paramour
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Romantic relationship is often crowned with marriage.
17.
Orientalism
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In particular, Orientalist painting, representing the Middle East, was a genre of Academic art in the 19th century. Orientalism refers to the Orient, in reference and opposition to the Occident, the East, the word Orient entered the English language as the Middle French orient. In the “Monks Tale”, Geoffrey Chaucer wrote, “That they conquered many regnes grete / In the orient, with many a fair citee. ”The term “orient” refers to countries east of the Mediterranean Sea and Southern Europe. In Place of Fear, Aneurin Bevan used an expanded denotation of the Orient that comprehended East Asia, “the awakening of the Orient under the impact of Western ideas”. Edward Said said that Orientalism “enables the political, economic, cultural and social domination of the West, not just during colonial times, but also in the present. ”In art history, the term Orientalism refers to the works of the Western artists who specialized in Oriental subjects, produced from their travels in Western Asia, during the 19th century. In that time, artists and scholars were described as Orientalists, especially in France, in the 18th and 19th centuries, the term Orientalist identified a scholar who specialized in the languages and literatures of the Eastern world. Among such scholars is the philologist William Jones, whose studies of Indo-European languages established modern philology, additionally, Hebraism and Jewish studies gained popularity among British and German scholars in the 18th and 19th century. The academic field of Oriental studies, which comprehended the cultures of the Near East, the thesis of Orientalism develops Antonio Gramsci’s theory of cultural hegemony, and Michel Foucaults theorisation of discourse to criticise the scholarly tradition of Oriental studies. Said criticised contemporary scholars who perpetuated the tradition of outsider-interpretation of Arabo-Islamic cultures, especially Bernard Lewis, the analyses are of Orientalism in European literature, especially French literature, and do not analyse visual art and Orientalist painting. In that vein, the art historian Linda Nochlin applied Said’s methods of analysis to art. In the academy, the book Orientalism became a text of post-colonial cultural studies. Early architectural use of motifs lifted from the Indian subcontinent is known as Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, one of the earliest examples is the façade of Guildhall, London. The style gained momentum in the west with the publication of views of India by William Hodges, examples of Hindoo architecture are Sezincote House in Gloucestershire, built for a nabob returned from Bengal, and the Royal Pavilion in Brighton. Venice, the trading partner of the Ottomans, was the earliest centre. Chinoiserie is the term for the fashion for Chinese themes in decoration in Western Europe, beginning in the late 17th century and peaking in waves, especially Rococo Chinoiserie. From the Renaissance to the 18th century, Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chinese ceramics with only partial success, Early hints of Chinoiserie appeared in the 17th century in nations with active East India companies, England, Denmark, the Netherlands and France. Tin-glazed pottery made at Delft and other Dutch towns adopted genuine Ming-era blue, Early ceramic wares made at Meissen and other centers of true porcelain imitated Chinese shapes for dishes, vases and teawares. Pleasure pavilions in Chinese taste appeared in the formal parterres of late Baroque and Rococo German palaces, Thomas Chippendales mahogany tea tables and china cabinets, especially, were embellished with fretwork glazing and railings, ca 1753–70
Orientalism
–
Anonymous Venetian orientalist painting, The Reception of the Ambassadors in Damascus, 1511, the
Louvre. The deer with antlers in the foreground is not known ever to have existed in the wild in
Syria.
Orientalism
–
Eugène Delacroix, The
Women of Algiers, 1834, the
Louvre,
Paris
Orientalism
–
The
Royal Pavilion in Brighton, England.
Orientalism
–
Baroque Red Mosque at
Schwetzingen Palace in Germany, finished in 1796.
18.
Law Society of British Columbia
–
The Law Society of British Columbia is the regulatory body for lawyers in British Columbia, Canada. The attorney general is typically represented in this role by the deputy attorney general, the Benchers are responsible for governing and administering the affairs of the Law Society including setting standards for admission, conduct and competence. These are established through the Law Society Rules, the Law Society is a member of the Federation of Law Societies of Canada, the national coordinating body of Canada’s 14 law societies. Benchers serve two-year terms up to a maximum of four terms, the senior Bencher is the president, who serves a one-year term in that position. The executive director, or chief officer, of the Law Society directs the Society’s operations. The roots of the Law Society trace back to England, Begbie crossed the Atlantic Ocean, bringing with him official documents establishing the Colony of British Columbia. Those papers were signed by Governor James Douglas on November 18,1858 at Fort Langley, the following day, Begbie was sworn into office as high court judge of the colonies of British Columbia and Vancouver Island. On December 24,1858, Justice Begbie published an Order of the Court which gave the first official recognition to barristers and solicitors in the colonies. The Order noted that only one lawyer was qualified to act as a barrister in a court of law — Henry Pering Pellew Crease, on July 15,1869, Crease assembled 13 members of the legal profession in the colony. The province formally incorporated the Law Society in 1884, the Law Society ensures new lawyers are qualified to practice in BC by managing admissions and credentials. The Professional Legal Training Course is the Law Societys 10 week, successful completion of the course is one of the requirements for becoming a lawyer in BC. PLTC emphasises practical skills training, ethics, practice management and procedure to help new lawyers bridge the gap between law school and practice. When the character or fitness of an applicant for admission, readmission or transfer needs to be addressed, the committee is also responsible for reviewing applications relating to a students failed standing in PLTC and for considering any matters arising from the articling system. The Law Society provides several educational programs online and oversees the mandatory continuing professional development program and it requires that, each calendar year, all practising BC lawyers complete and report completion of at least 12 hours of continuing professional development in accredited educational activities. The Law Society employs a team of lawyers, designated as practice advisors. In carrying out their work, BC lawyers must maintain standards of conduct, many of which are set out in the Code of Professional Conduct for British Columbia. Chapter 2 of the BC Code contains the Canons of Legal Ethics, the Ethics Committee assists the Benchers in the setting ethical standards for BC lawyers. The committee identifies current professional responsibility issues and makes recommendations on changes to the BC Code for consideration by the Benchers, the committee also interprets existing BC Code rules, gives advice to individual lawyers and publishes opinions to the profession at large on matters of professional responsibility
Law Society of British Columbia
–
The motto emblazoned on the crest of the Law Society's common seal is Lex Liberorum Rex, meaning "The Law is King of Free Men" or, in more modern language, "Law is the Ruler of Free People."
19.
Culture of the Ottoman Empire
–
Ottoman culture evolved over several centuries as the ruling administration of the Turks absorbed, adapted and modified the cultures of conquered lands and their peoples. Tevfik Fikret, born in 1867, is considered the founder of modern Turkish poetry. Nevertheless, a number of genres - the travelogue, the political treatise, from the 19th century, the increasing influence of the European novel, and particularly that of the French novel, began to be felt. Şemsettin Samis Taaşuk-u Talat ve Fitnat, widely considered the first Turkish novel, was published in 1872, other notable Ottoman writers of prose were Ahmet Mithat and Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil. The most significant figure in the field, the 16th-century architect and engineer Mimar Sinan, was a Muslim convert of Armenian descent and his most famous works were the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne and the Suleiman Mosque in Constantinople. One of his pupils, Sedefkar Mehmed Agha, designed the early 17th century Blue Mosque, the Diwani script is a cursive and distinctively Ottoman style of Arabic calligraphy developed in the 16th and early 17th centuries. It was invented by Housam Roumi, reaching its greatest development under Süleyman I the Magnificent, the highly decorative script was distinguished by its complexity of line and by the close juxtaposition of the letters within words. Other forms included the flowing, rounded Nashki script, invented by the 10th-century Abbasid calligrapher Ali Muhammad ibn Muqlah, noted Ottoman calligraphers include Seyyid Kasim Gubari, Şeyh Hamdullah, Ahmed Karahisari, and Hâfiz Osman. The weaving of such carpets originated in the cultures of central Asia. Turks used carpets, rugs and patterned kilims not just on the floors of a room, but also as a hanging on walls and doorways and they were also commonly donated to mosques, which often amassed large collections of them. Hereke carpets were of high status, being made of silk or a combination of silk and cotton. Other significant designs included Palace, Yörük, Ushak, and Milas or Türkmen carpets, Yörük and Türkmen represented more stylized designs, whereas naturalistic designs were prevalent in Palace. The Ottoman Empire was noted for the quality of its gold- and silversmiths, jewelry had particular importance as it was commonly given at weddings, as a gift that could be used as a form of savings. Silver was the most common material used, with gold reserved for more pieces, designs often displayed complex filigree work and incorporated Persian. Apart from the traditions of its constituent peoples, the Ottoman Empire evolved a distinct style of court music. This was a vocal form, with instrumental accompaniment, built on makamlar. Another distinctive feature of Ottoman music were the mehterân, the bands used by the Janissaries. These bands were the ancestors of modern bands, as well as of the brass ensembles popular in traditional Balkan music
Culture of the Ottoman Empire
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Turkish Blue Tiles
Culture of the Ottoman Empire
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Culture of the
Ottoman Empire
Culture of the Ottoman Empire
–
17th-century Ottoman
velvet cushion cover, with stylized
carnation motifs. Floral motifs were common in Ottoman art.
Culture of the Ottoman Empire
–
Shadow Play:
Hacivat (left) and
Karagöz (right)
20.
Turkish bath
–
A Turkish bath is the Islamic variant of the Roman bath, steambath, sauna, or Russian banya, distinguished by a focus on water, as distinct from ambient steam. In Western Europe, the Turkish bath as a method of cleansing, the process involved in taking a Turkish bath is similar to that of a sauna, but is more closely related to ancient Greek and ancient Roman bathing practices. The Turkish bath starts with relaxation in a room that is heated by a flow of hot, dry air. Bathers may then move to an even hotter room before they wash in cold water, after performing a full body wash and receiving a massage, bathers finally retire to the cooling-room for a period of relaxation. The difference between the Islamic hammam and the Victorian Turkish bath is the air, the hot air in the Victorian Turkish bath is dry, in the Islamic hammam the air is often steamy. The bather in a Victorian Turkish bath will often take a plunge in a pool after the hot rooms. In the Islamic hammams the bathers splash themselves with cold water and it is not wet air, nor moist air, nor vapoury air, it is not vapour in any shape or form whatever. It is an immersion of the body in hot common air. One of the Five Pillars of Islam is prayer and it is customary before praying for Muslims to perform ablutions. The two Islamic forms of ablution are ghusl, a cleansing, and wudu, a cleansing of the face, hands. In the most extreme of cases, cleansing with pure soil or sand is also permissible, often, hammams are located close to mosques and other places for prayer for those who wish to perform deeper cleansing. Islamic hammams, particularly in the Moroccan case, evolved from their Roman roots to adapt to the needs of ritual purification according to Islam, for example, in most Roman-style hammams, one finds a cold pool for full submergence of the body. The style of bathing is less preferable in the Islamic faith, for al-Ghazali, the hammam is a primarily male experience, and he cautions that women are to enter the hammam only after childbirth or illness. Even then al-Gazali finds it admissible for men to prohibit their wives or sisters from using the hammam, the major point of contention surrounding hammams in al-Ghazalis estimation is nakedness. In his work he warns that overt nakedness is to be avoided, … he should shield it from the sight of others and second, guard against the touch of others. He focuses extensively in his writing on the avoidance of touching the penis during bathing and he writes that nakedness is decent only when the area between the knees and the lower stomach of a man are hidden. For women, exposure of only the face and palms is appropriate, according to al-Gazali, the prevalence of nakedness in the hammam could incite indecent thoughts or behaviours and so it is a controversial space. Ritual ablution is also required before or after sexual intercourse, during those centuries of war, peace, alliance, trade and competition, the two cultures had tremendous influence on each other
Turkish bath
–
A Turkish bath in
Valencia,
Spain
Turkish bath
–
Sultan Amir Ahmad Bathhouse, constructed in the 16th century,
Iran. Part of the bathouse is being used as a
tea house
Turkish bath
–
Hamam of the
Sultan at the
Topkapı Palace in
Istanbul.
Turkish bath
–
Example of a hamam interior, showing water
buckets and tilted floor
21.
Arab slave trade
–
The Arab slave trade was the practice of slavery in the Arab world, mainly in Western Asia, North Africa, Southeast Africa, the Horn of Africa and Europe. This barter occurred chiefly between the era and the early 21st century. The trade was conducted through slave markets in areas, with the slaves captured mostly from Africas interior. These traders captured Bantu peoples from the interior in present-day Kenya, Mozambique and Tanzania, there, the slaves gradually assimilated in the rural areas, particularly on the Unguja and Pemba islands. The captives were sold throughout the Middle East and this trade accelerated as superior ships led to more trade and greater demand for labour on plantations in the region. Eventually, tens of thousands of captives were being taken every year, the Indian Ocean slave trade was multi-directional and changed over time. Slave labor in East Africa was drawn from the Zanj, Bantu peoples that lived along the East African coast, the Zanj were for centuries shipped as slaves by Arab traders to all the countries bordering the Indian Ocean. The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs recruited many Zanj slaves as soldiers and, as early as 696 and it grew to involve over 500,000 slaves and free men who were imported from across the Muslim empire and claimed over tens of thousands of lives in lower Iraq. The Zanj who were taken as slaves to the Middle East were often used in agricultural work. As the plantation economy boomed and the Arabs became richer, agriculture, the resulting labor shortage led to an increased slave market. To 5°S. to which the name was also applied, wealthy proprietors had received extensive grants of tidal land on the condition that they would make it arable. Sugar cane was prominent among the products of their plantations, particularly in Khūzestān Province, Zanj also worked the salt mines of Mesopotamia, especially around Basra. Their jobs were to clear away the topsoil that made the land arable. The working conditions were considered to be extremely harsh and miserable. Many other people were imported into the region, besides Zanj, historian M. A. Shaban has argued that rebellion was not a slave revolt, but a revolt of blacks. In his opinion, although a few runaway slaves did join the revolt, if the revolt had been led by slaves, they would have lacked the necessary resources to combat the Abbasid government for as long as they did. These slaves were captured mainly from seaside villages from Italy, Spain, Portugal and also more distant places like France or England. They were also taken from ships stopped by the pirates, the effects of these attacks were devastating, France, England, and Spain each lost thousands of ships
Arab slave trade
–
19th-century European engraving of Arab slave-trading caravan transporting African slaves across the
Sahara
Arab slave trade
–
The main slave routes in Africa during the
Middle Ages.
Arab slave trade
–
A female
Bantu slave in Mogadishu (1882–1883).
Arab slave trade
–
Arab captors and Zanzibar workers
22.
Islamic views on slavery
–
Slavery was a mainstay of life in pre-Islamic Arabia and surrounding lands. Early Islamic dogma forbade enslavement of free members of Islamic society, including non-Muslims, in later classical Islamic law, the topic of slavery is covered at great length. Slaves, be they Muslim or those of any religion, were equal to their fellow practitioners in religious issues. In theory, slavery in Islamic law does not have a racial or color component, Slaves played various social and economic roles, from domestic worker to high-ranking positions in the government like Emir. Moreover, slaves were employed in irrigation, mining, pastoralism. Some rulers even relied on military and administrative slaves to such a degree that they seized power, in some cases, the treatment of slaves was so harsh that it led to uprisings, such as the Zanj Rebellion. However, this was a rather than the norm, as the vast majority of labor in the medieval Islamic world consisted of free. For a variety of reasons, internal growth of the population was not enough to fulfill the demand in Muslim society. This resulted in massive importation, which involved enormous suffering and loss of life from the capture, the Quran provides for emancipation of a slave as a means of religious atonement for sins. The Arab slave trade was most active in West Asia, North Africa, in the early 20th century, slavery was gradually outlawed and suppressed in Muslim lands, largely due to pressure exerted by Western nations such as Britain and France. For example, Saudi Arabia and Yemen only abolished slavery in 1962 under pressure from Britain, Oman followed suit in 1970, and Mauritania in 1905,1981, and again in August 2007. However, slavery claiming the sanction of Islam is documented presently in the predominantly Islamic countries of Chad, Mauritania, Niger, Mali, many early converts to Islam were the poor and former slaves. One notable example is Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi, Slavery was widely practiced in pre-Islamic Arabia, as well as in the rest of the ancient and early medieval world. The minority were white slaves of foreign extraction, likely brought in by Arab caravaners stretching back to biblical times, native Arab slaves had also existed, a prime example being Zayd ibn Harithah, later to become Muhammads adopted son. Arab slaves, however, usually obtained as captives, were generally ransomed off amongst nomad tribes, the slave population increased by the custom of child abandonment, and by the kidnapping, or, occasionally, the sale of small children. Enslavement was also possible as a consequence of committing certain offenses against the law, two classes of slave existed, a purchased slave, and a slave born in the masters home. Over the latter the master had complete rights of ownership, though slaves were unlikely to be sold or disposed of by the master. Female slaves were at times forced into prostitution for the benefit of their masters, the historical accounts of the early years of Islam report that slaves of non-Muslim masters
Islamic views on slavery
Islamic views on slavery
–
Sayyid Qutb
23.
Ottoman Turkish language
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Ottoman Turkish /ˈɒtəmən/, or the Ottoman language, is the variety of the Turkish language that was used in the Ottoman Empire. It borrows, in all aspects, extensively from Arabic and Persian, during the peak of Ottoman power, Persian and Arabic vocabulary accounted for up to 88% of its vocabulary, while words of Arabic origins heavily outnumbered native Turkish words. The Tanzimât era saw the application of the term Ottoman when referring to the language, nominative case, كول göl, چوربه çorba, گجه gece. Accusative case, طاوشان گترمش ṭavşan getirmiş, genitive case, answers the question كمڭ kimiñ, formed with the suffix ڭ –ıñ, –iñ, –uñ, –üñ. E. g. پاشانڭ paşanıñ from پاشا paşa, accusative case, answers the question كمى kimi and نه يى neyi, formed with the suffix ى –ı, -i, طاوشانى گترمش ṭavşanı getürmiş. The variant suffix –u, –ü does not occur in Ottoman Turkish unlike in Modern Turkish because of the lack of vowel harmony. Thus, كولى göli, but Modern Turkish has gölü, dative case, Locative case, answers the question نره ده nerede, formed with the suffix ده –de, –da, مكتبده mektebde, قفصده ḳafeṣde, باشده başda, شهرده şehirde. As with the accusative case, the variant suffix –te. Ablative case, answers the questions نره دن nereden and ندن neden, instrumental case, answers the question نه ايله ne ile. The conjugation for the aorist tense is as follows, Ottoman Turkish was highly influenced by Arabic, Arabic and Persian words in the language amounted for up to 88% of its vocabulary. From the early ages of the Ottoman Empire, borrowings from Arabic, in Ottoman, one may find whole passages in Arabic and Persian incorporated into the text. It was however not only extensive loaning of words, but along with much of the grammatical systems of Persian. A person would use each of the varieties above for different purposes, with the variant being the most heavily suffused with Arabic and Persian words. For example, a scribe would use the Arabic asel to refer to honey when writing a document, historically, Ottoman Turkish was transformed in three eras, Eski Osmanlı Türkçesi, the version of Ottoman Turkish used until the 16th century. It was almost identical with the Turkish used by Seljuks and Anatolian beyliks and was regarded as part of Eski Anadolu Türkçesi. Orta Osmanlı Türkçesi or Klasik Osmanlıca, the language of poetry and it is the version of Ottoman Turkish that comes to most peoples minds. Yeni Osmanlı Türkçesi, the version shaped from the 1850s to the 20th century under the influence of journalism and it also saw the replacement of the Perso-Arabic script with the extended Latin alphabet. See the list of replaced loanwords in Turkish for more examples on Ottoman Turkish words, two examples of Arabic and two of Persian loanwords are found below
Ottoman Turkish language
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A poem about
Rumi in
Ottoman Turkish.
Ottoman Turkish language
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Calendar in
Thessaloniki 1896, a cosmopolitan city; the first 3 lines in Ottoman script
24.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
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