1.
Prime Minister of Norway
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For a list, see List of heads of government of Norway. The Prime Minister of Norway is the leader of Norway. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Monarch, to the Storting, to their political party, and ultimately the electorate. In practice, since it is impossible for a government to stay in office against the will of the Storting. Norway has a Constitution, which was adopted on 17 May 1814, the position of Prime Minister is the result of legislation. As of 2017, the Prime Minister of Norway is Erna Solberg, unlike their counterparts in the rest of Europe, Norwegian Prime Ministers do not have the option of advising the King to dissolve the Storting and call a snap election. The Constitution requires that the Storting serve out its full four-year term, if the Prime Minister loses the confidence of the Storting, he or she must resign. As of 2015 six former Prime Ministers are alive, Odvar Nordli born 3 November 1927, kåre Willoch born 3 October 1928, served 1981–1986. Gro Harlem Brundtland born 20 April 1939, served 1981, 1986–1989, kjell Magne Bondevik born 3 September 1947, served 1997–2000 and 2001–2005. Thorbjørn Jagland born 5 November 1950, served 1996–1997, jens Stoltenberg born 16 March 1959, served 2000–2001 and 2005–2013. List of Prime Ministers of Norway Regjeringskvartalet Government Official Homepage
2.
Olav V of Norway
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Olav V was King of Norway from 1957 until his death. Olav was the child of Haakon VII and Maud of Wales. He became heir apparent to the Norwegian throne when his father was elected King of Norway in 1905. He was the first heir to the Norwegian throne to be brought up in Norway since Olav IV, in preparation for his future role, he attended both civilian and military schools. In 1929, he married his first cousin Princess Märtha of Sweden, during World War II his leadership was much appreciated and he was appointed Norwegian Chief of Defence in 1944. At his death in 1991, he was the last surviving grandchild of Edward VII of the United Kingdom, due to his considerate, down-to-earth style, King Olav was immensely popular, resulting in the nickname Folkekongen. In a 2005 poll by the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation, Olav was voted Norwegian of the century, Olav was a Danish prince born in Appleton House on the royal Sandringham Estate, Flitcham, United Kingdom. He was named Alexander Edward Christian Frederik, when his father was elected king of Norway, he took the Norwegian name Haakon VII, and on the day he was inaugurated, he gave his son the Norwegian name Olav. Olav was the first heir to the throne since medieval times to have raised in Norway. Unlike his father, who was an officer, Olav chose to complete his main military education in the army. He graduated from the three-year Norwegian Military Academy in 1924, with the fourth best score in his class, Olav then went on to study jurisprudence and economics for two years at Balliol College, Oxford. During the 1930s, Crown Prince Olav was a naval cadet serving on the training ship Olav Tryggvason. Olav moved upwards in the ranks of the Norwegian armed forces, rising in the army from a rank of first lieutenant, to captain in 1931. Olav jumped from the Holmenkollen ski jump in Oslo, and also competed in sailing regattas and he won a gold medal in sailing at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam and remained an active sailor into old age. On 21 March 1929 in Oslo, he married his first cousin Princess Märtha of Sweden with whom he had two daughters, Ragnhild and Astrid and one son, Harald. As exiles during World War II, Crown Princess Märtha and the children lived in Washington. She died in 1954, before her husband ascended the throne, as Crown Prince, Olav had received extensive military training and had participated in most major Norwegian military exercises. Because of this he was one of the most knowledgeable Norwegian military leaders and was respected by other Allied leaders for his knowledge
3.
Trygve Bratteli
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Trygve Martin Bratteli was a Norwegian politician from the Labour Party and Prime Minister of Norway in 1971–1972 and 1973–1976. He was President of the Nordic Council in 1978, Bratteli was born in Nøtterøy, where he attended primary school. He was unemployed for some time, worked as a messenger, a whaler and he was liberated from Vaihingen an der Enz concentration camp on 5 April 1945 by the White Buses along with 15 other Norwegians who had survived. He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament from Oslo in 1950 and he was appointed Minister of Finance in Oscar Torps cabinet, and from 1956 to 1960 in the third cabinet of Einar Gerhardsen. From 1960 to 1963, still during Gerhardsens third period as Prime Minister, he was Minister of Transport and he was also acting Minister of Finance from January to February 1962. In September 1963, when Gerhardsens fourth cabinet was formed, Bratteli was again made Minister of Transport and Communications, the centre-right cabinet of Borten held office from 1965 to 1971, but when it fell, Bratteli became Prime Minister. In social policy, Brattelis premiership saw the passage of a law in June 1972 that lowered the age to 67. Central to his career was the question of Norways membership of the European Community. Following the close rejection of membership in the 1972 referendum, his cabinet resigned, however, the successor cabinet Korvald only lasted one year, and the second cabinet Bratteli was formed following the Norwegian parliamentary election,1973. It was succeeded by another Labour cabinet Nordli in 1976, trygve Bratteli wrote a number of autobiographical and political books. His memoirs about his time in German concentration camps - Prisoner in Night, trygve Bratteli was a member of Friends of Israel in the Norwegian Labour Movement, planted a forest to his memory in Israel. Trygve Bratteli was married to Randi Bratteli and their children are Ola Bratteli, a professor of mathematics, and Marianne Bratteli, an artist
4.
Gro Harlem Brundtland
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Gro Harlem Brundtland is a Norwegian politician, who served three terms as Prime Minister of Norway and as Director-General of the World Health Organization from 1998 to 2003. She is also known for having chaired the Brundtland Commission which presented the Brundtland Report on sustainable development, educated as a physician, Brundtland joined the Labour Party and entered the government in 1974 as Minister of the Environment. She became the first female Prime Minister of Norway on 4 February 1981 and she finally returned for her third term on 3 November 1990. From 1981 to 1992 she was leader of the Labour Party and she is also deputy chair of The Elders and a former Vice-President of the Socialist International. Brundtland belonged to the wing of her party and supported Norwegian membership in the European Union during the 1994 referendum. As Prime Minister Brundtland became widely known as the mother of the nation, Brundtland received the 1994 Charlemagne Prize, and has received many other awards and recognitions. Brundtland was born in Oslo in 1939, the daughter of physician and politician Gudmund Harlem, in 1963, Brundtland graduated with a medical degree, a cand. med. She took her masters degree at Harvard University in 1965, as a Master of Public Health, from 1966 to 1969, she worked as a physician at the Directorate of Health, and from 1969 she worked as a doctor in Oslos public school health service. She was Norwegian Minister for Environmental Affairs from 1974 to 1979, Brundtland became Norways first female Prime Minister in 1981. She served as Prime Minister from February to October, Brundtland became Norwegian Prime Minister for two further, and more durable, terms. The third ministry was from 3 November 1990 to 25 October 1996, Brundtland became leader of the Labour Party in 1981 and held the office until resigning in 1992, during her third term as Prime Minister. In 1996, she resigned as Prime Minister and retired completely from Norwegian politics and her successor as both Labour Party leader in 1992 and as Prime Minister in 1996 was Thorbjørn Jagland. She developed the political concept of sustainable development in the course of extensive public hearings. The Brundtland Commission also provided momentum for Agenda 21 and this culminated with the signing of the Oslo Accords. After the end of her term as PM, Brundtland was then elected Director-General of the World Health Organization in May 1998, Brundtland spearheaded the movement, now worldwide, to achieve the abolition of cigarette smoking by education, persuasion, and increased taxation. Under her leadership, the World Health Organization was one of the first major employers to make quitting smoking a condition of employment, under Brundtlands leadership, the World Health Organization was criticized for increased drug-company influence on the agency. Brundtland was recognized in 2003 by Scientific American as their Policy Leader of the Year for coordinating a rapid response to stem outbreaks of SARS. Brundtland was succeeded on 21 July 2003 by Jong-Wook Lee, in 1994, Brundtland was awarded the Charlemagne Prize of the city of Aachen
5.
Storting
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The Storting is the supreme legislature of Norway, established in 1814 by the Constitution of Norway. The unicameral parliament has 169 members, and is elected every four years based on party-list proportional representation in nineteen plural member constituencies, a member of the Storting is known in Norwegian as a Stortingsrepresentant, literally Storting representative. The assembly is led by a president and, since 2009 five vice presidents — the presidium, the members are allocated to twelve standing committees, as well as four procedural committees. Three ombudsmen are directly subordinate to parliament, the Parliamentary Intelligence Oversight Committee, in 2009, qualified unicameralism was replaced by unicameralism, through the dissolution of the two chambers, the Lagting and the Odelsting. Since 2013 Olemic Thommessen has been president, the alltings were where legal and political matters were discussed. As oral laws became codified and Norway unified as an entity in the 10th century. The Parliament of Norway Building opened in 1866, on 27 June 1940 the presidium signed an appeal to King Haakon, about his abdication. In September 1940 the representatives were summoned to Oslo, and voted in favour of the results of the negotiations between the presidium and the authorities of the German invaders, however, directives from Adolf Hitler resulted in the obstruction of the agreement of cooperation between parliament and occupation force. Although the Storting has always been unicameral, until 2009 it would divide itself into two departments in legislative matters. After elections, the Storting would elect a quarter of its membership to form the Lagting a sort of upper house, the division was also used on very rare occasions in cases of impeachment. The original idea in 1814 was probably to have the Lagting act as an upper house. Bills were submitted by the Government to the Odelsting or by a member of the Odelsting, a standing committee, with members from both the Odelsting and Lagting, would then consider the bill, and in some cases hearings were held. If passed by the Odelsting, the bill would be sent to the Lagting for review or revision, most bills were passed unamended by the Lagting and then sent directly to the king for royal assent. If the Lagting amended the Odelstings decision, the bill would be sent back to the Odelsting, if the Odelsting approved the Lagtings amendments, the bill would be signed into law by the King. If it did not, then the bill would return to the Lagting, if the Lagting still proposed amendments, the bill would be submitted a plenary session of the Storting. In order to be passed, the bill should have then had the approval of a majority of the plenary session. In all other cases a majority would suffice. Three days had to pass between each time a department voted on a bill, in all other cases, such as taxes and appropriations, the Storting would meet in plenary sessions
6.
Svenn Stray
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Svenn Thorkild Stray was a Norwegian politician and a member of the Conservative Party of Norway. He served as a member of parliament from 1958 to 1985, as president of the Nordic Council in 1968, and as minister of Norway from 1970 to 1971. Strays parents were Gudmund Stray, a dentist, and Anne Johanne Marie Frøstrup, svenn Stray graduated from the University of Oslo with a law degree in 1946. After having served as a clerk in Moss, Norway, he opened his own practice in Moss in 1950, Stray was first elected to local office in Moss in 1955, and he remained active in local politics until 1979. He was elected to Stortinget in 1958 and he served continuously in the parliament until 1985, for a total of 27 years,264 days. Stray was foreign minister twice, from 1970 to 1971, and 1981 to 1986
7.
Reiulf Steen
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Reiulf Steen was a Norwegian politician for the Norwegian Labour Party. He was active in the Labour Party from 1958 to 1990, serving as deputy party chairman from 1965 to 1975, born in Hurum, Steen was elected leader of the regional Labour Party affiliate at age 14. He started out his career as a factory worker but soon took a job as a journalist in the newspaper Fremtiden. He rose quickly through the ranks of his party, chairing the Workers Youth League from 1961 to 1964 and he later served as minister of transportation from 1971 to 1972 and minister of commerce and trade from 1979 to 1981. From 1977 to 1993 he was a member of Parliament, representing the constituencies Oslo and he was the vice president of the Socialist International from 1978 to 1983 and chaired its committee on Chile from 1975 to 1990. He maintained a long-standing interest in Latin America and was appointed Norwegian ambassador to Chile in 1992, in later years, his memoirs and personal recollections affected public opinion. He related accounts of his own problems, difficulties within the Labour Party. He has also written columns for several of the leading newspapers, dealing with matters such as the EU, the war in Iraq. He was also active in ATTAC and chaired the Norwegian branch of the European Movement, Norsk Folkehjelp and he died on 5 June 2014 and was survived by his wife, four children from a prior marriage and step-family. Via his step-daughter, he was father-in-law to Labour politician Raymond Johansen, media related to Reiulf Steen at Wikimedia Commons
8.
Hedmark
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Hedmark is a county in Norway, bordering Sør-Trøndelag to the north, Oppland to the west and Akershus to the south. The county administration is in Hamar, Hedmark makes up the northeastern part of Østlandet, the southeastern part of the country. It has a border with Sweden, Dalarna County and Värmland County. The largest lakes are Femunden and Mjøsa, the largest lake in Norway, parts of Glomma, Norways longest river, flow through Hedmark. Geographically, Hedmark is traditionally divided into, Hedemarken, east of Mjøsa, Østerdalen, north of Elverum, Hedmark and Oppland are the only Norwegian counties with no coastline. Hedmark also hosted events of the 1994 Winter Olympic Games. Hamar, Kongsvinger, Elverum and Tynset are cities in the county, Hedmark is one of the less urbanized areas in Norway, about half of the inhabitants live on rural land. The population is concentrated in the rich agricultural district adjoining Mjøsa to the southeast. The countys extensive forests supply much of Norways timber, at one time, logs were floated down Glomma to the coast but are now transported by truck and train. The Hedmark municipality of Engerdal has the distinction of marking the current southernmost border in Norway of Sápmi, the county is divided into three traditional districts. These are Hedmarken, Østerdalen and Solør, Hedmark was originally a part of the large Akershus amt, but in 1757 Oplandenes amt was separated from it. Some years later, in 1781, this was divided into Kristians amt, until 1919, the county was called Hedemarkens amt. The Old Norse form of the name was Heiðmǫrk, the first element is heiðnir, the name of an old Germanic tribe and is related to the word heið, which means moorland. The last element is mǫrk woodland, borderland, march, the coat of arms is from modern times. Every four years the inhabitants of Hedmark elect 33 representatives to Hedmark Fylkesting, after the elections of September 2007 the majority of the seats of the assembly were held by a three-party coalition consisting of the Labour Party, the Centre Party and the Socialist Left Party. Eight parties are represented in the assembly, the remaining 5 being the Progress Party, the Conservative Party, the Liberal Party, the Christian Democratic Party, the assembly is headed by the county mayor. As of the 2007 elections the county mayor is Arnfinn Nergård, in 2003 a parliamentary system was established, which means that the county assembly elects a political administration or council to hold executive power. The council is led by Siv Tørudbakken, a member of the Labour Party, official homepage Media related to Hedmark at Wikimedia Commons Hedmark travel guide from Wikivoyage
9.
Norwegian Nobel Committee
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The Norwegian Nobel Committee selects the recipients of the Nobel Peace Prize each year on behalf of Swedish industrialist Alfred Nobels estate, based on instructions of Nobels will. Its five members are appointed by the Norwegian Parliament and today represent the political makeup of that body. In his will, Alfred Nobel tasked the Parliament of Norway with selecting the winners of the Nobel Peace Prize, at the time, Norway and Sweden were in a loose personal union. Despite its members being appointed by parliament, the committee is a body tasked with awarding a private prize. In recent decades, most committee members have been retired politicians, the committee is assisted by the Norwegian Nobel Institute, its secretariat, and the committee holds their meetings in the institutes building, where the winner is also announced. The award ceremony, however, takes place in Oslo City Hall, Alfred Nobel died in December 1896, and in January 1897 the contents of his will were unveiled. It was written as early as in 1895, the Nobel Foundation manages the assets. A new body had to be created—the Norwegian Nobel Committee, jurist Fredrik Heffermehl has noted that a legislative body could not necessarily be expected to handle a judicial task like managing a legal will. The task of a parliament is to create and change laws whereas a will can not be changed unless the premises are clearly outdated. However, this question was not debated in depth, out of fear that the donated money might be lost in legal battles if the body was not created soon. On 26 April 1897 the Norwegian Parliament accepted the assignment and on 5 August the same year it formalized the process of election, the first Peace Prize was awarded in 1901 to Henri Dunant and Frédéric Passy. In the beginning, the committee was filled with active parliamentarians and these ties to the Norwegian Parliament were later weakened so that the committee became more independent. Accordingly, the name was changed from the Norwegian Nobel Committee to the Nobel Committee of the Norwegian Parliament in 1901, now, active parliamentarians cannot sit on the committee, unless they have explicitly stated their intent to step down shortly. Nonetheless, the committee is composed mainly of politicians. A1903 proposition to elect a law scholar was rejected, in late 1948, the election system was changed to make the committee more proportional with parliamentary representation of Norwegian political parties. The Norwegian Labour Party, which controlled a majority of seats in the Norwegian Parliament orchestrated this change. This practice has been cemented, but sharply criticized, there have been propositions about including non-Norwegian members in the committee, but this has never happened. The Norwegian Nobel Committee is assisted by the Norwegian Nobel Institute, the committee might receive well more than a hundred nominations and asks the Nobel Institute in February every year to research about twenty candidates
10.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
11.
Oslo
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Oslo is the capital and the most populous city in Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality, founded in the year 1040, and established as a kaupstad or trading place in 1048 by Harald Hardrada, the city was elevated to a bishopric in 1070 and a capital under Haakon V of Norway around 1300. Personal unions with Denmark from 1397 to 1523 and again from 1536 to 1814, after being destroyed by a fire in 1624, the city was moved closer to Akershus Fortress during the reign of Christian IV of Denmark and renamed Christiania in his honour. It was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838, following a spelling reform, it was known as Kristiania from 1877 to 1925, at which time its original Norwegian name was restored. Oslo is the economic and governmental centre of Norway, the city is also a hub of Norwegian trade, banking, industry and shipping. It is an important centre for industries and maritime trade in Europe. The city is home to companies within the maritime sector, some of which are among the worlds largest shipping companies, shipbrokers. Oslo is a city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission intercultural cities programme. Oslo is considered a city and ranked Beta World City in studies carried out by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group. It was ranked one in terms of quality of life among European large cities in the European Cities of the Future 2012 report by fDi magazine. A survey conducted by ECA International in 2011 placed Oslo as the second most expensive city in the world for living expenses after Tokyo. In 2013 Oslo tied with the Australian city of Melbourne as the fourth most expensive city in the world, as of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, while the population of the citys urban area was 942,084. The metropolitan area had an population of 1.71 million. The population was during the early 2000 increasing at record rates and this growth stems for the most part from international immigration and related high birth rates, but also from intra-national migration. The immigrant population in the city is growing faster than the Norwegian population. As of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, the urban area extends beyond the boundaries of the municipality into the surrounding county of Akershus, the total population of this agglomeration is 942,084. To the north and east, wide forested hills rise above the city giving the location the shape of a giant amphitheatre. The urban municipality of Oslo and county of Oslo are two parts of the entity, making Oslo the only city in Norway where two administrative levels are integrated
12.
Norwegians
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Norwegians are a Germanic ethnic group native to Norway. They share a culture and speak the Norwegian language. Towards the end of the 3rd millennium BC, Proto-Indo-European speaking Battle-Axe peoples migrated to Norway bringing domesticated horses, agriculture, cattle, during the Viking age, Harald Fairhair unified the Norse petty kingdoms after being victorious at the Battle of Hafrsfjord in the 880s. Two centuries of Viking expansion tapered off following the decline of Norse paganism with the adoption of Christianity in the 11th century, during The Black Death, approximately 60% of the population died and in 1397 Norway entered a union with Denmark. In 1814, following Denmark-Norways defeat in the Napoleonic Wars, Norway entered a union with Sweden, rising nationalism throughout the 19th century led to a 1905 referendum granting Norway independence. Although Norway remained officially neutral in World War I, the country was allied with the Entente powers. In World War II Norway proclaimed its neutrality, but was occupied for five years by Nazi Germany. In 1949, neutrality was abandoned and Norway became a member of NATO, discovery of oil and gas in adjacent waters in the late 1960s boosted Norways economic fortunes but in referenda held in 1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the EU. Key domestic issues include integration of a fast growing immigrant population, maintaining the countrys generous social safety net with an aging population, as with many of the people from European countries, Norwegians are spread throughout the world. There are more than 100,000 Norwegian citizens living abroad permanently, mostly in the U. S, Norwegian Vikings travelled north and west and founded vibrant communities in the Faroe Islands, Shetland, Orkney, Iceland, Ireland, Scotland, and northern England. They conducted extensive raids in Ireland and founded the cities of Cork, Dublin, in 947, a new wave of Norwegian Vikings appeared in England when Erik Bloodaxe captured York. Apart from Britain and Ireland, Norwegian Vikings established settlements in largely uninhabited regions, the first known permanent Norwegian settler in Iceland was Ingólfur Arnarson. In the year 874 he settled in Reykjavík, after his expulsion from Iceland Erik the Red discovered Greenland, a name he chose in hope of attracting Icelandic settlers. Viking settlements were established in the fjords of the southern and western coast. Eriks relative Leif Eriksson later discovered North America, during the 17th and 18th centuries, many Norwegians emigrated to the Netherlands, particularly Amsterdam. The Netherlands was the second most popular destination for Norwegian emigrants after Denmark, loosely estimated, some 10% of the population may have emigrated, in a period when the entire Norwegian population consisted of some 800,000 people. The Norwegians left with the Dutch trade ships that when in Norway traded for timber, hides, herring, young women took employment as maids in Amsterdam. Young men took employment as sailors, large parts of the Dutch merchant fleet and navy came to consist of Norwegians and Danes
13.
Labour Party (Norway)
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The Labour Party, formerly the Norwegian Labour Party, is a social-democratic political party in Norway. It was formerly the senior partner of the governing Red-Green Coalition, the party is currently led by Jonas Gahr Støre. The Labour Party is officially committed to social-democratic ideals and its slogan since the 1930s has been everyone shall take part, and the party traditionally seeks a strong welfare state, funded through taxes and duties. During the first Stoltenberg government, the policies were inspired by Tony Blairs New Labour. The party has frequently described as increasingly neoliberal since the 1980s. The Labour Party profiles itself as a party that subscribes to cooperation on a national as well as international level. Its youth wing is the Workers Youth League, the party is a full member of the Party of European Socialists and Progressive Alliance, and is an observer member of the Socialist International. The Labour Party has always been a supporter of Norways NATO membership and has supported Norwegian membership in the European Union during two referendums. Founded in 1887, the party increased in support until it became the largest party in Norway in 1927. This year also saw the consolidation of surrounding the party during the 1920s following its membership in the Comintern from 1919 to 1923. It formed its first government in 1928, and has led the government for all but 16 years since 1935, from 1945 to 1961, the party had an absolute majority in the Norwegian parliament, the only time this has ever happened in Norwegian history. The domination by the Labour Party, during the 1960s and early 1970s, was broken by competition from the left. From the end of the 1970s however, the party started to lose voters to the right, in 2001 the party achieved its worst electoral results since 1924. Between 2005 and 2013, Labour returned to power after committing to an agreement with other parties in order to form a majority government. Since losing 9 seats in the 2013 election, Labour has been in opposition, the party was founded in 1887 in Arendal and first ran in elections to the Parliament of Norway in 1894. It entered Parliament in 1904 after the 1903 election, and steadily increased its vote until 1927, the party were members of Comintern, a Communist organisation, between 1918 and 1923. From the establishment of Vort Arbeide in 1884, the party had a growing and notable organisation of newspapers, the party press system eventually resulted in Norsk Arbeiderpresse. In January 1913 the party had 24 newspapers, and 6 more newspapers were founded in 1913, the party also had the periodical Det 20de Aarhundre
14.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
15.
University of Oslo
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The University of Oslo, until 1939 named the Royal Frederick University, is the oldest university in Norway, located in the Norwegian capital of Oslo. Until 1 January 2016 it was the largest Norwegian institution of education in terms of size, now surpassed only by the Norwegian University of Science. The Academic Ranking of World Universities has ranked it the 58th best university in the world, in 2015, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings ranked it the 135th best university in the world and the seventh best in the Nordics. While in its 2016, Top 200 Rankings of European universities, the university has approximately 27,700 students and employs around 6,000 people. Its faculties include Theology, Law, Medicine, Humanities, Mathematics, natural sciences, social sciences, Dentistry, the universitys original neoclassical campus is located in the centre of Oslo, it is currently occupied by the Faculty of Law. Most of the other faculties are located at the newer Blindern campus in the suburban West End. The Faculty of Medicine is split between several university hospitals in the Oslo area, the university was founded in 1811 and was modeled after the University of Copenhagen and the recently established University of Berlin. It was originally named for King Frederick VI of Denmark and Norway, the university is informally also known as Universitetet, having been the only university in Norway, until 1946 and was commonly referred to as The Royal Fredericks, prior to the name change. The Nobel Peace Prize was awarded in the universitys Atrium, from 1947 to 1989, since 2003, the Abel Prize is awarded in the Atrium. Five researchers affiliated with the university have been Nobel laureates, in 1813, The Royal Frederiks University was founded in Christiania, a small city at that time. Circumstances then changed dramatically one year into the commencement of the university, however, independence was somewhat restricted, as Norway was obliged to enter into a legislative union with Sweden based on the outcome of the War of 1814. Norway retained its own constitution and independent state institutions, although royal power, at a time when Norwegians feared political domination by the Swedes, the new university became a key institution that contributed to Norwegian political and cultural independence. The main initial function of The Royal Frederick University was to educate a new class of civil servants, as well as parliamentary representatives. The university also became the centre for a survey of the survey of culture, language, history. The staff of the university strove to undertake a range of tasks necessary for developing a modern society. Throughout the 1800s, the academic disciplines gradually became more specialised. Classical education came under increasing pressure, Education, health services and public administration were among those fields that recruited personnel from the universitys graduates. Research changed qualitatively around the turn of the century as new methods, scientific theories and it was decided that teachers should arrive at their posts as highly qualified academics and continue academic research alongside their role as teachers
16.
Order of St. Olav
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The Royal Norwegian Order of Saint Olav is a Norwegian order of chivalry that was instituted by King Oscar I of Norway and Sweden on August 21,1847, as a distinctly Norwegian order. It is named after King Olav II, known to posterity as St. Olav, nobility was abolished in Norway in 1821. Just before the union with Sweden was dissolved in 1905, the Order of the Norwegian Lion was instituted in 1904 by King Oscar II, the Order of St. Olav thus became the kingdoms only order of chivalry for the next 80 years. The Grand Master of the order is the monarch of Norway. It is awarded to individuals as a reward for remarkable accomplishments on behalf of the country, since 1985, the order has only been conferred upon Norwegian citizens, though foreign heads of state and royalty are awarded the order as a matter of courtesy. The Lord Chamberlain nominates the members of the commission, and the monarch approves them, nominations for the award are directed at the commission through the county governor. The order is divided into five classes and may be awarded for civilian or military contributions. The collar is awarded as a distinction of the Grand Cross to those recipients deemed exceptionally worthy. Grand Cross of St. Olav – awarded to heads of state as a courtesy and in cases to individuals for merit, wears the badge on a collar. The insignia are expected to be returned either upon the advancement to a higher level of the order or upon his or her death. Since it was instituted, the order has been awarded approximately 19,500 times, the insignia are produced in Norway by craftsmen. The medal does not confer upon the recipient membership in an order, the badge of the Order is a white enamelled Maltese Cross, in silver for the knight class and in gilt of the higher classes, crowned monograms O appear between the arms of the cross. The cross is topped by a crown, military awards have crossed swords between the crown and the cross, the star of the Order for the Grand Cross is an eight-pointed silver star with faceted rays, bearing the obverse of the badge of the Order. The star for Commander with Star is a silver faceted Maltese Cross, the central disc is red with the golden Norwegian lion rampart bearing a battle axe, surrounded by a white-blue-white ring. The ribbon of the Order is red with white-blue-white edge stripes, the Order of St. Olav is the highest civilian decoration currently awarded by Norway, and only ranks after the military War Cross among all Norwegian decorations still awarded in the general ranking. Bearers of the Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav are ranked 16th and this list contains holders of the Grand Cross, some of whom have also been awarded the Collar and gives the year of their appointment. The list is collated alphabetically by last name, those not possessing a last name, such as royalty. Six of the listed are not heads of states or royals, before the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit was created in 1985, the Order of St Olav was awarded to members of a foreign delegation during state visits
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Norwegian Army
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Norway achieved full independence in 1905, and in the first century of its short life has contributed to three major conflicts, World War II, the Cold War and the War on Terror. The Norwegian Army currently operates in Northern Norway and in Afghanistan as well as in Eastern Europe, the Army is the oldest of the service branches, established as a modern military organization in 1628. The Army participated in wars during the 17th, 18th and 19th century as well, after the Kalmar War broke out in 1611, the Danish king tried to revive the volunteer leidang, with dire results. As the Norwegian citizenry had not been armed or trained in the use of arms for nearly three centuries they were not able to fight, the soldiers had to participate in military drills, while providing supplementary labor to the local community when not in active service. During the war of 1643–45, the Norwegian army performed well while its Danish counterpart flopped, as a result, large areas had to be ceded to Sweden. In 2008 the army faced criticism from within for only being able to only one district in Oslo in the event of a national invasion. German ceased to be the language of command in the army in 1772. With the outbreak of the Napoleonic wars, Denmark-Norway and Sweden tried to remain neutral, by 1807, Denmark-Norway was formally at war with Britain. As the Napoleonic era drew to a close, the allies decided to award Norway to Sweden in 1814. This union lasted until 1905, during which time the Norwegian Army retained a separate entity within the joint kingdom, financial budgeting, recruitment, regimental organization and uniforms were all independent of their Swedish counterparts. The basis for recruitment for the Norwegian Army was initially one of conscription for up to five years by lot drawn amongst rural recruits only, a framework was provided by regular soldiers or hvervede, enlisted as long-service volunteers. As with other armies of the period, the payment of a substitute to serve in place was permitted. This system was replaced by one of universal conscription introduced in 1854, in 1884 the basis of service was further modified with the training period being reduced to 90 days. The regulars of the hvervede were reduced to a cadre of officers, ncos. In June 1905 the Storting unilaterally dissolved the 91-year-old union with Sweden, after a short but tense period during which both armies were mobilized, Sweden agreed to the peaceful dissolution of the union. Though nominally a neutral nation during World War I, Norway was in the position of being dependent on the warring sides for its trade. Coal from Britain was needed to keep the country going, and Norway had thus to agree that each shipload of coal leaving Britain be matched with incoming Norwegian cargoes such as copper ore and this attracted the attention of German submarines. By 1920 the army of Norway was a national militia, service was universal and compulsory, liability commencing at the age of 18 and continuing till the age of 56
18.
Military ranks and insignia of Norway
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The Storting adopted in 2015 the new scheme for military personnel, Militærordningen. Source, The green part represents soldiers and the equivalent of non-commissioned officers, norway did not have a non-commissioned officer system and thus Sergeant and Petty officer are grouped with the officers under the common designation befal. The officers are divided into three groups, The befal, the officers, and the generals. Fenrik used to be referred to as Second Lieutenant, while the rank of lieutenant went by First Lieutenant. The rank of Brigadier is not an old tradition in the Norwegian armed forces and was instated as a replacement for Oberst I, as shown, the Cavalry have two ranks which differ from the regular Army, Dragon instead of Menig, and Rittmester instead of Kaptein. The ranks of Grenader and Matros were bestowed upon soldiers who have finished the 12 months compulsory service and had signed one or more contracts to continue serving. The ranks of Visekorporal/Visekonstabel/Vingsoldat were usually ascribed to soldiers with long and/or outstanding service, after one year course and service these soldiers were qualified for the rank of Sersjant or Kvartermester
19.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
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Stange
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Stange is a municipality in Hedmark county, Norway. It is part of the region of Hedmarken. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Stangebyen, the municipality is named after the old Stange farm, since the first church was built there. The name is the form of stǫng which means bar, pole. The coat-of-arms is from modern times and they were granted on 20 June 1986. The arms show a silver-colored medieval plough called an ard on a green background and it symbolizes this historic importance of agriculture in the area, originally the growing of grains and then later growing potatoes. The arms were designed by Arne Løvstad, archeological finds indicate agricultural settlements in the area well before the Viking Age. Since the shortest route from the south to Hamar went through the area, there have also been trade, Stange has its own historical association that publishes articles, short research topics, as well as authoritative works on the areas history. Stange church is located here and it is one of the oldest medieval churches in Norway and it is mentioned in 1225 in Håkon Håkonsens saga. The municipality of Stange was established on 1 January 1838, the neighboring municipality of Romedal was merged with Stange on 1 January 1964. The municipality is situated on the east side of the lake Mjøsa and it borders the municipalities of Hamar on the north, Løten, Våler, and Åsnes to the east, Nord-Odal to the south, and Eidsvoll to the west. Stange consists of areas that were previously distinct, including Vallset, Romedal, Espa, Åsbygda, Tangen. The municipality can be divided into two areas, the northern area, with rich and fertile agricultural land, and a southern area with craggy. As a result, the section is dominated by large, prosperous farms
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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Independent Norwegian Brigade Group in Germany
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The Independent Norwegian Brigade Group in Germany was a Norwegian expeditionary force stationed in the British Zone of Occupation in Germany, from 1946 to 1953. At first it was set in the Hanover area and from 1948 to 1953 in the Schleswig Holstein area of Germany as part of the British occupying force after World War II. British authorities and the Norwegian government-in-exile in London during World War II initiated discussions about contributing a Norwegian force to the occupation of Germany after the war, the British government initially asked for a small division of about 12,000 soldiers. But estimates of the available conscription classes meant this would be far more than the available at the time. In total about 50,000 Norwegians served in the brigades, after the Social Democrat Norwegian government returned to Norway after the German capitulation in 1945, the matter was put on hold for some time. But after a visit by Lieutenant General Ole Berg to the United Kingdom in January 1946, the planning process was further complicated by the 1945 parliamentary elections that resulted in a Labour government that reorganized the military leadership of Norwegian defense forces. In May 1946 the government published its plan that sought to both build a homeland defense force and provide a force for the occupation of Germany. Each Brigade served for approximately 6 months in Germany, starting with Brigade 471, the numbering of the Brigades was derived from the year and the contingent for that year, so Bde.471 means 1st contingent of 1947. Tysklandsbrigaden however was supplied by the British and were armed and equipped with British weapons, wore British webbing and this decision also covered Tysklandsbrigaden and its weapons. Starting with some parts of Brigade 512, the transformation was finished during Bde, the considerable drop of available ammunition showed up clearly, when Bde.521 had to report that, due to lack of ammunition for training, the Brigade was not fit for combat. Luckily for the troops, none were sent to Korea. In 1948 Norways cabinet decided that the soldiers were to be issued condoms. 400,000 signatures of protest were collected, and Hauge asked advice from Trygve Bratteli about the possibility of having Labour Party employees do partial checks of the lists, the resulting advice was that the partial checks could be done, but that it was not advisable. Allied Occupation Zones in Germany Belgian Forces in Germany Tysklandsbrigaden veterans homepage
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Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
24.
Joop den Uyl
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Johannes Marten den Uijl, known as Joop den Uyl was a Dutch politician of the Labour Party. He served as Prime Minister of the Netherlands from 11 May 1973 until 19 December 1977, Den Uyl previously served as a Member of the House of Representatives from 6 November 1956 until 5 June 1963. He became Minister of Economic Affairs from 14 April 1965 until 22 November 1966 in the Cabinet Cals, Den Uyl became Prime Minister of the Netherlands, leading the Cabinet Den Uyl. He served as a Member of the House of Representatives for the last time from 16 September 1982 until his death on 24 December 1987 and he was seen as an idealistic, but also polarizing politician. Throughout history, Dutch political leaders have tended to soothing manners - Den Uyl was one of a few exceptions. People either loved him or hated him, followers of his idealistic policies called him Ome Joop. He was criticized for creating a deficit and polarizing Dutch politics. Associated with Den Uyl was the maakbare samenleving, another idea associated with Den Uyl was de verbeelding aan de macht. Johannes Marten den Uijl was born on 9 August 1919 in the town of Hilversum and he was born in a Calvinist reformed family. His father, Johannes den Uyl, was a shopkeeper and a basketweaver who died when Den Uyl was only 10, Den Uyl attended the Christian Lyceum in Hilversum from 1931 to 1936. Following this he studied economics at the University of Amsterdam, during this period in his life he left the church. In 1942 he attained the doctorandus degree, until 1945 he was a civil servant at the National Bureau for Prices of Chemical Products, part of the Ministry of Economic Affairs. During that period he was part of the newspaper group that published the clandestine Het Parool. After the Second World War he worked for Het Parool, Vrij Nederland, from January 1949 to 1963 he was head of the Wiardi Beckman Stichting, the think tank of the Partij van de Arbeid. In 1953, at the invitation of the American government, Den Uyl stayed for a few months in the United States, in 1953 Den Uyl was elected to the city council of Amsterdam and in 1956 he was elected to the House of Representatives. In 1963 he became administrator for economic affairs in Amsterdam. He resigned that post in 1965 to become minister of economic affairs in the Cals administration, as the responsible minister, he decided to close the uneconomic coal mines of Limburg, causing high local unemployment. Following the parliamentary elections of 1967, he became leader of the Labour Party in parliament, Den Uyls Labour Party won the 1973 elections in alliance with the progressive liberal Democrats 66 and radical Christian Political Party of Radicals, but failed to achieve a majority in parliament
25.
Nordli's Cabinet
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Nordlis Cabinet governed Norway between 15 January 1976 and 4 February 1981. The Labour Party cabinet was led by Odvar Nordli and it had the following composition, Odvar Nordlis regjering
26.
NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved
27.
Alta controversy
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Folkeaksjonen mot utbygging av Alta-Kautokeinovassdraget was founded at the local highschool, by around 80 protesters, on July 12,1978 The Detsika Camp was established in the summer of 1979. It received 6500 visitors from 20 nations—a number of the visitors were demonstrators, later in 1979 the Stilla Camp was established, and the Detsika Camp was disestablished. Folkeaksjonen - held an election at an annual meeting in Alta on January 24,1982. Folkeaksjonen - had its last national conference, in May 1982, proceedings in court against Alfred Nilsen, Bongo, Suhr and Flatberg, commence March 1,1983. They are later sentenced to fines and suspended prison sentences, on July 12,1978, the popular movement against development of the Alta-Kautokeino waterway was founded, creating an organizational platform for first opposing and then resisting construction work. This group and others filed for an injunction in Norwegian courts against the Norwegian government to prevent construction from beginning, documents that have since been declassified, show that the government planned to use military forces as logistical support for police authorities in their efforts to stop the protests. More than one thousand protesters chained themselves to the site when the work started again in January 1981, the police responded with large forces, at one point 10% of all Norwegian police officers were stationed in Alta. The protesters were removed by police. For the first time since World War II, Norwegians were arrested and charged with violating laws against rioting, the central organizations for the Sami people discontinued all cooperation with the Norwegian government. Two Sami women even travelled to Rome to petition the Pope, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the government in early 1982, at which point organized opposition to the power plant ceased, and the power plant was built. This process reached a key milestone in 2005, when the Finnmark Act was passed and it is considered that though the Sami lost the battle over this particular issue, they made important long-term gains. It unified formerly disparate environmental groups with respect to a common cause, revived Sami interest in their culture and rolled back efforts of the Norwegian governments Norwegianization policy. The NGO organised the opposition against the construction in the Alta controversy, of these 10,000 actively participated in demonstrations, including the Stilla March. The organisation functioned as a cooperation between environmentalists and Sami activists, and not only succeeded at putting focus on environmental issues but also on Sami rights. After their acts of disobedience, the four leaders, Alfred Nilsen, Tore Bongo, Svein Suhr. A2014 documentary film Tidsvitne, Alta-kampen was produced by NRK La Elva Leve, in 2014 in one of the scenes of scenes of the Donald Duck Christmas story, mining activists—clad in gákti—and a chain gang show up. Associations to the Alta conflict of the 70s and 80s, where there was resistance to the building of a dam on the Alta River, are clear. Henvendelsene kom fra både IRA og venstreradikale nordmenn, mest sannsynlig AKP-medlemmer, ville sprenge skip i Alta - Under Alta-striden planla venstreradikale nordmenn å sprenge politibåten «Janina», som lå i Alta med 800 politifolk om bord
28.
Per Kleppe
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Per Andreas Hildte Kleppe is a Norwegian economist and politician for the Labour Party. As an elected politician he served in the position of deputy representative to the Norwegian Parliament from Oslo in during the term 1954–1957, on the local level he was a deputy member of Oslo city council from 1951 to 1955. Kleppe graduated from the University of Oslo with the cand. oecon and he was appointed State Secretary in the Ministry of Finance from 1957 to 1962. In 1979 he was replaced by Ulf Sand, but Kleppe returned in 1981 to head the Secretariat for Long-Term Planning, in 1981 he took over as general secretary of the European Free Trade Association, a position he held until 1988
29.
Keynesian economics
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Keynesian economics are the various theories about how in the short run, and especially during recessions, economic output is strongly influenced by aggregate demand. Keynes contrasted his approach to the aggregate supply-focused classical economics that preceded his book, the interpretations of Keynes that followed are contentious and several schools of economic thought claim his legacy. Keynesian economists generally argue that, as demand is volatile and unstable. Keynesian economists often advocate a role for government intervention during recessions. The advent of the crisis of 2007–08 caused a resurgence in Keynesian thought. This argument rests upon the assumption that if a surplus of goods or services exists and he saw the economy as unable to maintain itself at full employment and believed that it was necessary for the government to step in and put under-utilized savings to work through government spending. Keynes argued that when a glut occurred, it was the over-reaction of producers, Keynesians therefore advocate an active stabilization policy to reduce the amplitude of the business cycle, which they rank among the most serious of economic problems. According to the theory, government spending can be used to aggregate demand, thus increasing economic activity, reducing unemployment. A principle function of banks in countries which have them is to influence this interest rate through a variety of mechanisms which are collectively called monetary policy. This is how monetary policy which reduces interest rates is thought to stimulate economic activity, i. e. grow the economy, expansionary fiscal policy consists of increasing net public spending, which the government can effect by a) taxing less, b) spending more, or c) both. Investment and consumption by government raises demand for products and for employment. If desired spending exceeds revenue, the government finances the difference by borrowing from capital markets by issuing government bonds, two points are important to note at this point. First, deficits are not required for expansionary fiscal policy, and second, for example, if a government ran a deficit of 10% both last year and this year, this would represent neutral fiscal policy. In fact, if it ran a deficit of 10% last year and 5% this year, this would actually be contractionary. On the other hand, if the government ran a surplus of 10% of GDP last year and 5% this year, the purpose of Keynes theory was to show such conditions could, without intervention, persist in a stable, though dismal, equilibrium. By the end of the Second World War, Keynesianism was the most popular school of economic theory in the non-Communist world. Beginning in the late 1960s, a new classical macroeconomics movement arose, critical of Keynesian assumptions and it was characterized by explicit and rigorous adherence to microfoundations, as well as use of increasingly sophisticated mathematical modelling. During the Great Depression, the classical theory attributed mass unemployment to high, to Keynes, the determination of wages was more complicated
30.
Nautical mile
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A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude
31.
Exclusive economic zone
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It stretches from the baseline out to 200 nautical miles from its coast. In colloquial usage, the term may include the continental shelf, the term does not include either the territorial sea or the continental shelf beyond the 200 nmi limit. The surface waters, as can be seen in the map, are international waters, generally, a states exclusive economic zone is an area beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea, extending seaward to a distance of no more than 200 nautical miles out from its coastal baseline. The exception to this occurs when exclusive economic zones would overlap. When an overlap occurs, it is up to the states to delineate the actual maritime boundary, generally, any point within an overlapping area defaults to the nearest state. A states exclusive economic zone starts at the edge of its territorial sea. The exclusive economic zone stretches much further into sea than the territorial waters, thus, the exclusive economic zones includes the contiguous zone. The idea of allotting nations EEZs to give more control of maritime affairs outside territorial limits gained acceptance in the late 20th century. Initially, a countrys sovereign territorial waters extended 3 nautical miles or 6 km beyond the shore, in modern times, a countrys sovereign territorial waters extend to 12 nautical miles beyond the shore. One of the first assertions of exclusive jurisdiction beyond the territorial seas was made by the United States in the Truman Proclamation of September 28,1945. The exact extent of economic zones is a common source of conflicts between states over marine waters. One well-known example of such dispute was the Cod Wars between the United Kingdom and Iceland, Norway and Russia dispute both territorial sea and EEZ with regard to the Svalbard archipelago as it affects Russias EEZ due to its unique treaty status. A treaty was agreed in principle in April 2010 between the two states and subsequently ratified, resolving this demarcation dispute, the agreement was signed in Murmansk on September 15,2010. The South China Sea is the site of a dispute between several neighboring nations. Croatias ZERP in the Adriatic Sea caused friction with Italy and Slovenia, a wedge-shaped section of the Beaufort Sea is disputed between Canada and the United States, as the area reportedly contains substantial oil reserves. France claims a portion of Canadas EEZ for Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon based on a new definition of the continental shelf, Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon is entirely surrounded by Canadas EEZ. Mauritius claims EEZ for Tromelin from France and EEZ for British Indian Ocean Territory from the UK, Northern Cyprus claims a portion of Cyprus EEZ overlaps with that of Northern Cyprus in the south/southeastern part of the Cyprus island. Turkey claims a portion of Cypruss EEZ overlaps with its own EEZ, Lebanon claims that the agreement between Cyprus and Israel overlapped its own EEZ
32.
Jens Evensen
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He negotiated Norways trading deal with EF in 1972 as minister of commerce, serving in this role in the governments of both Trygve Bratteli and Odvar Nordli. He then served as minister until 1979. He worked to secure government income from Norwegian oil discoveries, the Gray Zone deal was also his work. UNs oceans treaty is greatly based on Evensens work. Former Labour Party politician and head of Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation Einar Førde called Jens Evensen one of the great Norwegians of the last century, Evensen grew up in a labour environment in Oslo. He was the son of a butcher, Jens Ingebret Evensen. His father routinely gave out meat and sausages to the underprivileged on the east side of Oslo, Evensen was originally to take over his fathers butcher business, but his mother had other ambitions for him, In 1936 Evensen enrolled in the University of Oslo Law School. His first job after he graduated was at the law firm Folkvard Bugge, the firm specialized in helping tenants to enforce their legal right to buy the apartments they lived in. Evensen helped the tenants, many of whom were illiterate, during the Second World War, Evensen volunteered in the Norwegian resistance movement, helping, among other things, to create false identity papers. After World War II, he was appointed attorney in fact, here he began the extensive work of finding what collaborationist leader Vidkun Quisling and his subordinates had stolen during the war. Nonetheless, Evensen distanced himself from the penalty eventually handed to Quisling. In 1947, he went to the United States to further his education and he was granted a scholarship by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. and began his study at Harvard University. This was an environment where he got to know and befriend many people from the oil business. This increased Evensens interest in oil, Evensen led the Norwegian Foreign Ministrys legal department from 1961 to 1973. Norway was unprepared when representatives from Phillips Petroleum in the US came to Norway in 1962 to request oil exploration rights in the North Sea, Evensen took up the challenge, and proceeded to develop the foundation for the countrys legal claims to the Norwegian continental shelf. Former prime ministers Odvar Nordli and Kaare Willoch praised Evensens work on securing Norways rights to offshore resources, Evensen received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 1974. He later became a politician, campaigning against joining the European Community and he also served as trade minister for the Labour Party. He was both respected and controversial, angering fellow Labour Party officials when he agreed to shared management of fishing resources in the Barents Sea with the Soviet Union
33.
Gro Harlem Bruntland
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Gro Harlem Brundtland is a Norwegian politician, who served three terms as Prime Minister of Norway and as Director-General of the World Health Organization from 1998 to 2003. She is also known for having chaired the Brundtland Commission which presented the Brundtland Report on sustainable development, educated as a physician, Brundtland joined the Labour Party and entered the government in 1974 as Minister of the Environment. She became the first female Prime Minister of Norway on 4 February 1981 and she finally returned for her third term on 3 November 1990. From 1981 to 1992 she was leader of the Labour Party and she is also deputy chair of The Elders and a former Vice-President of the Socialist International. Brundtland belonged to the wing of her party and supported Norwegian membership in the European Union during the 1994 referendum. As Prime Minister Brundtland became widely known as the mother of the nation, Brundtland received the 1994 Charlemagne Prize, and has received many other awards and recognitions. Brundtland was born in Oslo in 1939, the daughter of physician and politician Gudmund Harlem, in 1963, Brundtland graduated with a medical degree, a cand. med. She took her masters degree at Harvard University in 1965, as a Master of Public Health, from 1966 to 1969, she worked as a physician at the Directorate of Health, and from 1969 she worked as a doctor in Oslos public school health service. She was Norwegian Minister for Environmental Affairs from 1974 to 1979, Brundtland became Norways first female Prime Minister in 1981. She served as Prime Minister from February to October, Brundtland became Norwegian Prime Minister for two further, and more durable, terms. The third ministry was from 3 November 1990 to 25 October 1996, Brundtland became leader of the Labour Party in 1981 and held the office until resigning in 1992, during her third term as Prime Minister. In 1996, she resigned as Prime Minister and retired completely from Norwegian politics and her successor as both Labour Party leader in 1992 and as Prime Minister in 1996 was Thorbjørn Jagland. She developed the political concept of sustainable development in the course of extensive public hearings. The Brundtland Commission also provided momentum for Agenda 21 and this culminated with the signing of the Oslo Accords. After the end of her term as PM, Brundtland was then elected Director-General of the World Health Organization in May 1998, Brundtland spearheaded the movement, now worldwide, to achieve the abolition of cigarette smoking by education, persuasion, and increased taxation. Under her leadership, the World Health Organization was one of the first major employers to make quitting smoking a condition of employment, under Brundtlands leadership, the World Health Organization was criticized for increased drug-company influence on the agency. Brundtland was recognized in 2003 by Scientific American as their Policy Leader of the Year for coordinating a rapid response to stem outbreaks of SARS. Brundtland was succeeded on 21 July 2003 by Jong-Wook Lee, in 1994, Brundtland was awarded the Charlemagne Prize of the city of Aachen
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Brundtland's First Cabinet
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Brundtlands First Cabinet was a minority, Labour Government of Norway. It succeeded the Labour Cabinet Nordli, and sat between 4 February 1981 –14 October 1981, the cabinet was the first in Norwegian history to be led by a woman. It was replaced by the Conservative Willochs First Cabinet after the 1981 election, brundtlands cabinet had the following composition
35.
State funeral
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A state funeral is a public funeral ceremony, observing the strict rules of protocol, held to honour people of national significance. State funerals usually include much pomp and ceremony as well as religious overtones, generally, state funerals are held in order to involve the general public in a national day of mourning after the family of the deceased gives consent. A state funeral will often generate mass publicity from both national and global media outlets and she had the title of Spiritual Leader of the Nation of Argentina, a title granted by the Congress of Argentina. Nearly three million people covered the funeral of Evita in the streets of Buenos Aires, eva Perón, Spiritual Leader of the Nation, died. Eva Perón was granted a funeral and a full Roman Catholic requiem mass. On 9 August, Saturday, the body was transferred to the Congress Building for an additional day to be publicly viewed. On Sunday,10 August, after a final Sunday mass, passing her coffin through the streets was showered with carnations, orchids, chrysanthemums, wallflowers and roses thrown from the balconies nearby. Juan Perón died at age 78 on July 1,1974, the Vice President, saying the country was announced with great sorrow I must convey to the people of Argentina the death of this true apostle of peace and nonviolence. On November 17,1974 the remains of Evita, while the body was in Congress, filed past the coffin 135,000 people, out of more than a million Argentines lost their bid farewell to their leader. Two thousand foreign journalists reported the details of the funeral, raul Alfonsín died at age 82 on 31 March 2009, due to lung cancer and then his health would be aggravated, in his last days, broncoaspirativa pneumonia. The next day they were taken to a gun carriage escorted by the Mounted Grenadiers Regiment at Recoleta Cemetery in Buenos Aires. Although there was some effort made to him, it did not do so His wife. He was also expected to run for president in 2011, a state funeral was held on November 3,2010 in Bridgetown for former Barbados Prime Minister David Thompson. State funerals were held for the president-elect of Brazil, Tancredo Neves, the former vice-president of Brazil, José Alencar, was also buried with a head of states honor, after his passing due to cancer. In 2006, the House of Commons voted unanimously, on an introduced by the NDP. However, John Babcock, after becoming the last surviving veteran, in August 2011, in a rare circumstance, Prime Minister Stephen Harper offered a state funeral for his political adversary and Leader of the Opposition, Jack Layton. Layton died of cancer three months after his New Democratic Party became the opposition, for the first time in his partys history. In 2014, former finance minister Jim Flaherty received a state funeral after his death, crispin Sorhaindo, former President of Dominica, was given a state funeral on January 18,2010 in Roseau
36.
Gyldendal Norsk Forlag
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Gyldendal Norsk Forlag, commonly referred to as Gyldendal N. F. and in Norway often only as Gyldendal, is one of the largest Norwegian publishing houses. Gyldendal Norsk Forlag AS was founded in 1925 and it was established when a group of Norwegian investors bought home the works of The Four Greats and Knut Hamsun, which had previously been published by the Danish publishing house Gyldendal. Harald Grieg had a role in this operation and became the new companys director. The company publishes both fiction, non-fiction, school books and children books, Gyldendal owns 50% of Kunnskapsforlaget, along with Aschehoug, which publishes encyclopedias, dictionaries and other reference books, including Store norske leksikon. Gyldendal also publishes the literary magazine Vinduet, the company is organised as a division of Gyldendal ASA, a holding company which is listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange. Gyldendal Norsk Forlag AS consists of the four divisions, Gyldendal Litteratur, Gyldendal Undervisning, Gyldendal Akademisk. Gyldendal ASA is a Norway-based holding company active within the publishing sector. 5%-owned book club
Order of St. Olav
Norway
Norwegian Army
Corporal
listen)[needs Norwegian IPA] (3 November 1927 – 9 January 2018) was a Norwegian politician from the Labour Party. He was Prime Minister of Norway from 1976 to 1981 during the Cold War,[1] before serving as Prime Minister, Nordli served as Minister of Local Government from 1971 to 1972.
