1.
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
2.
Florida
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Florida /ˈflɒrᵻdə/ is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Florida is the 22nd-most extensive, the 3rd-most populous, and the 8th-most densely populated of the U. S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States, the Miami metropolitan area is Floridas most populous urban area. The city of Tallahassee is the state capital, much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south, the American alligator, American crocodile, Florida panther, and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park. It was a location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans. Today, Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth, the states economy relies mainly on tourism, agriculture, and transportation, which developed in the late 19th century. Florida is also renowned for amusement parks, orange crops, the Kennedy Space Center, Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams, and continues to attract celebrities and athletes. It is internationally known for golf, tennis, auto racing, by the 16th century, the earliest time for which there is a historical record, major Native American groups included the Apalachee, the Timucua, the Ais, the Tocobaga, the Calusa and the Tequesta. Florida was the first part of the continental United States to be visited and settled by Europeans, the earliest known European explorers came with the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. Ponce de León spotted and landed on the peninsula on April 2,1513 and he named the region La Florida. The story that he was searching for the Fountain of Youth is a myth, in May 1539, Conquistador Hernando de Soto skirted the coast of Florida, searching for a deep harbor to land. He described seeing a wall of red mangroves spread mile after mile, some reaching as high as 70 feet. Very soon, many smokes appeared along the whole coast, billowing against the sky, the Spanish introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language, and more to Florida. Both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, in 1559, Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a settlement at present-day Pensacola, making it the first attempted settlement in Florida, but it was abandoned by 1561. Spain maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the tribes to Christianity. The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English settlements to the north, the English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times. Florida attracted numerous Africans and African-Americans from adjacent British colonies who sought freedom from slavery, in 1738, Governor Manuel de Montiano established Fort Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose near St
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
National Natural Landmark
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The National Natural Landmarks Program recognizes and encourages the conservation of outstanding examples of the natural history of the United States. It is the only national natural areas program that identifies and recognizes the best examples of biological and geological features in both public and private ownership, the program was established on May 18,1962, by United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall. The program aims to encourage and support voluntary preservation of sites that illustrate the geological and ecological history of the United States and it also hopes to strengthen the publics appreciation of the countrys natural heritage. As of November 2016,599 sites have been added to the National Registry of National Landmarks, the registry includes nationally significant geological and ecological features in 48 states, American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. The National Park Service administers the NNL Program and if requested, land acquisition by the federal government is not a goal of this program. National Natural Landmarks are nationally significant sites owned by a variety of land stewards, the legislative authority for the National Natural Landmarks Program stems from the Historic Sites Act of August 21,1935, the program is governed by federal regulations. The NNL Program does not have the features of Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966. Thus, designation of a National Natural Landmark presently constitutes only an agreement with the owner to preserve, insofar as possible, administration and preservation of National Natural Landmarks is solely the owners responsibility. Either party may terminate the agreement after they notify the other, the UKs Site of Special Scientific Interest list is a rough equivalent. The NNL designation is made by the Secretary of the Interior after in-depth scientific study of a potential site, all new designations must have owner concurrence. The selection process is rigorous, to be considered for NNL status, since establishment of the NNL program, a multi-step process has been used to designate a site for NNL status. Since 1970, the steps have constituted the process. A natural area inventory of a region is completed to identify the most promising sites. After landowners are notified that the site is being considered for NNL status, the evaluation report is peer reviewed by other experts to assure its soundness. The report is reviewed further by National Park Service staff, the site is reviewed by the Secretary of the Interiors National Park Advisory Board to determine that the site qualifies as an NNL. The findings are provided to the Secretary of the Interior who approves or declines, landowners are notified a third time informing them that the site has been designated an NNL. Each major natural history theme can be subdivided into various sub-themes. The NNL program does not require designated properties to be owned by public entities, lands under almost all forms of ownership or administration have been designated—federal, state, local, municipal and private
5.
Peat
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Peat, also called turf, is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter that is unique to natural areas called peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs. The peatland ecosystem is the most efficient carbon sink on the planet because peatland plants capture the CO2 which is released from the peat. Sphagnum moss is one of the most common components in peat, soils that contain mostly peat are known as histosols. Peat forms in wetland conditions, where flooding obstructs flows of oxygen from the atmosphere, Peatlands, particularly bogs, are the most important source of peat. That said, other less common types, including fens, pocosins. Landscapes covered in peat are home to specific kinds of plants including Sphagnum moss, ericaceous shrubs, because organic matter accumulates over thousands of years, peat deposits also provide records of past vegetation and climates stored in plant remains like pollen. This allows humans to reconstruct past environments and study changes in land use. Peat is harvested as an important source of fuel in certain parts of the world, by volume, there are about 4 trillion cubic metres of peat in the world, covering a total of around 2% of the global land area, containing about 8 billion terajoules of energy. Over time, the formation of peat is often the first step in the formation of other fossil fuels such as coal. This is also the commonly used in the peat industry. At 106 g CO2/MJ, the carbon dioxide emission intensity of peat is higher than that of coal and natural gas, lastly, peat fires have been responsible for large public health disasters including the 1997 Southeast Asian haze. Peat forms when plant material does not fully decay in acidic and anaerobic conditions and it is composed mainly of wetland vegetation, principally bog plants including mosses, sedges, and shrubs. As it accumulates, the peat holds water and this slowly creates wetter conditions that allow the area of wetland to expand. Peatland features can include ponds, ridges, and raised bogs, most modern peat bogs formed 12,000 years ago in high latitudes after the glaciers retreated at the end of the last ice age. Peat usually accumulates slowly at the rate of about a millimetre per year, using Carbon-dating, scientists found that Peat in peatlands started forming 360 million years ago based on it currently containing 550 Gt of carbon. Peat material is either fibric, hemic, or sapric, fibric peats are the least decomposed and consist of intact fiber. Hemic peats are partially decomposed and sapric are the most decomposed, Phragmites peat is one composed of reed grass, Phragmites australis, and other grasses. It is denser than other types of peat
6.
Swamp
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A swamp is a wetland that is forested. Many swamps occur along rivers where they are critically dependent upon natural water level fluctuations. Other swamps occur on the shores of large lakes, some swamps have hammocks, or dry-land protrusions, covered by aquatic vegetation, or vegetation that tolerates periodic inundation. The two main types of swamp are true or swamp forests and transitional or shrub swamps, in the boreal regions of Canada, the word swamp is colloquially used for what is more correctly termed a bog or muskeg. The water of a swamp may be water, brackish water or seawater. Some of the worlds largest swamps are found along rivers such as the Amazon, the Mississippi. Swamps are characterized by slow-moving to stagnant waters and they are usually associated with adjacent rivers or lakes. Swamps are features of areas with very low topographic relief, historically, humans have drained swamps to provide additional land for agriculture and to reduce the threat of diseases borne by swamp insects and similar animals. Many swamps have also undergone intensive logging, requiring the construction of drainage ditches and these ditches and canals contributed to drainage and, along the coast, allowed salt water to intrude, converting swamps to marsh or even to open water. Large areas of swamp were therefore lost or degraded, louisiana provides a classic example of wetland loss from these combined factors. Europe has probably lost nearly half its wetlands, New Zealand lost 90 percent of its wetlands over a period of 150 years. Ecologists recognise that swamps provide valuable ecological services including flood control, fish production, water purification, carbon storage, in many parts of the world authorities protect swamps. In parts of Europe and North America, swamp restoration projects are becoming widespread, often the simplest steps to restoring swamps involve plugging drainage ditches and removing levees. Swamps and other wetlands have traditionally held a very low property value compared to fields, prairies and they have a reputation for being unproductive land that cannot easily be utilized for human activities, other than perhaps hunting and trapping. Farmers, for example, typically drained swamps next to their fields so as to more land usable for planting crops. Many societies now realize that swamps are important to providing fresh water and oxygen to all life. Indeed, floodplain swamps are important in fish production. Government environmental agencies are taking steps to protect and preserve swamps, in Europe, major effort is being invested in the restoration of swamp forests along rivers
7.
Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge
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The Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge is a 402, 000‑acre National Wildlife Refuge located in Charlton, Ware, and Clinch Counties of Georgia, and Baker County in Florida, United States. The refuge is administered from offices in Folkston, Georgia, the refuge was established in 1937 to protect a majority of the 438,000 acre Okefenokee Swamp. The name Okefenokee is a Native American word meaning trembling earth, by May 28, more than 580,000 acres had burned in the region, or more than 900 square miles. Nearly 400,000 people visit the refuge each year, making it the 16th most visited refuge in the National Wildlife Refuge System and it is the largest in acreage of any that is not located in a western state. In 1999, the impact of tourism in Charlton, Ware. The refuge has a staff of 16 with a fiscal year 2005 budget of $1,451,000, the refuge also administers the Banks Lake National Wildlife Refuge. The swamp has a human history including Native American settlement, explorations by Europeans, a massive drainage attempt. Native Americans inhabited Okefenokee Swamp as early as 2500 BC, peoples of the Deptford Culture, the Swift Creek Culture and the Weeden Island Culture occupied sites within the Okefenokee. The last tribe to seek sanctuary in the swamp were the Seminoles, troops led by General Charles R. Floyd during the Second Seminole War, 1838–1842, ended the age of the Native Americans in the Okefenokee. The Suwannee Canal Company purchased 238,120 acres of the Okefenokee Swamp from the State of Georgia in 1891 to drain the swamp for rice, sugar cane, when this failed, the company began industrial wetland logging as a source of income. Captain Henry Jackson and his crews spent three years digging the Suwannee Canal 11.5 miles into the swamp, economic recessions led to the company’s bankruptcy and eventual sale to Charles Hebard in 1901. Logging operations, focusing on the cypress, began in 1909 after a railroad was constructed on the northwest area of the swamp, more than 431 million board feet of timber were removed from the Okefenokee by 1927, when logging operations ceased. The Okefenokee Preservation Society, formed in 1918, promoted nationwide interest in the swamp, with the support of State and local interests and numerous conservation and scientific organizations, the Federal Government acquired most of the swamp for refuge purposes in 1936. In 1937, with Executive Order 7593, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt established the refuge, designating it as a refuge and breeding ground for migratory birds and other wildlife. In 1974, to ensure the protection of this unique ecosystem. In 1986, the Okefenokee Refuge was designated by the Wetlands Convention as a Wetland of International Importance, Okefenokee NWR has an approved acquisition boundary of 519,480 acres, which is 123,480 acres larger than its current area. Approximately 371,000 acres of the Okefenokee Swamp wetlands are incorporated into the refuge, the Okefenokee Swamp is a vast bog inside a huge, saucer-shaped depression that was once part of the ocean floor. The swamp now lies 103 to 128 feet above sea level
8.
Okefenokee Wilderness
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Okefenokee Wilderness is an 353,981 acre U. S. Wilderness Area located in southeastern Georgia in the Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge and it was established and governed under the Wilderness Act of 1974 when 343,850 acres were designated as wilderness by Public Law 93-429. Located in the heart of the Okefenokee Swamp, this tract of land has set aside for future generations to enjoy. No further uses such as harvesting, farming, or road building will be permitted. Boats having 10 hp or less are allowed and can be rented along with canoes at the two entrance ways on either side of the Swamp. Wilderness Areas Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge Okefenokee Swamp Wilderness. net Recreation. gov overview Okefenokee Swamp Park homepage
9.
Blackwater river
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A blackwater river is a type of river with a deep, slow-moving channel flowing through forested swamps or wetlands. As vegetation decays, tannins leach into the water, making a transparent, acidic water that is darkly stained, most major blackwater rivers are in the Amazon Basin and the Southern United States. The term is used in studies, geology, geography, ecology. Not all dark rivers are blackwater in that technical sense, some rivers in temperate regions, which drain or flow through areas of dark black loam, are simply black due to the color of the soil, these rivers are black mud rivers. There are also black mud estuaries, Blackwater rivers are lower in nutrients than whitewater rivers and have ionic concentrations higher than rainwater. The unique conditions lead to flora and fauna that differ both from whitewater and clearwater rivers, where the water types combine is attractive to a diverse group of organisms. Although many Amazonian rivers fall clearly into one of these categories, others show a mix of characteristics and may vary depending on season, Black and white waters differ significantly in their ionic composition, as shown in Table 1. Black waters are acidic, resulting in an aluminum concentration greater than that of the more neutral white waters. The major difference is the concentrations of sodium, magnesium, calcium and potassium, some animals need more calcium than is available in blackwaters, so for example, snails, which need much calcium to build shells, are not abundant in blackwaters. The lack of dissolved ions in black waters results in a low conductivity, Black and white waters differ in their planktonic fauna and flora. Tables 2 and 3 compare the number of animals caught in black. The black water was not as extreme an example as the Rio Negro system, however, it can be seen that the black water held greater numbers of rotifers but fewer crustaceans and mites. These crustaceans are important foods for larval fish, the zones where the two waters mix are attractive to ostracods and young fish. These mixing zones tend to have many animals, the abundance is shown in Table 3, which compares animals in 10 litres of water. The main Amazonian clearwater rivers have their source in the Brazilian Plateau, apaporis River, A tributary of the Japurá River. Arapiuns River, A tributary of the Tapajós River, coari River Potaro River, A tributary of the Mazaruni River. Mazaruni River Mirití-Paraná River Rio Negro, The largest blackwater river in the world, big Cypress, Black Cypress, and Little Cypress and the small rivers in the watershed of Caddo Lake in Texas and Louisiana. Blackwater River, a tributary of the Chowan River in Virginia, Blackwater River, a major river in the western Florida panhandle
10.
Mikasuki language
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The Mikasuki language is a Muskogean language spoken by around 500 people in southern Florida. It is part of the Eastern branch of Muskogean languages, along with Creek-Seminole and it is spoken by the Miccosukee tribe and many Florida Seminole. The extinct Hitchiti was a mutually-intelligible dialect, the Seminole and Miccosukee were made up of mostly Creek members of the Creek Confederacy, who had migrated to Florida under pressure from European-American encroachment. The Seminole formed by a process of ethnogenesis in the 18th century, american settlers began to enter Florida and came into conflict with the Seminole. The Seminole Wars of the 19th century greatly depleted the numbers of these tribes, the United States forcibly removed many Seminole to Indian Territory. The Seminole and Miccosukee had gradually moved into the center of Florida, the US gave up efforts against them. In the 20th century, the Seminole and Miccosukee split apart, the Miccosukee lived in communities that were affected by the early 20th-century construction of the Tamiami Trail, which brought tourists into the Everglades. The Miccosukee achieved federal recognition as a tribe in 1962, both tribes have speakers of Mikasuki today. As of 2002, the language was taught in the local school, presentations in the language have been featured at the Florida Folk Festival. There are three tones, high, low and falling, vowel length is distinctive, eche vs eeche, ete vs eete. These phonemes are based on Sylvia Boyntons Outline of Mikasuki Grammar, nouns are marked with suffixes for various functions, some examples, Free pronouns exist but are rarely used. Verb suffixes are the way of marking person. Mikasuki is written using the Latin alphabet, the vowels are pronounced as follows, The consonants are, High tone is indicated with an acute accent, low tone with a grave accent, and falling tone with an acute accent followed by a grave accent. A long vowel with falling tone is represented by two accented vowel letters, when the vowel is short, the grave accent is placed over the next consonant, An epenthetic vowel appears in kl, kw and kn clusters in careful speech. A phonology and morphology of Mikasuki, a Guide to the Miccosukee Language, Miami, Miccosukee Corporation 1978. The Phonology of Mikasuki in Studies in Linguistics 1962,16, a Global Linguistic Database, Mikasuki Miccosukee place names Mikasuki, Omniglot Miccosukee Indian Language OLAC resources in and about the Mikasuki language
11.
Suwannee River
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The Suwannee River is a major river that runs through South Georgia southward into Florida in the southern United States. It is a blackwater river, about 246 miles long. The Suwannee River is the site of the prehistoric Suwanee Straits which separated peninsular Florida from the panhandle, the headwaters of the Suwanee River are in the Okefenokee Swamp in the town of Fargo, Georgia. The river runs southwestward into the Florida Panhandle, then drops in elevation through limestone layers into a rare Florida whitewater rapid. Past the rapid, the Suwanee turns west near the town of White Springs, Florida, then connects to the confluences of the Alapaha River, starting at the confluences of those three rivers, that confluence forms the southern borderline of Hamilton County, Florida. The Suwanee then bends southward near the town of Ellaville, Florida followed by Luraville, Florida then joins together with the Santa Fe River from the east south of the town of Branford, Florida. The river ends and drains into the Gulf of Mexico on the outskirts of Suwannee, the Spanish recorded the native Timucua name of Guacara for the river that would later become known as the Suwannee. Different etymologies have suggested for the modern name. Brinton first suggested in his 1889 Notes on the Floridian Peninsula that Suwannee was a corruption of the Spanish San Juan. This theory is supported by Jerald Milanich, who states that Suwannee developed through San Juan-ee from the 17th-century Spanish mission of San Juan de Guacara, Shawnee, The migrations of the Shawnee throughout the South have also been connected to the name Suwannee. As early as 1820, the Indian agent John Johnson said the Suwaney river was named after the Shawanoese. Echo, In 1884, Albert S. Gatschet claimed that Suwannee derives from the Creek word sawani, meaning echo, gatschets etymology also survives in more recent publications, often mistaking the language of translation. For example, a University of South Florida website states that the Timucuan Indian word Suwani means Echo River, River of Reeds, Deep Water, or Crooked Black Water. In 2004, William Bright repeats it again, now attributing the name Suwanee to a Cherokee village of Sawani, the Suwannee River area has been inhabited by humans for thousands of years. By 1633, the Spanish had established the missions of San Juan de Guacara, San Francisco de Chuaquin, in the 18th century, Seminoles lived by the river. The steamboat Madison operated on the river before the Civil War, and this river is the subject of the Stephen Foster song Old Folks at Home, in which he calls it the Swanee Ribber. Foster had named the Pedee River of South Carolina in his first lyrics and it has been called Swanee River because Foster had used an alternative contemporary spelling of the name. Foster never actually saw the river he made world-famous, george Gershwins song, with lyrics by Irving Caesar, and made popular by Al Jolson, is also spelled Swanee and boasts that the folks up North will see me no more when I get to that Swanee shore
12.
Timucua
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The Timucua were a Native American people who lived in Northeast and North Central Florida and southeast Georgia. They were the largest indigenous group in that area and consisted of about 35 chiefdoms, the various groups of Timucua spoke several dialects of the Timucua language. At the time of European contact, the occupied by speakers of Timucuan dialects occupied about 19,200 square miles. The name Timucua came from the used by the Saturiwa to refer to the Utina. The Spanish came to use the more broadly for other peoples in the area. Eventually it became the term for all peoples who spoke what is known as the Timucuan language. While alliances and confederacies arose between the chiefdoms from time to time, the Timucua were never organized into a political unit. The various groups of Timucua speakers practiced several different cultural traditions, the people suffered severely from the introduction of Eurasian infectious diseases, to which they had no immunity. By 1595, their population was estimated to have reduced from 200,000 to 50,000. By 1700, the population of the tribe had been reduced to 1000, warfare against them by the English colonists and native allies completed their extinction as a tribe soon after the turn of the 19th century. The word Timucuan may derive from Thimogona or Tymangoua, a used by the Saturiwa chiefdom of present-day Jacksonville for their enemies, the Utina. Both groups spoke dialects of the Timucua language, the French followed the Saturiwa in this usage, but the Spanish applied the term Timucua much more widely to groups within a wide section of interior North Florida. In the 16th century they designated the area north of the Santa Fe River between the St. Johns and Suwannee Rivers as the Timucua Province, which they incorporated into the mission system, the dialect spoken in that province became known as Timucua. During the 17th century, the Province of Timucua was extended to include the area between the Suwannee River and the Aucilla River, thus extending its scope, eventually, Timucua was applied to all speakers of the various dialects of the Timucua language. The pre-Columbian era was marked by regular, routine, and probably small tribal wars with neighbors, the Timucua were organized into as many as 35 chiefdoms, each of which had hundreds of people in assorted villages within its purview. They sometimes formed loose political alliances, but did not operate as a political unit. It is the oldest archaeological site in the city, the Timucua may have been the first American natives to see the landing of Juan Ponce de León near St. Augustine in 1513. This notion is up for debate since most historians now agree that the Ponce de León landing point was likely much further south in Ais territory
13.
St. Johns River
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The St. Johns River is the longest river in the U. S. state of Florida and its most significant one for commercial and recreational use. At 310 miles long, it winds through or borders twelve counties, three of which are the states largest. The drop in elevation from headwaters to mouth is less than 30 feet, like most Florida waterways and it is notable among some that the rivers course flows north, a relatively rare characteristic. Numerous lakes are formed by the river or flow into it, the narrowest point is in the headwaters, an unnavigable marsh in Indian River County. The St. Johns drainage basin of 8,840 square miles includes some of Floridas major wetlands and it is separated into three major basins and two associated watersheds for Lake George and the Ocklawaha River, all managed by the St. Johns River Water Management District. It has been the subject of William Bartrams journals, Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings books, when attention was turned to the state, however, much of the land was rapidly overdeveloped in a national zeal for progress. The St. Johns, like many Florida rivers, was altered to make way for agricultural and residential centers and it suffered severe pollution and human interference that has diminished the natural order of life in and around the river. In all,3.5 million people live within the watersheds that feed into the St. Johns River. The St. Johns, named one of 14 American Heritage Rivers in 1998, was included on a list of Americas Ten Most Endangered Rivers in 2008. Restoration efforts are under way for the basins around the St. Johns as Florida continues to deal with population increases in the rivers vicinity, starting in Indian River County and meeting the Atlantic Ocean at Duval County, the St. Johns is Floridas primary commercial and recreational waterway. It flows north from its headwaters, originating in the direction of the Lake Wales Ridge, because of this low elevation drop, the river has a long backwater. It ebbs and flows with tides that pass through the barrier islands, uniquely, it shares the same regional terrain as the parallel Kissimmee River, although the Kissimmee flows south. The St. Johns River is separated into three basins and two associated watersheds managed by the St. Johns River Water Management District, because the river flows in a northerly direction, the upper basin is located in the headwaters of the river at its southernmost point. Indian River County is where the river begins as a network of marshes, the St. Johns River is a blackwater stream, meaning that it is fed primarily by swamps and marshes lying beneath it, water seeps through the sandy soil and collects in a slight valley. The upper basin measures approximately 2,000 square miles, the St. Johns transforms into a waterway in Brevard County. The river touches on the borders of Osceola and Orange Counties, the upper basin of the St. Johns was significantly lowered in the 1920s with the establishment of the Melbourne Tillman drainage project. This drained the St. Johns headwaters eastward to the Indian River through canals dug across the Ten-Mile Ridge near Palm Bay, as of 2015, these past diversions are being partially reversed through the first phase of the Canal 1 Rediversion project. The river is at its narrowest and most unpredictable in this basin, channel flows are not apparent and are usually unmarked
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English Americans
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In the 2014 American Community Survey, English Americans are of the total population. Eight out of the ten most common surnames in the United States are of English origin or having possible mixed British Isles heritage, scotch-Irish Americans are for the most part descendants of Lowland Scots and Northern English settlers who colonized Ireland during the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century. The English were the top group, with 66% saying they were a good thing for the United States. Ben J. Wattenberg argues that this demonstrates an general American bias against Hispanics. English immigrants in the 19th century, as other groups. They began migrating in large numbers without state support, Americans of English heritage are often seen, and identify, as simply American due to the many historic cultural ties between England and the U. S. and their influence on the countrys population. While there may be reasons for this, after centuries of intermarriage and internal geographic mobility. For these reasons, no part of the pluralist American society is so difficult to describe as a separate entity as the English. The original 17th-century settlers were overwhelmingly English and it was conducted on August 2,1790. The ancestry of the 3,929,214 population in 1790 has been estimated by various sources by sampling last names in the very first United States official census and assigning them a country of origin. The estimate results indicate that people of English ancestry made up about 47. 5% of the population or 60. 9% of the European American population. Some 80. 7% of the total United States population was of European heritage, around 757,208 were of African descent with 697,624 being slaves. Of the remaining population, more than 75% was of British origin, in the 2000 census,24.5 million Americans reported English ancestry,8. 7% of the total U. S. population. This estimate is probably a serious undercount by over 30 million given that, in the 1980 census, as many as 80 million Americans may be wholly or partly of English ancestry. In 1980,23,748,772 Americans claimed wholly English ancestry, in 1860, an estimated 11 million or almost 35% of the population of the United States was wholly or primarily of English ancestry. The population has increased by almost ten times the numbers in 1860, in total, there are estimated to be around 678,000 British born expatriates in the United States with the majority of these being English. English Americans are found in numbers throughout America, particularly in the Northeast, South. Dark blue and purple colours indicate a percentage, highest in the east and west
15.
Wildfire
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A wildfire or wildland fire is a fire in an area of combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or rural area. Fossil charcoal indicates that wildfires began soon after the appearance of terrestrial plants 420 million years ago, wildfire’s occurrence throughout the history of terrestrial life invites conjecture that fire must have had pronounced evolutionary effects on most ecosystems flora and fauna. Earth is an intrinsically flammable planet owing to its cover of vegetation, seasonally dry climates, atmospheric oxygen, widespread lightning. Wildfires can be characterised in terms of the cause of ignition, their properties, the combustible material present. Wildfires can cause damage to property and human life, but they have beneficial effects on native vegetation, animals. Many plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth, however, wildfire in ecosystems where wildfire is uncommon or where non-native vegetation has encroached may have negative ecological effects. Wildfire behaviour and severity result from the combination of such as available fuels, physical setting. Strategies of wildfire prevention, detection and suppression have varied over the years, one common and inexpensive technique is controlled burning, permitting or even igniting smaller fires to minimise the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire. Vegetation may be burned periodically to maintain species diversity and frequent burning of surface fuels limits fuel accumulation. Wildland fire use is the cheapest and most ecologically appropriate policy for many forests, fuels may also be removed by logging, but fuels treatments and thinning have no effect on severe fire behaviour. Wildfires can also be started in communities experiencing shifting cultivation, where land is cleared quickly and farmed until the soil loses fertility, forested areas cleared by logging encourage the dominance of flammable grasses, and abandoned logging roads overgrown by vegetation may act as fire corridors. The most common cause of wildfires throughout the world. In Canada and northwest China, for example, lightning operates as the source of ignition. In other parts of the world, human involvement is a major contributor, in China and in the Mediterranean Basin, human carelessness is a major cause of wildfires. In the United States and Australia, the source of wildfires can be traced both to lightning strikes and to human activities. Coal seam fires burn in the thousands around the world, such as those in Burning Mountain, New South Wales, Centralia, Pennsylvania and they can also flare up unexpectedly and ignite nearby flammable material. The spread of wildfires based on the flammable material present, its vertical arrangement and moisture content. Fuel arrangement and density is governed in part by topography, as land shape determines factors such as available sunlight, overall, fire types can be generally characterized by their fuels as follows, Ground fires are fed by subterranean roots, duff and other buried organic matter
16.
Waycross, Georgia
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Waycross is the county seat of, and only incorporated city in, Ware County. In the U. S. state of Georgia, the population was 14,725 at the 2010 Census. Waycross includes two districts and several other properties that are on the National Register of Historic Places. Post Office and Courthouse, Lott Cemetery, the First African Baptist Church and Parsonage, the area now known as Waycross was first settled circa 1820, locally known as Old Nine or Number Nine and then Pendleton. It was renamed Tebeauville in 1857, incorporated under that name in 1866 and it was incorporated as Way Cross on March 3,1874. Waycross gets its name from the location at key railroad junctions. Waycross was the site of the 1948 Waycross B-29 crash, which led to the legal case United States v. Reynolds, during the 1950s the city had a tourist gimmick, local police would stop motorists with out-of-state license plates and escort them to downtown Waycross. There they would be met by the Welcome World Committee and given overnight lodging, dinner, the tradition faded away after the interstates opened through Georgia. During the mid-1990s, Waycross originated a frozen hamburger that needed no defrosting and this was the creation of Eaves Foods, Inc. a company that later changed to Bubba Foods, LLC. in 2000. Bubba Burgers are now sold nationwide as well as worldwide through the United States Military Commissary system, Waycross is located at 31°12′50″N 82°21′18″W and is the closest city to the Okefenokee Swamp. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 11.7 square miles. The closest major city is Jacksonville, Florida, which is roughly 81 miles away, in May 2010, the city purchased the Bandalong Litter Trap and installed it in Tebeau Creek, a tributary of the Satilla River. The trap was invented in Australia, but is manufactured in the United States, Georgia Governor Sonny Perdue said, “Water is one of Georgia’s most important and precious resources. The litter trap installed by Waycross is a model of stewardship for the state, part of Waycross was situated in Pierce County, but effective July 1,2015, Waycross was no longer located nor allowed to be located in Pierce County. State Rep. Chad Nimmer introduced HB523 during the 2015 Legislative Session without providing the required notice to the City of Waycross. HB523 de-annexed the portion of Waycross located in Pierce County, the three-story facility has a trauma unit, cancer care unit, outpatient surgery and imaging services. In 2012, Satilla Regional Medical Center joined the Mayo Clinic Health System, U. S. Highway 1 runs north–south through Waycross. U. S. Highway 82 is an east–west highway in Waycross, U. S. Highway 84 runs east–west through Waycross
17.
Honey Prairie Fire
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The Honey Prairie Fire was a 2011 wildfire that burned 309,200 acres of primarily scrub and brush in the Okefenokee Swamp are of southern Georgia. Because fire restores the prairie ecosystem, fire managers in the Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge allowed the fire to burn, Fire fighters worked to preserve structures and keep the fire within the refuge rather than contain the flames. Lightning started the fire on April 28, and by 6 p. m. on May 8, by the time the fire was officially declared out on April 16,2012, it had burned a total of 309,200 acres
18.
Folkston, Georgia
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Folkston is a city in and the county seat of Charlton County, Georgia, United States. The population was 4,148 as of the 2010 census, up from 2,178 in 2000, Folkston was founded on August 19,1911. The city was named in honor of William Brandon Folks, M. D. a prominent physician, shortly after its creation, the village of Folkston was incorporated as a town government and functioned as a town until 1911 when the area was incorporated as a city. Folkston is located near the boundary of Georgia at 30°50′4″N 82°0′17″W. Routes 1,23, and 301 pass through the city as Second Street, leading south 42 miles to Jacksonville, Route 1 and 23 lead northwest 35 miles to Waycross, while Route 301 leads north 55 miles to Jesup. The eastern entrance to the Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge is 11 miles southwest of Folkston via GA23, according to the United States Census Bureau, Folkston has a total area of 4.2 square miles, all land. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 2,502 people residing in the city. The racial makeup of the city was 50. 0% Black,45. 4% White,0. 1% Native American,1. 1% Asian,0. 0% from some other race and 2. 3% from two or more races. 1. 0% were Hispanic or Latino of any race, as of the census of 2000, there were 2,178 people,817 households, and 548 families residing in the city. The population density was 605.7 people per square mile, there were 976 housing units at an average density of 271.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 46. 14% White,51. 52% African American,0. 18% Native American,0. 41% Asian,0. 05% Pacific Islander,0. 18% from other races, and 1. 52% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 87% of the population,29. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.58 and the family size was 3.20. In the city, the population was out with 29. 0% under the age of 18,8. 9% from 18 to 24,26. 4% from 25 to 44,20. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females, there were 82.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.3 males, the median income for a household in the city was $21,840, and the median income for a family was $32,375. Males had an income of $26,302 versus $19,816 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,653, about 26. 1% of families and 28. 6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 39. 8% of those under age 18 and 20. 4% of those age 65 or over
19.
Stephen C. Foster State Park
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Stephen C. Foster State Park is an 80-acre state park located in the Okefenokee Swamp in Charlton County, Georgia. Situated on the banks of the Suwannee River, the park offers several ways to explore the swamps unique ecosystem. In 2016, the park was recognized as a Dark Sky park by the International Dark Sky Association, the state park includes 64 tents, trailer, RV campsites, nine cottages, an interpretive center, the 1. Activities at the park includes canoe, kayak and fishing boat rentals, guided boat tours, boating, fishing
20.
Fargo, Georgia
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Fargo is a city in Clinch County, Georgia, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 321, formerly a town, it was incorporated by the Georgia state legislature in 1992, effective on April 1 of that year. Fargo is located near the Okefenokee Swamp and is the gateway to the Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge. Also nearby is Stephen C. Foster State Park, the city was threatened in April and May 2007 by the Bugaboo Scrub Fire, the largest wildfire in Georgias history. Fargo is located in southern Clinch County at 30°41′12″N 82°34′1″W and its western border is formed by Suwannoochee Creek, which is also the Echols County line. The Suwannee River forms the border of the city. U. S. Route 441 passes through the side of the city, leading north 28 miles to Homerville, Georgia. Georgia State Route 177 leads northeast 17 miles to its end in the Okefenokee Swamp at Stephen C. Foster State Park. According to the United States Census Bureau, Fargo has an area of 2.7 square miles, of which 0.01 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 380 people,146 households, the population density was 220.3 people per square mile. There were 174 housing units at a density of 100.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 79. 47% White,18. 95% African American,1. 32% Native American, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 53% of the population. 26. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.60 and the average family size was 3.16. In the city, the population was out with 26. 8% under the age of 18,7. 6% from 18 to 24,30. 8% from 25 to 44,23. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 34 years, for every 100 females there were 104.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.1 males, the median income for a household in the city was $32,500, and the median income for a family was $34,500. Males had an income of $30,179 versus $17,019 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,380, about 12. 3% of families and 12. 8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14. 0% of those under age 18 and 25. 9% of those age 65 or over
21.
Titanium
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Titanium is a chemical element with symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It is a transition metal with a silver color, low density. Titanium is resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia, titanium was discovered in Cornwall, Great Britain, by William Gregor in 1791, and it is named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology. The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores by the Kroll, the most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments. Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride, a component of smoke screens and catalysts, and titanium trichloride, the two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any metallic element. In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, there are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant. Although they have the number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table. As a metal, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio and it is a strong metal with low density that is quite ductile, lustrous, and metallic-white in color. The relatively high melting point makes it useful as a refractory metal and it is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity. Commercial grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa, equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, titanium is 60% denser than aluminium, but more than twice as strong as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys achieve tensile strengths of over 1400 MPa, however, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C. Titanium is not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel, it is non-magnetic, machining requires precautions, because the material might gall unless sharp tools and proper cooling methods are used. Like steel structures, those made from titanium have a limit that guarantees longevity in some applications. The metal is an allotrope of an hexagonal α form that changes into a body-centered cubic β form at 882 °C. The specific heat of the α form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls, similar to zirconium and hafnium, an additional omega phase exists, which is thermodynamically stable at high pressures, but metastable at ambient pressures. This phase is usually hexagonal or trigonal and can be considered to be due to a soft longitudinal acoustic phonon of the β phase causing collapse of planes of atoms, like aluminium and magnesium, titanium metal and its alloys oxidize immediately upon exposure to air. Titanium readily reacts with oxygen at 1,200 °C in air and it is, however, slow to react with water and air at ambient temperatures because it forms a passive oxide coating that protects the bulk metal from further oxidation. When it first forms, this layer is only 1–2 nm thick but continues to grow slowly
22.
Mining
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Mining is extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposits. These deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner, ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water. Mining of stones and metal has been a human activity since pre-historic times, Mining operations usually create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact. Work safety has long been a concern as well, and modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines, levels of metals recycling are generally low. Unless future end-of-life recycling rates are stepped up, some rare metals may become unavailable for use in a variety of consumer products, due to the low recycling rates, some landfills now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves. Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and, later and these were used to make early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France, southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts. The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki are especially famous, other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Lion Cave in Swaziland, at this site Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre. Mines of an age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons. Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi, at first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself. Quarries for turquoise and copper were found at Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known maps, the miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust
23.
DuPont
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In the 20th century, DuPont developed many polymers such as Vespel, neoprene, nylon, Corian, Teflon, Mylar, Kapton, Kevlar, Zemdrain, M5 fiber, Nomex, Tyvek, Sorona, Corfam, and Lycra. DuPont developed Freon for the refrigerant industry, and later more environmentally friendly refrigerants and it also developed synthetic pigments and paints including ChromaFlair. In 2014, DuPont was the fourth largest chemical company based on market capitalization. Its stock price is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average, DuPont was founded in 1802 by Éleuthère Irénée du Pont, using capital raised in France and gunpowder machinery imported from France. It began as a manufacturer of gunpowder, as du Pont noticed that the industry in North America was lagging behind Europe, the Eleutherian Mills site is now a museum and a National Historic Landmark. DuPont continued to expand, moving into the production of dynamite, in 1902, DuPonts president, Eugene du Pont, died, and the surviving partners sold the company to three great-grandsons of the original founder. Charles Lee Reese was appointed as director and the company began centralizing their research departments, the company subsequently purchased several smaller chemical companies, and in 1912 these actions gave rise to government scrutiny under the Sherman Antitrust Act. The courts declared that the dominance of the explosives business constituted a monopoly. The court ruling resulted in the creation of the Hercules Powder Company, at the time of divestment, DuPont retained the single base nitrocellulose powders, while Hercules held the double base powders combining nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine. DuPont subsequently developed the Improved Military Rifle line of smokeless powders, in 1910, DuPont published a brochure entitled Farming with Dynamite. DuPont also established two of the first industrial laboratories in the United States, where began the work on cellulose chemistry, lacquers. DuPont Central Research was established at the DuPont Experimental Station, across the Brandywine Creek from the powder mills. In 1914, Pierre S. du Pont invested in the automobile industry. The following year he was invited to sit on GMs board of directors, the DuPont company would assist the struggling automobile company further with a $25 million purchase of GM stock. In 1920, Pierre S. du Pont was elected president of General Motors, under du Ponts guidance, GM became the number one automobile company in the world. However, in 1957, because of DuPonts influence within GM, in the 1920s, DuPont continued its emphasis on materials science, hiring Wallace Carothers to work on polymers in 1928. Carothers invented neoprene, a rubber, the first polyester superpolymer. The invention of Teflon followed a few years later, DuPont introduced phenothiazine as an insecticide in 1935
24.
Protest
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A protest is an expression of bearing witness on behalf of an express cause by words or actions with regard to particular events, policies or situations. Protests can take different forms, from individual statements to mass demonstrations. Various forms of self-expression and protest are sometimes restricted by policy, economic circumstances, religious orthodoxy, social structures. One state reaction to protests is the use of riot police, observers have noted an increased militarization of protest policing, with police deploying armored vehicles and snipers against the protesters. A protest can itself sometimes be the subject of a counter-protest, in such a case, counter-protesters demonstrate their support for the person, policy, action, etc. that is the subject of the original protest. In some cases, these protesters can violently clash, unaddressed protests may grow and widen into civil resistance, dissent, activism, riots, insurgency, revolts, and political and/or social revolution. 2013 through Feb.2014 Black Lives Matter 2016 South Korean protests 2017 Jallikattu protests Dakota Access Pipeline protests A protest can take many forms, the Dynamics of Collective Action project and the Global Nonviolent Action Database are two of the leading data collection efforts attempting to capture protest events. Reference to speeches, speakers, singing, preaching, often verified by indication of sound equipment of PA, ordinarily will include worship services, speeches, briefings. March, Reference to moving from one location to another, to be distinguished from rotating or walking in a circle with picket signs which by definition, but also no reference to sound systems or to marches, it may well be a vigil. Most vigils have banners, placards, or leaflets so that people passing by, despite silence from participants, picket, The modal activity is picketing, there may be references to picket line, to informational picketing, holding signs, carrying signs and walking around in a circle). Symbolic display, e. g. Menorah, Creche Scene, graffiti, cross burnings, signs, standing displays Attack by instigators Ethnic group victim of physical attack, boundary motivating attack is other groups identity, as in gay-bashing, lynching. Can also include verbal attack and/or threats, too, Riot, melee, mob violence, Large-scale, use of violence by instigators against persons, property, police, or buildings separately or in combination, lasting several hours. Strike, slow down and sick-ins employee work protest of any kind, Regular air strike through failure of negotiations, boycott, Organized refusal to buy or use a product or service, rent strikes. Press conference, If specifically named as such in report, could involve disclosure of information to educate the public or influence various decision-makers. Organization formation announcement or meeting announcement, meeting or press conference to announce the formation of a new organization, conflict, attack or clash, no instigator, This includes any boundary conflict in which no instigator can be identified, i. e. black/white conflicts, abortion/anti-abortion conflicts. Lawsuit, legal maneuver by social movement organization or group The Global Nonviolent Action database uses Gene Sharps classification of 198 methods of nonviolent action, there is considerable overlap with the Dynamics of Collective Action repertoire, although the GNA repertoire includes more specific tactics. Together, the two projects help define tactics available to protesters and document instances of their use, thomas Ratliff and Lori Hall have devised a typology of six broad activity categories of the protest activities described in the Dynamics of Collective Action project. Literal, symbolic, aesthetic and sensory - Artistic, dramaturgical, use of images, objects, graphic arts, musical performances, or vocal/auditory exhibitions
25.
Southeastern conifer forests
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The Southeastern conifer forests are a tropical and subtropical coniferous forest ecoregion of the southeastern United States. It is the largest conifer forest ecoregion east of the Mississippi River and this ecoregion has a humid subtropical climate with significant precipitation year-round. Historic vegetation was dominated by open woodlands of pine with an understory of wiregrass. Other natural communities include to pine savannas, flatwoods, and xeric hardwood forests and these are woodlands dominated by longleaf pine and subject to frequent fires. Soils are well- to excessively drained, scrub oaks such as turkey oak and bluejack oak are often in the understory. The herbaceous layer is dominated by grasses, particularly wiregrass, in the north, Florida longleaf pine sandhills consist of stands of longleaf pine on very well-drained, sandy hills of the coastal plains of Florida. These stands are maintained by frequent fires, turkey oak is common in the understory. Wiregrass makes up the ground layer, east Gulf coastal plain near-coast pine flatwoods are forests and woodlands on broad, sandy flatlands along the northern Gulf of Mexico. Trees are typically longleaf pine or slash pine, fires are naturally frequent, occurring every one to four years. Understory vegetation ranges from open and grassy to dense and shrubby, shrubs include swamp titi, gallberry, Appalachia tea, fetterbush lyonia, and saw palmetto. Southern coastal plain cypress domes are small forested wetlands characterized by their dome-shaped appearance. These wetlands occur on poorly drained depressions surrounded by pine flatwoods, pond cypress dominates the canopy, which it shares with swamp tupelo and sweetgum. The southern coastal plain oak dome and hammock occurs as thick stands of oaks in small patches on shallow depressions or slight hills. These forests are distinct from their habitats, which are often longleaf pine-dominated. On mesic sites, common species are southern live oak, sand laurel oak, the understory is sparse, with trumpet creeper and greenbrier. On xeric sites, common species are sand live oak, longleaf pine, southern live oak, wiregrass, southern coastal plain hydric hammocks are found on the flat lowlands of the southern and outermost parts of the coastal plain, usually over limestone substrates. These forests of evergreen and deciduous hardwood trees occur near the floodplains of spring-fed rivers with relatively constant flows and they can be large areas of broad, shallow wetlands. Common trees include Atlantic white cedar, elm, sweetbay magnolia, swamp oak, southern live oak
26.
Ecoregion
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An ecoregion is an ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than a bioregion, which in turn is smaller than an ecozone. All three of these are less or greater than an ecosystem. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water, and contain characteristic, the biodiversity of flora, fauna and ecosystems that characterise an ecoregion tends to be distinct from that of other ecoregions. Three caveats are appropriate for all bio-geographic mapping approaches, firstly, no single bio-geographic framework is optimal for all taxa. Ecoregions reflect the best compromise for as many taxa as possible, secondly, ecoregion boundaries rarely form abrupt edges, rather, ecotones and mosaic habitats bound them. Thirdly, most ecoregions contain habitats that differ from their assigned biome, biogeographic provinces may originate due to various barriers. Some physical, some climatic and some ocean chemical related, the history of the term is somewhat vague as it was used in many contexts, forest classifications, biome classifications, biogeographic classifications, etc. The concept of ecoregion of Bailey gives more importance to ecological criteria, while the WWF concept gives more importance to biogeography, there is significant, but not absolute, spatial correlation among these characteristics, making the delineation of ecoregions an imperfect science. Such transition zones are called ecotones, Ecoregions can be categorized using an algorithmic approach or a holistic, “weight-of-evidence” approach where the importance of various factors may vary. An example of the approach is Robert Bailey’s work for the U. S. The intended purpose of ecoregion delineation may affect the method used, according to WWF, the boundaries of an ecoregion approximate the original extent of the natural communities prior to any major recent disruptions or changes. WWF has identified 867 terrestrial ecoregions, and approximately 450 freshwater ecoregions across the Earth, the use of the term ecoregion is an outgrowth of a surge of interest in ecosystems and their functioning. In particular, there is awareness of issues relating to spatial scale in the study and it is widely recognized that interlinked ecosystems combine to form a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. The Global 200 is the list of ecoregions identified by WWF as priorities for conservation, Terrestrial ecoregions are land ecoregions, as distinct from freshwater and marine ecoregions. In this context, terrestrial is used to mean of land, WWF ecologists currently divide the land surface of the Earth into 8 major ecozones containing 867 smaller terrestrial ecoregions. The WWF effort is a synthesis of previous efforts to define. Many consider this classification to be decisive, and some propose these as stable borders for bioregional democracy initiatives. The eight terrestrial ecozones follow the major floral and faunal boundaries, identified by botanists and zoologists, ecozone boundaries generally follow continental boundaries, or major barriers to plant and animal distribution, like the Himalayas and the Sahara
27.
Taxodium distichum
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Taxodium distichum is a large slow-growing and long-lived tree typically reaching heights of 30–35 m and a trunk diameter of 1–2 m. The bark is gray-brown to red-brown, thin and fibrous with a texture, having a vertically interwoven pattern of shallow ridges. The leaves are alternate and linear, with blades borne on the twig that are spirally arranged on the stem. Unlike most other species in the family Cupressaceae, it is deciduous, losing its leaves in the winter months and it is monoecious, with male and female flowers forming on slender tassel-like structures near the edge of the branchlets. The male and female strobili are produced from buds formed in the fall, with pollination in early winter. The seed cones are green maturing gray-brown, globular, and 2-3.5 cm in diameter and they have from 20 to 30 spirally arranged, four-sided scales, each bearing one or two triangular seeds. The number of seeds per cone ranges from 20 to 40, the cones disintegrate when mature to release the large seeds. The seeds are 5–10 mm long, the largest of any species in the family, and are produced every year. The seedlings have three to 9 cotyledons, the main trunks are surrounded by cypress knees. The oldest known specimen, located in Bladen County, North Carolina, is over 1,620 years old, making this one of the oldest living plants in eastern North America. The closely related Taxodium ascendens is treated by botanists as a distinct species, while others classify it as merely a variety of bald-cypress. It differs in shorter leaves borne on erect shoots, and in ecology, a few authors also treat Taxodium mucronatum as a variety of bald cypress, as T. distichum var. mexicanum Gordon, thereby considering the genus as comprising only one species. Mature planted specimens are seen as far north as Pittsburgh, and Ottawa, in Ottawa, in the Central Experimental Farm Arboretum, an average winter may kill back a quarter to half of new growth. Ancient bald cypress forests, with some more than 1,700 years old. The largest remaining stands are at Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary, near Naples. And in the Three Sisters tract along eastern North Carolinas Black River, the Corkscrew trees are around 500 years of age and some exceed 40 m in height. The Black River trees were cored in 1986 by University of Arkansas dendrologists with dates ranging back to 364 AD. In the northern and more part of its range from Delaware and Maryland to Williamsburg, Virginia
28.
Nyssa biflora
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Nyssa biflora, commonly referred to as the swamp tupelo, or swamp black-gum is a species of tupelo that lives in wetland habitats. Swamp tupelo grows chiefly in the plains from Delaware, eastern Maryland. Its range extends north up the Mississippi Valley to southern Arkansas and west, the swamp tupelo grows in humid warm climates. It not only tolerates flooding but actually thrives under those conditions and it is seldom found on sites that are not inundated much of the growing season. Swamp tupelo grows in swamps, strands, ponds, river bottoms, bays, estuaries. Normally it does not grow in the parts of swamps or overflow river bottoms. The type of water regime is important to growth of swamp tupelo than the soil type. Best growth is achieved on sites where the soil is saturated with very shallow moving water. Growth can be reduced as much as 50 percent when the water is stagnant, intermittent flooding, with periodic drying cycles, or continuous deep flooding even by moving water, also reduces growth. The swamp tupelo has minute greenish-white flowers that appear in the spring with the leaves, insects, primarily bees, are the major pollinating vector, but pollen is also spread by wind. The fruit, a drupe, changes from green to a dark blue as it ripens, the seeds normally overwinter and germinate the following spring. Germination does not take place under water, but submerged seeds germinate once the water subsides below the soil surface, germination is rapid in moist, drained conditions at 21 °C and higher. After germination, seedlings must grow rapidly to keep the apex and leaves above water, submergence during the dormant season, however, has no adverse effect. Swamp tupelo normally develops a taproot and has a base to the mean height of the growing season water level. Water roots, which develop under flooded conditions, help support the tree and these specialized roots tolerate high carbon dioxide concentrations, oxidize the rhizosphere, and carry on anaerobic respiration. Thus, they are the key to the ability to thrive under flooded conditions. Black Tupelo Dogwood Peppermint Tree Poison Ivy
29.
Oak
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An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks, the common name oak also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus, as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta and the Casuarinaceae. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, the second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species. Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species, also, the acorns contain tannic acid, as do the leaves, which helps to guard from fungi and insects. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring, in spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a structure known as a cupule, each acorn contains one seed and takes 6–18 months to mature. The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group, the oak tree is a flowering plant. Oaks may be divided into two genera and a number of sections, The genus Quercus is divided into the following sections, Quercus, the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles are short, acorns mature in 6 months and taste sweet or slightly bitter, the leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur, Mesobalanus, Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long, acorns mature in about 6 months and taste bitter, the section Mesobalanus is closely related to section Quercus and sometimes included in it. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia, styles long, acorn mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Protobalanus, the live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter, the inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. Leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Lobatae, the red oaks of North America, Central America, styles long, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter
30.
Pinus palustris
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It reaches a height of 30–35 m and a diameter of 0.7 m. In the past, they grew to 47 m with a diameter of 1.2 m. The bark is thick, reddish-brown, and scaly, the leaves are dark green and needle-like, and occur in bundles of three. They often are twisted and 20–45 cm in length and it is one of the two southeastern U. S. pines with long needles, the other being slash pine. The cones, both female seed cones and male cones, are initiated during the growing season before buds emerge. Pollen cones begin forming in their buds in July, while seed conelets are formed during a short period of time in August. Pollination occurs early the spring, with the male cones 3–8 cm long. The seeds are 7–9 mm long, with a 25–40 mm wing, Longleaf pine takes 100 to 150 years to become full size and may live to be 500 years old. When young, they grow a long taproot, which usually is 2–3 m long and it grows on well-drained, usually sandy soil, often in pure stands. In northern Alabama, it occurs on clay soil. The scientific name meaning, of marshes, is a misunderstanding on the part of Philip Miller who described the species, Longleaf pine also is known as being one of several species grouped as a southern yellow pine or longleaf yellow pine, and in the past as pitch pine. Periodic natural wildfire selects for this species by killing other trees, new seedlings do not appear at all tree-like and resemble a dark green fountain of needles. This form is called the grass stage, during this stage, which lasts for 5–12 years, vertical growth is very slow, and the tree may take a number of years simply to grow ankle-high. After that it makes a growth spurt, especially if there is no tree canopy above it. In the grass stage, it is resistant to grass fires, which burn off the ends of the needles. Longleaf pine forests are rich in biodiversity and they are well-documented for their high levels of plant diversity, in groups including sedges, grasses, carnivorous plants and orchids. These forests also provide habitat for gopher tortoises, which, as keystone species, the red-cockaded woodpecker is dependent on mature pine forests and is now endangered as a result of this decline. Longleaf pine seeds are large and nutritious, forming a significant food source for birds, there are 9 salamander species and 26 frog species that are characteristic of pine savannas, along with 56 species of reptiles,13 of which could be considered specialists on this habitat
31.
Carnivorous plant
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Carnivorous plants are plants that derive some or most of their nutrients from trapping and consuming animals or protozoans, typically insects and other arthropods. Carnivorous plants have adapted to grow in places where the soil is thin or poor in nutrients, especially nitrogen, such as acidic bogs, charles Darwin wrote Insectivorous Plants, the first well-known treatise on carnivorous plants, in 1875. True carnivory is thought to have evolved independently nine times in five different orders of flowering plants and this classification includes at least 583 species that attract, trap and kill prey, absorbing the resulting available nutrients. Additionally, over 300 protocarnivorous plant species in several genera show some, five basic trapping mechanisms are found in carnivorous plants. Pitfall traps trap prey in a leaf that contains a pool of digestive enzymes or bacteria. Flypaper traps use a sticky mucilage, snap traps utilize rapid leaf movements. Bladder traps suck in prey with a bladder that generates an internal vacuum, lobster-pots, also known as eel traps, force prey to move towards a digestive organ with inward-pointing hairs. These traps may be active or passive, depending on whether movement aids the capture of prey, for example, Triphyophyllum is a passive flypaper that secretes mucilage, but whose leaves do not grow or move in response to prey capture. Meanwhile, sundews are active flypaper traps whose leaves undergo rapid acid growth, the rapid acid growth allows the sundew tentacles to bend, aiding in the retention and digestion of prey. The sundew species Drosera glanduligera employs a unique trapping mechanism with features of both flypaper and snap traps, this has been termed a catapult-flypaper trap, characterized by an internal chamber, pitfall traps are thought to have evolved independently at least six times. This particular adaptation is found within the families Sarraceniaceae, Nepenthaceae, Cephalotaceae, within the family Bromeliaceae, pitcher morphology and carnivory evolved twice. Because these families do not share an ancestor who also had pitfall trap morphology. A passive trap, pitfall traps attract prey with nectar bribes secreted by the peristome, the linings of most pitcher plants are covered in a loose coating of waxy flakes which are slippery for insects, causing them to fall into the pitcher. Once within the structure, digestive enzymes or mutualistic species break down the prey into an absorbable form for the plant. Water can become trapped within the pitcher, making a habitat for other flora and this type of water body is called a Phytotelma. The simplest pitcher plants are probably those of Heliamphora, the pitcher plant. In this genus, the traps are derived from a simple rolled leaf whose margins have sealed together. These plants live in areas of rainfall in South America such as Mount Roraima
32.
Utricularia
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Utricularia, commonly and collectively called the bladderworts, is a genus of carnivorous plants consisting of approximately 233 species. They occur in water and wet soil as terrestrial or aquatic species across every continent except Antarctica. Utricularia are cultivated for their flowers, which are compared with those of snapdragons and orchids. All Utricularia are carnivorous and capture small organisms by means of bladder-like traps, terrestrial species tend to have tiny traps that feed on minute prey such as protozoa and rotifers swimming in water-saturated soil. The traps can range in size from 0.2 mm to 1.2 cm, despite their small size, the traps are extremely sophisticated. In the active traps of the species, prey brush against trigger hairs connected to the trapdoor. Once the bladder is full of water, the door closes again, bladderworts are unusual and highly specialized plants, and the vegetative organs are not clearly separated into roots, leaves, and stems as in most other angiosperms. The bladder traps, conversely, are recognized as one of the most sophisticated structures in the plant kingdom, the main part of a bladderwort plant always lies beneath the surface of its substrate. This means that the species are generally visible only while they are in flower, although aquatic species can be observed below the surfaces of ponds. Most species form long, thin, sometimes branching stems or stolons beneath the surface of their substrate, to these stolons are attached both the bladder traps and photosynthetic leaf-shoots, and in terrestrial species the shoots are thrust upward through the soil into the air or along the surface. The name bladderwort refers to the bladder-like traps, the generic name Utricularia is similarly derived from the Latin utriculus, a word which has many related meanings but which most commonly means wine flask or leather bottle. The aquatic members of the genus have the largest and most obvious bladders, flowers are the only part of the plant clear of the underlying soil or water. They are usually produced at the end of thin, often vertical inflorescences and they can range in size from 2 mm to 10 cm wide, and have two asymmetric labiate petals, the lower usually significantly larger than the upper. They can be of any colour, or of many colours, the epiphytic species of South America, however, are generally considered to have the showiest, as well as the largest, flowers. It is these species that are compared with orchids. Seeds are numerous and small and for the majority of species are as small as 0.2 mm to 1 mm long. Utricularia can survive almost anywhere there is fresh water for at least part of the year, only Antarctica. The greatest species diversity for the genus is seen in South America, about 80% of the species are terrestrial, and most inhabit waterlogged or wet soils, where their tiny bladders can be permanently exposed to water in the substrate
33.
Sarracenia psittacina
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Sarracenia psittacina, also known as the parrot pitcherplant, is a carnivorous plant in the genus Sarracenia. Like all the Sarracenia, it is native to North America, the prey is then confused by light shining through what appear to be false exits and crawls toward the brighter area down into the pitcher. This species is frequently submerged in its habitat and will capture water arthropods and tadpoles. Sarracenia psittacina f. heterophylla J. & J. Ainsworth nom. nud
34.
Sarracenia minor
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Sarracenia minor, also known as the hooded pitcherplant, is a perennial, terrestrial, rhizomatous, herbaceous, carnivorous plant in the genus Sarracenia. Like all the Sarracenia, it is native to North America, in 1788, the first description of S. minor was written by Thomas Walter. The specific epithet means small and refers to the typical size of the pitchers. The common name refers to the lid of this species. The typical form is a small plant with pitchers about 25–30 centimetres in height. An especially large form, with pitchers up to 90–120 centimetres high, grows in the Okefenokee marshes, the tubes are mostly green throughout, but can also be reddish in the upper part. Flowering occurs late March to mid-May, flowers are yellow in colour and odorless. Over a hundred seeds are produced by a capsule, Sarracenia minor and S. psittacina are the only species in the genus to employ domed pitchers with translucent white patches that allow light to enter. The pitcher is filled with water and enzymes produced by the plant, in the wild, Sarracenia minor seems very attractive to ants, although it also attracts and eats a wide range of flying insects. This plant can be found in the regions of northern Florida. The species exhibits the southernmost range of any member of the Sarracenia genus extending to fragmented populations surrounding Lake Okeechobee in south-central Florida and it grows in swampy environments poor in nutrients such as nitrogen or phosphorus. Sarracenia minor var. minor Sarracenia minor var. okefenokeensis Schnell Sarracenia adunca Sm. Sarracenia galeata Bartr. McBride, James, Thomson, Thomas, ed. Power of the Sarracenia Adunca to entrap Insects, Annals of Philosophy, volume XIII, p.149, retrieved 27 April 2015 CITES Gelinaud Dionee
35.
Bird
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Birds, a subgroup of Reptiles, are the last living examples of Dinosaurs. Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5 cm bee hummingbird to the 2.75 m ostrich. They rank as the class of tetrapods with the most living species, at ten thousand. Birds are the closest living relatives of crocodilians, the fossil record indicates that birds evolved from feathered ancestors within the theropod group of saurischian dinosaurs. True birds first appeared during the Cretaceous period, around 100 million years ago, Birds, especially those in the southern continents, survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world while diversifying during periods of global cooling. Primitive bird-like dinosaurs that lie outside class Aves proper, in the broader group Avialae, have been found dating back to the mid-Jurassic period, around 170 million years ago. Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species, the digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have evolved for swimming. Many species annually migrate great distances, Birds are social, communicating with visual signals, calls, and bird songs, and participating in such social behaviours as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking, and mobbing of predators. The vast majority of species are socially monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous or, rarely, Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised through sexual reproduction. They are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents, most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Some birds, such as hens, lay eggs even when not fertilised, songbirds, parrots, and other species are popular as pets. Guano is harvested for use as a fertiliser, Birds prominently figure throughout human culture. About 120–130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century, human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry, the first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae. Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use, Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy. Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the dinosaur clade Theropoda, Aves and a sister group, the clade Crocodilia, contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria
36.
Heron
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The herons are the long-legged freshwater and coastal birds in the family Ardeidae, with 64 recognised species, some of which are referred to as egrets or bitterns rather than herons. Egrets are not a distinct group from the herons. Although egrets have the build as herons, they tend to be smaller. Herons, by evolutionary adaptation, have long beaks, similarly, the relationship of the genera in the family is not completely resolved. However, one species formerly considered to constitute a monotypic family Cochlearidae. Although herons resemble birds in other families, such as the storks, ibises, spoonbills and cranes, they differ from these in flying with their necks retracted. They are also one of the groups that have powder down. Some members of this group nest colonially in trees, while others, notably the bitterns, the herons are medium to large sized birds with long legs and necks. They exhibit very little sexual dimorphism in size, the smallest species is usually considered the little bittern, which can measure under 30 cm in length, although all the species in the Ixobrychus genus are small and many broadly overlap in size. The largest species of heron is the Goliath heron, which stand up to 152 cm tall, the necks are able to kink in an S-shape, due to the modified shape of the sixth vertebrae of which they have 20-21. The neck is able to retract and extend, and is retracted during flight, the neck is longer in the day herons than the night herons and bitterns. The legs are long and strong and in almost every species are unfeathered from the part of the tibia. In flight the legs and feet are held backward, the feet of herons have long thin toes, with three forward pointing ones and one going backward. The bill is long and harpoon like. It can vary from fine, as in the agami heron. The most atypical bill is owned by the boat-billed heron, which has a thick bill. The bill, as well as other parts of the body, is usually yellow, black or brown coloured. The wings are broad and long, exhibiting 10–11 primaries feathers, the feathers of the herons are soft and the plumage is usually blue, black, brown, grey or white, and can often be strikingly complex
37.
Egret
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An egret /ˈiːɡrət/ is a bird that is any of several herons, most of which are white or buff, and several of which develop fine plumes during the breeding season. Many egrets are members of the genera Egretta or Ardea which also contain other species named as herons rather than egrets, the distinction between a heron and an egret is rather vague, and depends more on appearance than biology. Several of the egrets have been reclassified from one genus to another in recent years, several Egretta species, including the eastern reef egret, the reddish egret, and the western reef egret have two distinct colours, one of which is entirely white. The little blue heron has all-white juvenile plumage, media related to Ardeidae at Wikimedia Commons Data related to Ardeidae at Wikispecies Great egret Ardea alba—USGS
38.
Ibis
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The ibises are a group of long-legged wading birds in the family Threskiornithidae, that inhabit wetlands, forests and plains. Ibis derives from the Latin and Ancient Greek word for this group of birds and it also occurs in the scientific name of the cattle egret, mistakenly identified in 1757 as being the sacred ibis. Ibises all have long, down-curved bills, and usually feed as a group, probing mud for food items and they are monogamous and highly territorial while nesting and feeding. Most nest in trees, often with spoonbills or herons, all extant species are volant, but two extinct genera were flightless, namely the kiwi-like Apteribis in the Hawaiian Islands, and the peculiar Xenicibis in Jamaica. The word ibis comes from Latin ibis from Greek ἶβις ibis from Egyptian hb, there are 28 extant species and 2 extinct species of ibis. The African sacred ibis was an object of veneration in ancient Egypt. He is responsible for writing, mathematics, measurement and time as well as the moon, in artworks of the Late Period of Ancient Egypt, Thoth is popularly depicted as an ibis-headed man in the act of writing. The mascot of the University of Miami is an American white ibis, the ibis was selected as the school mascot because of its legendary bravery during hurricanes. According to legend, the ibis is the last sign of wildlife to take shelter before a hurricane hits, Harvard Universitys humor magazine, Harvard Lampoon, uses the ibis as its symbol. A copper statue of an ibis is prominently displayed on the roof of the Harvard Lampoon Building at 44 Bow Street, a short story The Scarlet Ibis by James Hurst uses the sable-hued bird as foreshadowing for a characters death and as the primary symbol. The African sacred ibis is the symbol of the Israeli Special Forces unit known as Unit 212 or Maglan. According to Josephus, Moses used the ibis to help him defeat the Ethiopians, Ibis videos - at Internet Bird Collection Ibis. The dictionary definition of ibis at Wiktionary
39.
Crane (bird)
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Cranes are a family, Gruidae, of large, long-legged and long-necked birds in the group Gruiformes. There are fifteen species of crane in four genera, unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Cranes live on all continents except Antarctica and South America and they are opportunistic feeders that change their diet according to the season and their own nutrient requirements. They eat a range of items from suitably sized small rodents, fish, amphibians, and insects to grain, berries, Cranes construct platform nests in shallow water, and typically lay two eggs at a time. Both parents help to rear the young, which remain with them until the breeding season. Some species and populations of cranes migrate over long distances, others do not migrate at all, Cranes are solitary during the breeding season, occurring in pairs, but during the non-breeding season they are gregarious, forming large flocks where their numbers are sufficient. Most species of cranes have been affected by human activities and are at the least classified as threatened, the plight of the whooping cranes of North America inspired some of the first US legislation to protect endangered species. The cranes are large to large birds, including the worlds tallest flying bird. They are long-legged and long-necked birds with streamlined bodies and large rounded wings, the males and females do not vary in external appearance, but on average males tend to be slightly larger than females. The plumage of the cranes varies by habitat, species inhabiting vast open wetlands tend to have more white in the plumage than do species that inhabit smaller wetlands or forested habitats, which tend to be more grey. These white species are generally larger. Most species of crane have some areas of skin on the face. This skin is used in communication with other cranes, and can be expanded by contracting and relaxing muscles, feathers on the head can be moved and erected in the blue, wattled and demoiselle cranes for signalling as well. Also important to communication is the position and length of the trachea, in the two crowned-cranes the trachea is shorter and only slightly impressed upon the bone of the sternum, whereas the trachea of the other species is longer and penetrates the sternum. In some species the entire sternum is fused to the plates of the trachea. The cranes have a distribution, occurring across most of the world continents. They are absent from Antarctica and, mysteriously, South America, east Asia is the centre of crane diversity, with eight species, followed by Africa, which holds five resident species and wintering populations of a sixth. Australia, Europe and North America have two species, the remaining genus, Grus, contains the most species and is the most widespread genus, although only a single species occurs in Africa as a wintering migrant
40.
Bittern
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Bitterns are a classification of birds in the heron family of Pelican order of wading birds. Species named bitterns tend to be the shorter-necked, often more secretive members of this family and they were called hæferblæte in Old English, the word bittern came to English from Old French butor, itself from Gallo-Roman butitaurus, a compound of Latin būtiō and taurus. Bitterns form a subfamily in the heron family, the Botaurinae. Bitterns usually frequent reed beds and similar areas, and feed on amphibians, reptiles, insects. Unlike the similar storks, ibises, and spoonbills, herons, egrets, pelicans, and bitterns fly with their necks retracted, not outstretched
