1.
Archbishop of Uppsala
–
The archbishop of Uppsala has been the primate in Sweden in an unbroken succession since 1164, first during the Catholic era, and from the 1530s and onward under the Lutheran church. There have been bishops in Uppsala from the time of Swedish King Ingold the Elder in the 11th century and they were governed by the archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen until Uppsala was made an archbishopric in 1164. The archbishop in Lund was declared primate of Sweden, meaning it was his right to select, to gain independence, Folke Johansson Ängel in 1274 went to Rome and was ordained directly by the pope. This practice was increasing, so that no Uppsala archbishop was in Lund after Olov Björnsson, in 1457, the archbishop Jöns Bengtsson was allowed by the pope to declare himself primate of Sweden. Uppsala was originally located a couple of miles to the north of the present city, in 1273, the archbishopric, together with the relics of King Eric the Saint, was moved to the market town of Östra Aros, which from then on is named Uppsala. In 1531, Laurentius Petri was chosen by King Gustav I of Sweden to be archbishop, taking that privilege from the pope, the archbishop was then declared primus inter pares i. e. first among equals. The archbishop is both bishop of his diocese and Primate of Sweden, he has no more authority than other bishops. In 2000, the Archbishop of Uppsala was aided in the diocese by a bishop of Uppsala, the labours of the archbishops extended in all directions. The archbishops and secular clergy found active co-workers among the regular clergy, among the orders represented in Sweden were the Benedictines, Cistercians, Dominicans, Franciscans, Brigittines and Carthusians. Swedish sources never mention him either in Sigtuna or Uppsala and he is apparently the same Bishop Henry who died at the Battle of Fotevik in 1134, fighting along with the Danes after being banished from Sweden. Known from the Chronicon Roskildense written soon after his death and from Saxo Grammaticus Gesta Danorum from the early 13th century, also he is omitted from, or at least redated in, the first list of bishops made in the 15th century. In this list, the first bishop at Uppsala was Sverinius, succeeded by Nicolaus, Sveno, with the exception of Henricus, the list only mentions their names. Johannes was ordained by the Archbishop of Lund, Absalon by November 1185, in 1187, a ship from the pagan Estonia entered Mälaren, a lake close to Uppsala, on a plundering expedition. It sailed to Sigtuna, a city at that time. On its way back, barricades were set up at the exit point at Almarestäket to prevent the ship from escaping. As the ship struggled to pass through, Johannes were among those killed, Sweden got a new king, Sverker II of Sweden in 1196, who was related to the Danish Royal Court, whereby Absalon extended his authority over Sweden. When Petrus in 1196 elected three bishops, Absalon requested that the pope decide since the bishops were the sons of priests. He also mentioned that several Swedish bishops refused to travel to his synods, Absalon was an authoritative person whom the pope trusted and gave him rights, but by the time the message reached Uppsala Petrus had already died
Archbishop of Uppsala
Archbishop of Uppsala
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Archbishop of Uppsala
Archbishop of Uppsala
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The
Archbishop's Palace in Uppsala, designed in the 18th century by the architect
Carl Hårleman, but built on older foundations.
Archbishop of Uppsala
–
Uppsala Cathedral, seat of the Archbishop of Uppsala.
2.
Primate (bishop)
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Primate is a title or rank bestowed on some archbishops in certain Christian churches. Depending on the tradition, it can denote either jurisdictional authority or ceremonial precedence. The office is found only in older Catholic countries, and is now purely honorific. The Holy See has also granted Polish primates the privilege of wearing cardinals crimson attire, except for the skullcap and biretta, the city may no longer have the prominence it had when the title was granted. Other former functions of primates, such as hearing appeals from metropolitan tribunals, were reserved to the Holy See by the early 20th century, the closest equivalent position in the Eastern Churches in 1911 was an exarch. The Holy See has continued in modern times to grant the title of primate, with the decree Sollicitae Romanis Pontificibus of 24 January 1956 it granted the title of Primate of Canada to the Archbishop of Quebec. As stated above, this is merely an honorary title involving no additional power, a right of precedence over other bishops and similar privileges can be granted even to a bishop who is not a primate. Thus, in 1858, the Holy See granted the Archbishop of Baltimore precedence in meetings of the United States bishops. The title of primate is sometimes applied loosely to the archbishop of a capital, as in the case of the archbishops of Seoul in South Korea. The pre-reformation archbishop of Nidaros was sometimes referred to as Primate of Norway, the loose structure of the Benedictine Confederation is claimed to have made Pope Leo XIII exclaim that the Benedictines were ordo sine ordine. The powers of the Abbot Primate are specified, and his position defined, in a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Bishops, the primacy is attached to the global Benedictine Confederation whose Primate resides at SantAnselmo in Rome. The Primatial powers are vested in the Abbot Primate to act by virtue of the proper law of its autonomous Benedictine congregation. However, certain branches of the Benedictine Order seem to have lost their autonomy to some extent. In a similar way the Confederation of Canons Regular of St. Augustine, elects an Abbot Primate as figurehead of the Confederation and indeed the whole Canonical Order. The Abbots and Superiors General of the nine congregations of confederated congregations of Canons Regular elect a new Abbot Primate for a term of office lasting six years, the Current Abbot General is Rt. Rev. Fr Maurice Bitz, Abbot of St. Pierre, Anglican usage styles the bishop who heads an independent church as its primate, though commonly they hold some other title. In both the Church of England and the Church of Ireland, two bishops have the title of primate, the archbishops of Canterbury and York in England and of Armagh, only the bishop of the senior primatial see of each of these two churches participates in the meetings. The Archbishop of Canterbury, who is considered primus inter pares of all the participants, convokes the meetings, primates and archbishops are styled The Most Reverend
Primate (bishop)
–
Saint Peter
3.
Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
Roman Catholic
–
Saint Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholic
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St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholic
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Pope Francis, elected in the
papal conclave, 2013
Roman Catholic
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Traditional graphic representation of the Trinity: The earliest attested version of the diagram, from a manuscript of
Peter of Poitiers ' writings, c. 1210
4.
Archdiocese of Uppsala
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The Archdiocese of Uppsala is one of the thirteen dioceses of the Church of Sweden and the only one having the status of an archdiocese. Uppsala is the seat of the Lutheran Archbishop of Uppsala, the diocese, which has its centre in the city of Uppsala, covers Uppsala County, Gävleborg County and parts of Stockholm County and Västmanland County. As of 2005 the archdiocese consists of 201 parishes distributed over 86 larger parishes, as the archbishop besides being head of Uppsala diocese also has a central role in the Church of Sweden on a national level. Since 2014, the position of archbishop is held by the Most Reverend Antje Jackelén, an additional position as assistant bishop in Uppsala diocese was created in 1990. This office has held by the Right Reverend Tord Harlin. When St. Ansgar, the Apostle of the North, went to Sweden in 829, the Swedes were still heathen and the country contained many sacrificial groves and temples for the worship of Germanic pagan idols. One of the most celebrated of the latter was the temple at Uppsala in what is now called Old Uppsala, even after Christianity had spread through Sweden, heathen sacrifices were still maintained at Uppsala. None is permitted to avoid participation in the feast, more horrible than any punishment is that even those who have become Christians must purchase exemption from participation in the feast. The sacrifices are made thus, Nine heads are offered for every living creature of the male sex, by the blood of these the gods are appeased. The bodies are hung up in a grove not far from the temple, dogs and horses may be seen hanging close by human beings, a Christian told me he had seen seventy-two bodies hanging together. An episcopal see was established at Old Uppsala, one of the bishops was St. Henry, who took part in the Crusade to Finland led by king Saint Eric IX of Sweden and suffered martyrdom there in 1157. The bishops of Sweden were first suffragans of the Archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen, afterwards the Swedish bishops were suffragans of the Archbishop of Lund in Denmark, then Primate of Scandinavia. In 1152 Cardinal Nicholas of Albano, later Pope Adrian IV, visited Sweden and he had been commissioned to establish an independent Church province in Sweden, but the matter was deferred, as the Swedes could not agree upon the see of the archbishop. In 1164 Pope Alexander III established an ecclesiastical province of Sweden with the see at Uppsala. The suffragans were the Bishops of Skara, Linköping, Strängnäs and Västerås, at a date the diocese of Växjö. The first Archbishop of Uppsala was Stephen, a Cistercian monk from the celebrated Alvastra Abbey, Cardinal William of Sabina came as papal legate to Sweden during the archiepiscopate of Jarler, a Dominican monk. The legate had been commissioned, among other things, to establish cathedral chapters wherever such were lacking, another important matter which the legate had been ordered to carry out was the enforcement of the law of clerical celibacy. At a provincial synod held at Skänninge in 1248 under the presidency of the cardinal, the pious and energetic Archbishop Jarler and his successor Laurentius, a Franciscan, constantly strove to elevate the clergy and to enforce the law of celibacy
Archdiocese of Uppsala
–
Arms of the archdiocese of Uppsala
5.
Johannes Magnus
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Johannes Magnus was the last functioning Catholic Archbishop in Sweden, and also a theologian, genealogist, and historian. Johannes Magnus was born in Linköping, son of the burgess Måns Pedersson, Magnus was selected by Gustav I Vasa to become Archbishop, in 1523. The papal bull declared the deposition of Trolle unlawful, however, Gustav Trolle was deemed a traitor to the country, and Gustav Vasa could not reinstate him. Instead he ignored the bull and took it upon himself to install Magnus without papal acceptance. Before long, however, Johannes Magnus rebelled by declaring his discontent with the Lutheran teachings spread by the brothers Olaus and Laurentius Petri, the King then sent him off to Russia as a diplomat in 1526. Johannes Magnus was careful not to return home during that time, Gustav Vasa appointed a new archbishop, Laurentius Petri, in 1531, and Johannes realized that his time as archbishop was over. His brother, Olaus Magnus, had travelled to Rome to explain the matter of Gustav Trolle to the Pope. In 1533 the Pope finished investigating the Trolle matter and decided that Magnus was the most appropriate successor, however, as Sweden now no longer took direction from the Vatican, both brothers remained in Italy for the remainder of their lives. After the death of Johannes in 1544, the line of Swedish archbishops consecrated by the Pope ended, the Historia de omnibus Gothorum Sueonumque regibus is a work on Swedish history, which was printed posthumously in Rome in 1554, by Johannes brother Olaus Magnus. Olaus sent it to Sweden with a dedication to the dukes Eric, John, Magnus and it was subsequently republished several times. It appeared in a Swedish translation by Er, schroderus for the first time in 1620. It is an unreliable source for early Swedish history. Johannes Magnus made creative use of Jordanes Getica and of Saxo Grammaticus to depict a history of the Swedish people, of their kings and he states that Magog, son of Japheth, was Swedens first king. Johannes Magnus invented a list of kings of Sweden with six Erics before Eric the Victorious and he also invented six kings of the name Charles before Charles Sverkersson. This is how Gustav I Vasas sons could style themselves as Eric, while the work describes these fictional Erics and Charles in generally positive terms, it also includes a few invented tyrants with names similar to Gustav. The work is exceedingly patriotic and suggests that Denmark was populated by convicts exiled from Sweden, ballad of Eric List of Archbishops of Uppsala F. F. V. Söderberg, Johannes Magnus, Nordisk familjebok Herman Hofberg, Frithiof Heurlin, Viktor Millqvist, Olof Rubenson, Magnus, Johannes, Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon, II, p.115
Johannes Magnus
–
Gothorum Sveonumque Historia
Johannes Magnus
–
Johannes Magnus
6.
Laurentius Petri
–
Laurentius Petri Nericius was a Swedish clergyman and the first Evangelical Lutheran Archbishop of Sweden. He and his brother Olaus Petri are, together with the King Gustav Vasa and they are commemorated by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on April 19. Laurentius was born Lars Persson in Örebro, Närke, Laurentius studied in Germany in 1520, possibly together with his brother. Here they took influence from Lutheranism, among other things they met with Martin Luther himself, on returning home to Stockholm, they got stranded and nearly lost their lives as the boat went ashore on the island Gotland. They both survived however, and settled on the island, and Laurentius became headmaster at a school while Olaus became assistant to a priest, not so long after, Olaus travelled with the priest to Stockholm and the crowning of King Gustav Vasa. Subsequently, he managed to get on terms with the King. At the Uppsala Council 1531, the Swedish King Gustav Vasa took the step of breaking with the Roman Catholic Church. On September 22 that year, Laurentius was consecrated archbishop by the Petrus Magni, but although the consecration took place according to Catholic ritual, those who officiated at the consecration made a secret declaration that they were acting under pressure. Later that year Laurentius married Elisabeth Didriksdotter, a daughter of the Kings cousin becoming the first Swedish archbishop to be married and his brother Olaus had already become the first priest to marry in 1525. The king forbade Laurentius to interfere with the reformation plans and his main contribution were his abundant writings which laid the foundation for the Swedish Church Ordinance established at the Uppsala Council 1571. He was archbishop for 42 years, unparalleled in Sweden, in 1539 his brother Olaus was sentenced to death by the King over some arguments, and Laurentius was among those forced to sign the death sentence. It has been disputed whether Laurentius was doing this because of a character or if he thought it better to formally obey so that he could continue to spread the reformation ideas. Olaus did eventually get pardoned in 1542, much due to his influential friends, Gustav I of Sweden entrusted Laurentius Petri to head the delegation who negotiated the Treaty of Novgorod, which ended the Russo-Swedish War. The first complete Swedish translation of the Bible was published in 1541, Laurentius was one of the main proponents supervising the project, together with his brother Olaus and the clergyman Laurentius Andreae. In the 1560s, when the ideas of Calvin gained in influence and it has been suggested that it was the first time the Swedish Church defined its Lutheran character. Article Laurentius Petri in Nordisk familjebok Olaus Petri and Laurentius Petri
Laurentius Petri
–
The Most Reverend Laurentius Petri Nericius
7.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
Sweden
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A
Vendel-era helmet, at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities.
Sweden
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Flag
Sweden
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A
romantic nationalist interpretation of
Valdemar IV taking control over
Gotland. The final battle outside the walls of Visby in 1361 ended with a massacre of 1,800 defenders of the city.
Sweden
–
Stockholm in mid-17th century
8.
Swedes
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Swedes are a Germanic ethnic group native to Sweden. They mostly inhabit Sweden and the other Nordic countries, in particular Finland, with a substantial diaspora in other countries, the English term Swede has been attested in English since the late 16th century and is of Middle Dutch or Middle Low German origin. The term is believed to have derived from the Proto-Indo-European reflexive pronominal root, *se. The word must have meant ones own, the same root and original meaning is found in the ethnonym of the Germanic tribe Suebi, preserved to this day in the name Swabia. Sweden enters proto-history with the Germania of Tacitus in AD98, in Germania 44,45 he mentions the Swedes as a powerful tribe with ships that had a prow in both ends. Which kings ruled these Suiones is unknown, but Norse mythology presents a line of legendary and semi-legendary kings going back to the last centuries BC. In the 6th century Jordanes named two tribes, which he calls the Suehans and the Suetidi, who lived in Scandza and these two names are both considered to refer to the same tribe. The Suehans, he says, has very fine horses just as the Thyringi tribe, the Icelander Snorri Sturluson wrote of the 6th-century Swedish king Adils that he had the finest horses of his days. The Suehans supplied black fox-skins for the Roman market, then Jordanes names the Suetidi which is considered to be the Latin form of Svitjod. He writes that the Suetidi are the tallest of men - together with the Dani, later he mentions other Scandinavian tribes as being of the same height. Originating in semi-legendary Scandza, a Gothic population had crossed the Baltic Sea before the 2nd century AD and they reaching Scythia on the coast of the Black Sea in modern Ukraine, where Goths left their archaeological traces in the Chernyakhov culture. In the 5th and 6th centuries, they divided as the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths. Crimean Gothic communities appear to have survived intact in the Crimea until the late 18th century, the Swedish Viking Age lasted roughly between the 8th and 11th centuries. During this period, it is believed that the Swedes expanded from eastern Sweden and it is believed that Swedish Vikings and Gutar mainly travelled east and south, going to Finland, the Baltic countries, Russia, Belarus, Ukraine the Black Sea and further as far as Baghdad. Their routes passed through the Dnieper down south to Constantinople, on which they did numerous raids, the Byzantine Emperor Theophilos noticed their great skills in war and invited them to serve as his personal bodyguard, known as the varangian guard. The Swedish Vikings, called Rus are also believed to be the fathers of Kievan Rus. The Arabic traveller Ibn Fadlan described these Vikings as following, I have seen the Rus as they came on their merchant journeys, each man has an axe, a sword, and a knife, and keeps each by him at all times. The swords are broad and grooved, of Frankish sort, the adventures of these Swedish Vikings are commemorated on many runestones in Sweden, such as the Greece Runestones and the Varangian Runestones
Swedes
–
Eric the Victorious praying to
Odin, Eric was the first king to rule over both the
Swedes and the
Goths; 1895 illustration by
Jenny Nyström.
Swedes
–
Swedes
Swedes
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Gustav Vasa starts a revolution in Dalarna. After the
Swedish War of Liberation Sweden is a free nation in 1523 after 126 years of the Danish-dominated
Kalmar Union; idealized depiction by
Johan Gustaf Sandberg, 1836
Swedes
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Death of
Gustav II Adolf at the
Battle of Lützen
9.
Ecclesiastic
–
The word ecclesiology was defined in the 19th century as the science of the building and decoration of church buildings and at least one publication still uses the word in this sense. The Ecclesiologist was first published in October 1841 and dealt with the study of the building and its successor Ecclesiology Today is still, as of 2017, being published by The Ecclesiological Society. The situation regarding the etymology has been summed up by Alister McGrath, is it a visible or earthly corporation, or a unified and visible society — a church in the sense of a specific denomination or institution, for instance. Or is it the body of all believing Christians, regardless of their denominational differences, what is the relationship between living Christians and departed Christians —do they constitute together the Church. What is the relationship between a believer and the Church and that is, what is the role of corporate worship in the spiritual lives of believers. Can salvation be found outside of formal membership in a faith community. What is the authority of the Church, who gets to interpret the doctrines of the Church. Is the organizational structure itself, either in a corporate body, or generally within the range of formal church structures. For example, is the Bible a written part of a wider revelation entrusted to the Church as faith community, or is the Bible the revelation itself, and the Church is to be defined as a group of people who claim adherence to it. What are the sacraments, divine ordinances, and liturgies, in the context of the Church, what is the comparative emphasis and relationship between worship service, spiritual formation, and mission, and is the Churchs role to create disciples of Christ or some other function. Is the Eucharist the defining element of the rest of the sacramental system, is the Church to be understood as the vehicle for salvation, or the salvific presence in the world, or as a community of those already saved. How should the Church be governed, what was the mission and authority of the Apostles, and is this handed down through the sacraments today. What are the methods of choosing clergy such as bishops and priests. Who are the leaders of a church, must there be a policy-making board of leaders within a church and what are the qualifications for this position, and by what process do these members become official, ordained leaders. Must leaders and clergy be ordained, and is possible only by those who have been ordained by others. What are the roles of spiritual gifts in the life of the church, how does the Churchs New Covenant relate to the covenants expressed in scripture with Gods chosen people, the Jewish people. What is the destiny of the Church in Christian eschatology. This shift is most clearly marked by the encyclical Divino afflante Spiritu in 1943, avery Robert Cardinal Dulles, S. J. contributed greatly to the use of models in understanding ecclesiology
Ecclesiastic
–
Washington National Cathedral
Ecclesiastic
–
Jesus
10.
Crane (bird)
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Cranes are a family, Gruidae, of large, long-legged and long-necked birds in the group Gruiformes. There are fifteen species of crane in four genera, unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Cranes live on all continents except Antarctica and South America and they are opportunistic feeders that change their diet according to the season and their own nutrient requirements. They eat a range of items from suitably sized small rodents, fish, amphibians, and insects to grain, berries, Cranes construct platform nests in shallow water, and typically lay two eggs at a time. Both parents help to rear the young, which remain with them until the breeding season. Some species and populations of cranes migrate over long distances, others do not migrate at all, Cranes are solitary during the breeding season, occurring in pairs, but during the non-breeding season they are gregarious, forming large flocks where their numbers are sufficient. Most species of cranes have been affected by human activities and are at the least classified as threatened, the plight of the whooping cranes of North America inspired some of the first US legislation to protect endangered species. The cranes are large to large birds, including the worlds tallest flying bird. They are long-legged and long-necked birds with streamlined bodies and large rounded wings, the males and females do not vary in external appearance, but on average males tend to be slightly larger than females. The plumage of the cranes varies by habitat, species inhabiting vast open wetlands tend to have more white in the plumage than do species that inhabit smaller wetlands or forested habitats, which tend to be more grey. These white species are generally larger. Most species of crane have some areas of skin on the face. This skin is used in communication with other cranes, and can be expanded by contracting and relaxing muscles, feathers on the head can be moved and erected in the blue, wattled and demoiselle cranes for signalling as well. Also important to communication is the position and length of the trachea, in the two crowned-cranes the trachea is shorter and only slightly impressed upon the bone of the sternum, whereas the trachea of the other species is longer and penetrates the sternum. In some species the entire sternum is fused to the plates of the trachea. The cranes have a distribution, occurring across most of the world continents. They are absent from Antarctica and, mysteriously, South America, east Asia is the centre of crane diversity, with eight species, followed by Africa, which holds five resident species and wintering populations of a sixth. Australia, Europe and North America have two species, the remaining genus, Grus, contains the most species and is the most widespread genus, although only a single species occurs in Africa as a wintering migrant
Crane (bird)
–
Cranes
Crane (bird)
–
The bare area of skin on the face of a
sandhill crane. This can change colour or even expand in area when the bird is excited
Crane (bird)
–
The long coiled
trachea that produces the trumpeting calls of cranes (
sandhill crane, Grus canadensis)
Crane (bird)
–
Demoiselle cranes in
Mongolia. Central Asian populations of this species migrate to Northern India in the winter
11.
Greenland
–
Greenland is an autonomous constituent country within the Danish Realm between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe for more than a millennium. The majority of its residents are Inuit, whose ancestors began migrating from the Canadian mainland in the 13th century, Greenland is the worlds largest island. Three-quarters of Greenland is covered by the permanent ice sheet outside Antarctica. With a population of about 56,480, it is the least densely populated country in the world, the Arctic Umiaq Line ferry acts as a lifeline for western Greenland, connecting the various cities and settlements. Greenland has been inhabited off and on for at least the last 4,500 years by Arctic peoples whose forebears migrated there from what is now Canada, Norsemen settled the uninhabited southern part of Greenland beginning in the 10th century, and Inuit peoples arrived in the 13th century. The Norse colonies disappeared in the late 15th century, soon after their demise, beginning in 1499, the Portuguese briefly explored and claimed the island, naming it Terra do Lavrador. In the early 18th century, Scandinavian explorers reached Greenland again, to strengthen trading and power, Denmark-Norway affirmed sovereignty over the island. Greenland was settled by Vikings more than a thousand years ago, Vikings set sail from Greenland and Iceland, discovering North America nearly 500 years before Columbus reached Caribbean islands. Though under continuous influence of Norway and Norwegians, Greenland was not formally under the Norwegian crown until 1262, the Kingdom of Norway was extensive and a military power until the mid-14th century. Thus, the two kingdoms resources were directed at creating Copenhagen, Norway became the weaker part and lost sovereignty over Greenland in 1814 when the union was dissolved. Greenland became a Danish colony in 1814, and was made a part of the Danish Realm in 1953 under the Constitution of Denmark, in 1973, Greenland joined the European Economic Community with Denmark. However, in a referendum in 1982, a majority of the population voted for Greenland to withdraw from the EEC which was effected in 1985, Greenland contains the worlds largest and most northernly national park, Northeast Greenland National Park. Greenland is divided into four municipalities - Sermersooq, Kujalleq, Qaasuitsup and it also retains control of monetary policy, providing an initial annual subsidy of DKK3.4 billion, which is planned to diminish gradually over time. Greenland expects to grow its economy based on increased income from the extraction of natural resources, the capital, Nuuk, held the 2016 Arctic Winter Games. At 70%, Greenland has one of the highest shares of renewable energy in the world, the early Viking settlers named the island as Greenland. In the Icelandic sagas, the Norwegian-born Icelander Erik the Red was said to be exiled from Iceland for manslaughter, along with his extended family and his thralls, he set out in ships to explore an icy land known to lie to the northwest. After finding an area and settling there, he named it Grœnland
Greenland
–
Kingittorsuaq Runestone from
Kingittorsuaq Island (
Middle ages).
Greenland
–
Flag
Greenland
–
The last written records of the
Norse Greenlanders are of a marriage in 1408 in the
church of Hvalsey —today the best-preserved Nordic ruins in Greenland.
Greenland
–
A 1747 map based on Egede's descriptions and misconceptions.
12.
Canon (priest)
–
A canon is a member of certain bodies subject to an ecclesiastical rule. This way of life grew common in the eighth century, in the eleventh century, some churches required clergy thus living together to adopt the rule first proposed by Saint Augustine that they renounce private wealth. Those who embraced this change were known as Augustinians or Canons Regular, in the Roman Catholic Church, the members of the chapter of a cathedral or of a collegiate church are canons. Depending on the title of the church, several languages use specific titles, e. g. in German Domherr or Domkapitular in a Dom, Stiftsherr in a prelature that has the status of a Stift. One of the functions of the chapter in the Roman Catholic Church was to elect a Vicar Capitular to serve during a sede vacante period of the diocese. All canons of the Church of England have been secular since the Reformation, mostly, however, they are ordained, that is, priests or members of the clergy. Today, the system of canons is retained almost exclusively in connection with cathedral churches, a canon is a member of the chapter of priests, headed by a dean, which is responsible for administering a cathedral or certain other churches that are styled collegiate churches. The dean and chapter are the body which has legal responsibility for the cathedral. The title of Canon is not a permanent title and when no longer in a position entitling preferment, however, it is still given in many dioceses to senior parish priests as a largely honorary title. It is usually awarded in recognition of long and dedicated service to the diocese, honorary canons are members of the chapter in name but are non-residential and receive no emoluments. They are entitled to call themselves canon and may have a role in the administration of the cathedral, in some Church of England dioceses, the title Prebendary is used instead of canon when the cleric is involved administratively with a cathedral. Honorary canons within the Roman Catholic Church may still be nominated after the Second Vatican Council, on the demise of the Kingdom of France this honour became transferred to the Presidents of the Republic, and hence is currently held by François Hollande. This applies even when the French President is not Catholic, as is the case with the atheist Hollande, the proto-canon of the papal basilica of Saint Mary Major is the King of Spain, currently Felipe VI. The rank of lay canon is especially conferred upon diocesan chancellors and it has traditionally been said that the King of England is a canon or prebendary of St David’s Cathedral, Wales. However, this is based on a misconception, the canonry of St Mary’s College, St David’s became the property of the Crown on the dissolution of the monasteries. The Sovereign was never a canon of St David’s, even as a layman, though he or she may occupy the first prebendal stall, a canon professor is a canon at an Anglican cathedral who also holds a university professorship. Section 2 of the Church of England Measure 1995 was passed for the purpose of enabling Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford. Historically, the chair in Greek at the university was also a canon professorship and this canonry was transferred to the Lightfoot Professor of Divinity in 1940
Canon (priest)
–
Saint Peter
Canon (priest)
–
Four canons with Sts Augustine and Jerome by an open grave, with the Visitation. Master of the Spes Nostra (nl) (active c. 1500–20, Northern Netherlands)
Canon (priest)
–
Kanunnik Petrus-Ludovicus Stillemans (1821–1902), canon of the
Seminary,
Sint Niklaas,
Flanders
Canon (priest)
–
Another
Flemish canon in official clerical dress of canons
13.
Uppsala
–
Uppsala is the capital of Uppsala County and the fourth largest city of Sweden, after Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö. It had 149,245 inhabitants in 2015, located 71 km north of the capital Stockholm, it is also the seat of Uppsala Municipality. Since 1164, Uppsala has been the centre of Sweden. Uppsala is home to Scandinavias largest cathedral – Uppsala Cathedral, founded in 1477, Uppsala University is the oldest centre of higher education in Scandinavia. Among many achievements, the Celsius scale for temperature was invented there, Uppsala was originally located a few kilometres north of its current location at a place now known as Gamla Uppsala. Todays Uppsala was then called Östra Aros, Uppsala was, according to medieval writer Adam of Bremen, the main pagan centre of Sweden, and the Temple at Uppsala contained magnificent idols of the Norse gods. The Fyrisvellir plains along the south of Old Uppsala, in the area where the modern city is situated today, was the site of the Battle of Fyrisvellir in the 980s. The present-day Uppsala was at that time known as Östra Aros and was a town of Gamla Uppsala. In 1160, King Eric Jedvardsson was attacked and killed outside the church of Östra Aros, the cathedral is built in the Gothic style and is one of the largest in northern Europe, with towers reaching 118.70 metres. Uppsala is also the site of the 16th century Uppsala Castle, the city was severely damaged by a fire in 1702. The arms bearing the lion can be traced to 1737 and have been modernised several times, the meaning of the lion is uncertain but is likely connected to the royal lion, also depicted on the Coat of Arms of Sweden. Situated on the fertile Uppsala flatlands of muddy soil, the city features the small Fyris River flowing through the landscape surrounded by lush vegetation. Parallel to the runs the glacial ridge of Uppsalaåsen at an elevation of circa 30 metres. The central park Stadsskogen stretches from the south far into town, only some 70 kilometres or 40 minutes by train from the capital, many Uppsala residents work in Stockholm. The train to Stockholm-Arlanda Airport takes only 17 minutes, rendering the city accessible by air. The commercial centre of Uppsala is quite compact, during recent decades, a significant part of retail commercial activity has shifted to shopping malls and stores situated in the outskirts of the city. Meanwhile, the areas have expanded greatly, and some suburbanization has taken place. Uppsala lies on the 59th parallel north and has a continental climate, with cold winters
Uppsala
–
Uppsala Cathedral in the background of the
Fyris River.
Uppsala
–
Map of Uppsala from 1770
Uppsala
–
Uppsala in the 18th century
Uppsala
–
Stora Torget (town square), the building in the background is the Nordbankshuset
14.
Archdeacon
–
In the High Middle Ages it was the most senior diocesan position below a bishop in the Roman Catholic Church. An archdeacon is often responsible for administration within an archdeaconry, which is the subdivision of the diocese. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church has defined an archdeacon as A cleric having a defined administrative authority delegated to him by the bishop in the whole or part of the diocese, the office has often been described metaphorically as that of oculus episcopi, the bishops eye. In the Latin Catholic Church, the post of archdeacon, generally a priest, was one of great importance as a senior official of a diocese. The duties are now performed by such as auxiliary and/or coadjutor bishops, the vicar general. The term archdeacon appears for the first time in Optatus of Mileves history of Donatism of about 370 and these functions included not only financial administration but also the discipline of the clergy, and examination of candidates for priesthood. From the 8th century, there was in the West a further development of the authority of the archdeacon, large dioceses had several archdeaconries, in each of which the archdeacon, had an authority comparable to that of the bishop. Frequently they were appointed not by the bishop but by the chapter or the king. However, from the 13th century, efforts were made to limit their authority and this was effected in part by the institution of the new office of vicar general, who would be a priest rather than a deacon. In 1553, the Council of Trent removed entirely the independent powers of archdeacons and those who had been in charge of different parts of the diocese gradually ceased to be appointed. Only the archdeacon associated with the chapter continued to exist as an empty title. However, Eastern Catholic Churches still utilize archdeacons, recently, this type of dual role has only existed in the Bishop suffragan of Ludlow. An archdeacon is usually styled The Venerable instead of the clerical style of The Reverend. In the Church of England the position of an archdeacon can only be held by a priest who has been ordained for at least six years, in the Church of England, the legal act by which a priest becomes an archdeacon is called a collation. If that archdeaconry is annexed to a canonry of the cathedral, the Anglican ordinal presupposes that the functions of archdeacons include those of examining candidates for ordination and then presenting them to the ordaining bishop. In the Eastern Christian churches, an archdeacon is the senior deacon within a diocese and has responsibility for serving at hierarchical services and he has responsibility for ensuring the smooth running of the service by directing the clergy and servers as appropriate. The archdeacon wears the orarion, which is twice the length of the usual orarion. An archdeacon may come from either the monastic or married clergy, an archdeacon was the prince and head of the Christians of Saint Thomas and had such titles as Archdeacon and Gate of All India, Governor of India
Archdeacon
–
Saint Peter
Archdeacon
–
Archdeacon. Painting by
Ilya Repin (1877)
15.
Gustav I of Sweden
–
Initially of low standing, Gustav rose to lead the rebel movement following the Stockholm Bloodbath, in which his father perished. As King, Gustav proved an administrator with a ruthless streak not inferior to his predecessors. He worked to raise taxes, end Feudalism and bring about a Swedish Reformation, replacing the prerogatives of local landowners, noblemen and clergy with centrally appointed governors and bishops. Due to a vibrant dynastic succession, his three sons, Erik, Johan and Karl IX, all held the kingship at different points, Gustav I has subsequently been labelled the founder of modern Sweden, and the father of the nation. Gustav liked to compare himself to Moses, whom he believed to have liberated his people. As a person, Gustav was known for ruthless methods and a bad temper and he founded one of the now oldest orchestras of the world, the Kungliga Hovkapellet. Royal housekeeping accounts from 1526 mention twelve musicians including wind players, today the Kungliga Hovkapellet is the orchestra of the Royal Swedish Opera. Gustav Eriksson, a son of Cecilia Månsdotter Eka and Erik Johansson Vasa, was born in 1496. The birth most likely place in Rydboholm Castle, northeast of Stockholm. The newborn got his name, Gustav, from Eriks grandfather Gustav Anundsson, Erik Johanssons parents were Johan Kristersson and Birgitta Gustafsdotter of the dynasties Vasa and Sture respectively, both dynasties of high nobility. Birgitta Gustafsdotter was the sister of Sten Sture the Elder, regent of Sweden, being a relative and ally of uncle Sten Sture, Erik inherited the regents estates in Uppland and Södermanland when the latter died in 1503. Although a member of a family with considerable properties since childhood, according to genealogical research, Birgitta Gustafsdotter and Sten Sture were descended from King Sverker II of Sweden, through King Sverkers granddaughter Benedikte Sunesdotter. One of King Gustavs great-grandmothers was a half-sister of King Charles VIII of Sweden, since the end of the 14th century, Sweden had been a part of the Kalmar Union with Denmark and Norway. The Danish dominance in this union led to uprisings in Sweden. During Gustavs childhood, parts of the Swedish nobility tried to make Sweden independent, Gustav and his father Erik supported the party of Sten Sture the Younger, regent of Sweden from 1512, and its struggle against the Danish King Christian II. Following the battle of Brännkyrka in 1518, where Sten Stures troops beat the Danish forces, it was decided that Sten Sture and King Christian would meet in Österhaninge for negotiations. To guarantee the safety of the king, the Swedish side sent six men as hostages to be kept by the Danes for as long as the negotiations lasted. However, Christian did not show up for the negotiations, violated the deal with the Swedish side, the six members of the kidnapped hostage were Hemming Gadh, Lars Siggesson, Jöran Siggesson, Olof Ryning, Bengt Nilsson – and Gustav Eriksson
Gustav I of Sweden
–
Gustav I portrayed in 1542 by
Jakob Bincks.
Gustav I of Sweden
–
Christian II, Gustav I's main antagonist
Gustav I of Sweden
–
Gustav Eriksson addressing men from Dalarna in Mora. Painting by Johan Gustaf Sandberg.
Gustav I of Sweden
–
Roggeborgen in Strängnäs was a central location during the events when Gustav Eriksson was elected king of Sweden.
16.
Protestant Reformation
–
The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable
Protestant Reformation
–
Protestant Reformation
Protestant Reformation
–
Execution of
Jan Hus, an important Reformation precursor, in 1415.
Protestant Reformation
–
Martin Luther, shown in a portrait by
Lucas Cranach the Elder, initiated the Protestant Reformation in 1517.
Protestant Reformation
–
Martin Luther's 1534
Bible translated into German. Luther's translation influenced the development of the current Standard German.
17.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
18.
Pope Paul III
–
Pope Paul III, born Alessandro Farnese, was Pope from 13 October 1534 to his death in 1549. He came to the throne in an era following the sack of Rome in 1527. He convened the Council of Trent in 1545 and he was a significant patron of the arts and employed nepotism to advance the power and fortunes of his family. It is to Pope Paul III that Nicolaus Copernicus dedicated De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, alessandro’s humanist education was at the University of Pisa and the court of Lorenzo de Medici. Initially trained as a notary, he joined the Roman Curia in 1491. Farnese’s sister, Giulia was reputedly a mistress of Alexander VI, for this reason, he was sometimes mockingly referred to as the Borgia brother-in-law, just as Giulia was mocked as the Bride of Christ. More disparagingly he was referred to as Cardinal Fregnese, as Bishop of Parma, he came under the influence of his vicar general, Bartolomeo Guidiccioni. This led to the future pope breaking off the relationship with his mistress, under Pope Clement VII he became Cardinal Bishop of Ostia and dean of the College of Cardinals, and on the death of Clement VII in 1534, was elected as Pope Paul III. As a young cleric, Alessandro lived a dissolute life, taking for himself a mistress. By Silvia Ruffini, he fathered Pier Luigi Farnese, whom he created Duke of Parma, others included Ranuccio Farnese, the fourth pope during the period of the Protestant Reformation, Paul III became the first to take active reform measures in response to Protestantism. Paul III first deferred for a year and then discarded the whole project, in 1536, Paul III invited nine eminent prelates, distinguished by learning and piety alike, to act in committee and to report on the reformation and rebuilding of the Church. This report was printed not only at Rome, but at Strasburg, yet the Pope was in earnest when he took up the problem of reform. Yet it is clear that the Concilium bore no fruit in the situation. On the other hand, serious political complications resulted, in order to vest his grandson Ottavio Farnese with the dukedom of Camerino, Paul forcibly wrested the same from the duke of Urbino. He also incurred virtual war with his own subjects and vassals by the imposition of burdensome taxes, perugia, renouncing its obedience, was besieged by Pauls son, Pier Luigi, and forfeited its freedom entirely on its surrender. The burghers of Colonna were duly vanquished, and Ascanio was banished, after this the time seemed ripe for annihilating heresy. In 1540, the Church officially recognized the young society forming about Ignatius of Loyola, the second visible stage in the process becomes marked by the institution, or reorganization, in 1542, of the Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition. On another side, the Emperor was insisting that Rome should forward his designs toward a recovery of the German Protestants
Pope Paul III
–
Pope Paul III
Pope Paul III
–
Portrait of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, later Pope Paul III, by
Raphael, 1509–1511 (
Museo di Capodimonte,
Naples).
Pope Paul III
–
Cardinal Ascanio Sforza
Pope Paul III
–
Pope Paul III and his Grandsons Cardinal
Alessandro Farnese (left), and
Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma (right), II Duke of Parma since 1547. A triple portrait by
Titian, 1546
19.
Council of Trent
–
The Council of Trent, held between 1545 and 1563 in Trento and Bologna, northern Italy, was one of the Roman Catholic Churchs most important ecumenical councils. Prompted by the Protestant Reformation, it has described as the embodiment of the Counter-Reformation. Four hundred years later, when Pope John XXIII initiated preparations for the Second Vatican Council, he affirmed the decrees it had issued, What was, still is. These addressed a range of subjects, including scripture, the Biblical canon, sacred tradition, original sin, justification, salvation, the sacraments, the Mass. The Council met for twenty-five sessions between 13 December 1545 and 4 December 1563, all in Trento, apart from the ninth to eleventh sessions held in Bologna during 1547, the consequences of the Council were also significant as regards the Churchs liturgy and practices. During its deliberations, the Council made the Vulgate the official example of the Biblical canon and commissioned the creation of a standard version, although this was not achieved until the 1590s. These, in turn, led to the codification of the Tridentine Mass, more than three hundred years passed until the next ecumenical council, the First Vatican Council, was convened in 1869. A few months later, on 31 October 1517, Martin Luther issued his 95 Theses in Wittenberg, after the Pope condemned in Exsurge Domine fifty-two of Luthers theses as heresy, German opinion considered a council the best method to reconcile existing differences. German Catholics, diminished in number, hoped for a council to clarify matters. Under Pope Clement VII, troops of the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sacked Papal Rome in 1527, raping, killing, burning, stealing, saint Peters Basilica and the Sistine Chapel were used for horses. This, together with the Pontiffs ambivalence between France and Germany, led to his hesitation, Charles V strongly favoured a council, but needed the support of King Francis I of France, who attacked him militarily. This proposal met the opposition of the Pope for it gave recognition to Protestants, faced with a Turkish attack, Charles held the support of the Protestant German rulers, all of whom delayed the opening of the Council of Trent. In reply to the Papal bull Exsurge Domine of Pope Leo X, Martin Luther burned the document, in 1522 German diets joined in the appeal, with Charles V seconding and pressing for a council as a means of reunifying the Church and settling the Reformation controversies. Pope Clement VII was vehemently against the idea of a council, after Pope Pius II, in his bull Execrabilis and his reply to the University of Cologne, set aside the theory of the supremacy of general councils laid down by the Council of Constance. Pope Paul III, seeing that the Protestant Reformation was no longer confined to a few preachers, yet when he proposed the idea to his cardinals, it was almost unanimously opposed. Nonetheless, he sent nuncios throughout Europe to propose the idea, Paul III issued a decree for a general council to be held in Mantua, Italy, to begin on 23 May 1537. Martin Luther wrote the Smalcald Articles in preparation for the general council, the Smalcald Articles were designed to sharply define where the Lutherans could and could not compromise. The council was ordered by the Emperor and Pope Paul III to convene in Mantua on 23 May 1537 and it failed to convene after another war broke out between France and Charles V, resulting in a non-attendance of French prelates
Council of Trent
–
The Council of Trent meeting in
Santa Maria Maggiore church,
Trento (Trent). (Artist unknown; painted late 17th century.)
Council of Trent
–
Pope Paul III, convener of the Council of Trent.
Council of Trent
–
The Council, depicted by
Pasquale Cati (Cati da Iesi)
20.
Sigismund I the Old
–
Sigismund I of Poland, of the Jagiellon dynasty, reigned as King of Poland and also as the Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1506 until 1548. Earlier, Sigismund had been invested as Duke of Silesia, Sigismund I, the fifth son of Casimir IV and Elisabeth of Habsburg, had ruled Głogów, Silesia, since 1499 and became margrave of Lusatia and governor of all Silesia in 1504. In a short time his judicial and administrative reforms transformed those territories into model states and he succeeded his brother Alexander I as grand prince of Lithuania and king of Poland in 1506. Although he established fiscal and monetary reforms, he clashed with the Polish Diet over extensions of royal power. At the Diet’s demand he married Barbara, daughter of Prince Stephen Zápolya of Hungary, in 1512, to secure a defense treaty and she died three years later, however, leaving only daughters. In 1518 Sigismund married the niece of the Holy Roman emperor Maximilian, Bona Sforza of Milan, by whom he had one son, Sigismund II Augustus and his daughter Catherine later married John III of Sweden, from whom the Vasa kings of Poland were descended. In 1521 Sigismund made peace with his nephew Albert, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, Sigismund added the duchy of Mazovia to the Polish state after the death, in 1529, of the last of its Piast dynasty rulers. Again under the command of Tarnowski, Sigismund’s army defeated the forces of Moldavia at Obertyn in 1531 and Muscovy in 1535. Sigismund, influenced by his wife, brought Italian artists to Kraków, although a devout Catholic, he accorded religious toleration to Greek Orthodox Christians and royal protection to Jews. At first he vigorously opposed Lutheranism but later resigned himself to its power in Poland. Sigismund I was a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece, the son of King Casimir IV Jagiellon and Elisabeth of Austria, Sigismund followed his brothers John I of Poland and Alexander I of Poland to the Polish throne. Their elder brother Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary became king of Hungary, Sigismund was christened as the namesake of his mothers maternal grandfather, Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, who had died in 1437. After his fathers death, Sigismund was the son who did not hold any land titles. In the years 1495-1496, he addressed his older brother, the Lithuanian Grand Duke Alexander, and demanded the separation of a domain from the Lithuanian Duchy, Queen Dowager Elisabeth Habsburg also tried without success to ensure the succession of her son to the throne of Austria. Also, the disastrous and unsuccessful invasion of Bukovina led by his oldest brother King John I Albert dispelled the plans for placing Sigismund on the Moldavian throne. Eventually Sigismund came under the care of Vladislaus II, King of Bohemia and Hungary, from whom he received the duchy of Głogów and Opava and in 1504 became governor of Silesia and Lower Lusatia. On 8 December 1506, during the session of the Polish Senate in Piotrków and he arrived in Kraków on 20 January 1507 and was crowned four days later in Wawel Cathedral by Primate Andrzej Boryszewski. The internal situation in Poland was characterised by broad authorisation of the Chamber of Deputies, during Alexanders reign, the law of Nihil novi had been instituted, which forbade kings of Poland from enacting laws without the consent of the Sejm
Sigismund I the Old
–
Prussian Homage, by
Jan Matejko, 1882.
Albrecht Hohenzollern receives the Duchy of Prussia in fief from Poland's King Sigismund I the Old, 1525
Sigismund I the Old
–
Sigismund I the Old
Sigismund I the Old
–
Portrait by
Hans Süß von Kulmbach, 1511/1518
Sigismund I the Old
–
Portrait made by Andrzej Master, 1546
21.
Bridgettines
–
The Order of the Most Holy Savior, abbreviated as O. Ss. S. There are today several different branches of Bridgettines, the original Bridgettine Order was open to both men and women, and was dedicated to devotion to the Passion of Jesus Christ. It was a “double order” each monastery having attached to it a community of monks to act as chaplains. The nuns were strictly enclosed, emphasizing scholarship and study, but the monks were also preachers, the individual monasteries were each subject to the local bishop, and, in honor of the Virgin Mary, they were ruled by an abbess. The distinctive part of the Brigittine habit for the women of the Order is the crown which they wear called the Crown of the Five Holy Wounds. It has five red stones, one at each joint, to remember the Five Wounds of Christ on the Cross, the monks wear a red cross with a Eucharistic host at the center on the right breast of their cloak. The Order has its own proper Rite for the Canonical Hours, St. Bridgets granddaughter, Lady Ingegerd Knutsdotter, was Abbess of Vadstena from 1385 to 1403. Upon her death on 14 September 1412, direct descent from St. Bridget became extinct and this opened the medieval concept of Bridgets spiritual children, members of the Order founded by her, to be her true heirs. By 1515, with significant royal patronage, there were 27 houses,13 of them in Scandinavia, Bridgettine houses soon spread into other lands, reaching an eventual total of 80. One of the monks of the community, Richard Reynolds, O. Ss. S. was among the first members of the English clergy to be executed as traitors for his refusal to accept the Oath of Supremacy. He was canonized as a martyr by Pope Paul VI in 1970, Syon Abbey was among the few religious houses restored during Queen Mary I’s reign, when nearly twenty members of the old community were re-established there in 1557. The community remained in Lisbon, recruiting new members from England, until 1861, Syon Abbey in Devon continued as the only English religious community that had existed without interruption since pre-Reformation times. In 2004 the surviving books of the monastic library were entrusted for safekeeping to the University of Exeter. Among the texts preserved was the Showing of Love by Julian of Norwich and The Orcherd of Syon, which translated Catherine of Sienas Dialogue. Syon Abbeys Tudor Gatepost in marble, on parts of St Richard Reynolds body were placed, was brought by the Sisters into their exile. This was later given to the Church of the Blessed Sacrament in Exeter, virtually all the Northern European Bridgettine monasteries were destroyed during the Reformation. It currently consists of four independent monasteries in Spain, four in Mexico and it was fully approved by the Holy See on 7 July 1940, and currently consists of convents in Europe, Asia and North America. The motherhouse of the Order is located on the Piazza Farnese, close to the Campo de Fiori, Rome, Italy, on October 28,2016, Fabia Kattakayam was selected as the orders new Abbess General
Bridgettines
–
Bridgettine
Sisters at the 2009
March For Life in
Washington, DC
Bridgettines
–
The former Bridgettine
monastery church in
Naantali,
Finland
Bridgettines
–
Bridgettine
monastery in
Hrodna,
Belarus
Bridgettines
–
Shield of The Most Holy Saviour Fraternity
22.
Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus
–
Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus was a monumental work by Olaus Magnus on the Nordic countries, printed in Rome 1555. It was a work which remained for the rest of Europe the authority on Swedish matters. Its popularity increased by the woodcuts of people and their customs. It is still today a valuable repertory of much information in regard to Scandinavian customs. It was translated into Italian, German, English and Dutch, abridgments of the work appeared also at Antwerp, Paris, Basel, Amsterdam, Frankfurt and Leiden. Olaus Magnus Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus, Ashgate Pub Co, ISBN 0-904180-43-3 / ISBN 978-0-904180-43-5 Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus at Project Runeberg
Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus
–
"On the three Main Gods of the Geats." From left to right;
Frigg,
Thor and
Odin.
Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus
–
"The Alphabet of the Geats", showing the
runic alphabet used by the Geats.
23.
Folklore
–
Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. These include oral traditions such as tales, proverbs and jokes and they include material culture, ranging from traditional building styles to handmade toys common to the group. Folklore also includes customary lore, the forms and rituals of celebrations like Christmas and weddings, folk dances, each one of these, either singly or in combination, is considered a folklore artifact. Just as essential as the form, folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts from one region to another or from one generation to the next, for folklore is not taught in a formal school curriculum or studied in the fine arts. Instead these traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another either through verbal instruction or demonstration, the academic study of folklore is called folkloristics. To fully understand folklore, it is helpful to clarify its component parts and it is well-documented that the term was coined in 1846 by the Englishman William Thoms. He fabricated it to replace the contemporary terminology of popular antiquities or popular literature, the second half of the compound word, lore, proves easier to define as its meaning has stayed relatively stable over the last two centuries. Coming from Old English lār instruction, and with German and Dutch cognates, it is the knowledge and traditions of a particular group, the concept of folk proves somewhat more elusive. When Thoms first created this term, folk applied only to rural, frequently poor, a more modern definition of folk is a social group which includes two or more persons with common traits, who express their shared identity through distinctive traditions. Folk is a concept which can refer to a nation as in American folklore or to a single family. This expanded social definition of folk supports a view of the material, i. e. the lore. These now include all things people make with words, things they make with their hands, Folklore is no longer circumscribed as being chronologically old or obsolete. The folklorist studies the traditional artifacts of a group and how they are transmitted. Transmission is a part of the folklore process. Without communicating these beliefs and customs within the group over space and time, for folklore is also a verb. These folk artifacts continue to be passed along informally, as a rule anonymously, the folk group is not individualistic, it is community-based and nurtures its lore in community. As new groups emerge, new folklore is created… surfers, motorcyclists, in direct contrast to high culture, where any single work of a named artist is protected by copyright law, folklore is a function of shared identity within the social group. Having identified folk artifacts, the professional folklorist strives to understand the significance of these beliefs, customs, for these cultural units would not be passed along unless they had some continued relevance within the group
Folklore
–
Horse and Sulky weathervane, Smithsonian American Art Museum
Folklore
–
Hansel and Gretel,
Arthur Rackham, 1909
Folklore
–
The story of
Jahangir and
Anarkali is popular folklore in the former territories of the
Mughal Empire.
24.
History
–
History is the study of the past as it is described in written documents. Events occurring before written record are considered prehistory and it is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who write about history are called historians and their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In Asia, a chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals was known to be compiled from as early as 722 BC although only 2nd-century BC texts survived. Ancient influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries, the modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation. Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education, the word history comes ultimately from Ancient Greek ἱστορία, meaning inquiry, knowledge from inquiry, or judge. It was in that sense that Aristotle used the word in his Περὶ Τὰ Ζῷα Ἱστορίαι, the ancestor word ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes oath, and in Boiotic inscriptions. History was borrowed from Latin into Old English as stær, and it was from Anglo-Norman that history was borrowed into Middle English, and this time the loan stuck. In Middle English, the meaning of history was story in general, the restriction to the meaning the branch of knowledge that deals with past events, the formal record or study of past events, esp. human affairs arose in the mid-fifteenth century. With the Renaissance, older senses of the word were revived, and it was in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the sixteenth century. For him, historia was the knowledge of objects determined by space and time, in an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like Chinese now designates separate words for human history and storytelling in general. In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are synthetic and highly inflected. The adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669, Historian in the sense of a researcher of history is attested from 1531. Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, in the words of Benedetto Croce, All history is contemporary history. History is facilitated by the formation of a discourse of past through the production of narrative. The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the production of this discourse. All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record, the task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents
History
–
Historia by
Nikolaos Gysis (1892)
History
–
History by
Frederick Dielman (1896)
History
–
The title page to
The Historians' History of the World
History
–
The title page to"La Historia d'Italia"
25.
Carta marina
–
The Carta marina is the common short form of what is more fully titled Carta marina et descriptio septentrionalium terrarum. Swedish ecclesiastic Olaus Magnus created the map, which was published in 1539 and this is the earliest map of the Nordic countries that gives details and place names. Only two earlier maps of the Nordic countries are known, those of Jacob Ziegler and Claudius Clavus, the map is centered on Scandia, which is shown in the largest size text on the map and placed on the middle of Sweden. The map covers the Nordic lands of Svecia, Gothia, Norvegia, Dania, Islandia, Finlandia, the map is framed with longitudes and latitudes running from 55° to the Arctic Circle. The map was printed in black and white from nine 55x40 cm woodcut blocks to produce a document that is 1.70 m wide by 1.25 m tall. The sheets are sequenced from west to east and north to south, to construct the map, Magnus drew from a variety of ancient sources including Ptolemys map in Geographia, and contemporary sources such as the work of Astronomer Jacob Ziegler. In addition to sources, Magnus also relied on the descriptions of sailors. The map was in production for 12 years, the first copies were printed in 1539 in Venice, Olaus complemented the map with Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus printed in Rome,1555. These Latin notes were translated by Olaus into Italian and German, a colored reproduction of the map was printed in Rome by Antoine Lafréry in 1572. All of the original maps copies passed out of public knowledge after 1574, and it was later widely questioned whether the map had ever existed. In 1886, Oscar Brenner found a copy at the Hof- und Staatsbibliothek in Munich, in 1961, another copy was found in Switzerland, brought to Sweden the following year by the Uppsala University Library, as of 2007 it is stored at Carolina Rediviva. Martin Waldseemüller, who had created a similar map of the world in 1516 with the same title. The site contains information on early printing process. Carta Marina, Lafreris edition 1572 at the World Digital Library (Antoine Lafrérys edition from 1572 digitized by the National Library of Sweden in Stockholm Drømmen om hjemlandet
Carta marina
–
The Carta Marina
26.
Scandinavia
–
Scandinavia /ˌskændᵻˈneɪviə/ is a historical and cultural region in Northern Europe characterized by a common ethnocultural North Germanic heritage and mutually intelligible North Germanic languages. The term Scandinavia always includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the remote Norwegian islands of Svalbard and Jan Mayen are usually not seen as a part of Scandinavia, nor is Greenland, an overseas territory of Denmark. This looser definition almost equates to that of the Nordic countries, in Nordic languages, only Denmark, Norway and Sweden are commonly included in the definition of Scandinavia. In English usage, Scandinavia sometimes refers to the geographical area, the name Scandinavia originally referred vaguely to the formerly Danish, now Swedish, region Scania. Icelanders and the Faroese are to a significant extent descended from the Norse, Finland is mainly populated by Finns, with a minority of approximately 5% of Swedish speakers. A small minority of Sami people live in the north of Scandinavia. The Danish, Norwegian and Swedish languages form a continuum and are known as the Scandinavian languages—all of which are considered mutually intelligible with one another. Faroese and Icelandic, sometimes referred to as insular Scandinavian languages, are intelligible in continental Scandinavian languages only to a limited extent, Finnish and Meänkieli are closely related to each other and more distantly to the Sami languages, but are entirely unrelated to the Scandinavian languages. Apart from these, German, Yiddish and Romani are recognized minority languages in Scandinavia, the southern and by far most populous regions of Scandinavia have a temperate climate. Scandinavia extends north of the Arctic Circle, but has mild weather for its latitude due to the Gulf Stream. Much of the Scandinavian mountains have a tundra climate. There are many lakes and moraines, legacies of the last glacial period, Scandinavia usually refers to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Some sources argue for the inclusion of the Faroe Islands, Finland and Iceland, though that broader region is known by the countries concerned as Norden. Before this time, the term Scandinavia was familiar mainly to classical scholars through Pliny the Elders writings, and was used vaguely for Scania, as a political term, Scandinavia was first used by students agitating for Pan-Scandinavianism in the 1830s. After a visit to Sweden, Andersen became a supporter of early political Scandinavism, the term is often defined according to the conventions of the cultures that lay claim to the term in their own use. More precisely, and subject to no dispute, is that Finland is included in the broader term Nordic countries, various promotional agencies of the Nordic countries in the United States serve to promote market and tourism interests in the region. The official tourist boards of Scandinavia sometimes cooperate under one umbrella, Norways government entered one year later. All five Nordic governments participate in the joint promotional efforts in the United States through the Scandinavian Tourist Board of North America, Scandinavia can thus be considered a subset of the Nordic countries
Scandinavia
–
Scandinavia
Scandinavia
–
Late
Baltic Ice Lake around 10,300 years
B.P., with a channel near Mount
Billingen through what is now central
Sweden (political boundaries added)
Scandinavia
–
Kautokeino, the main
Sami city in
Norway
27.
Munich
–
Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
Munich
–
From left to right: The
Munich Frauenkirche, the
Nymphenburg Palace, the
BMW Headquarters, the
New Town Hall, the
Munich Hofgarten and the
Allianz Arena.
Munich
–
Munich city
coat of arms
Munich
–
Banners with the colours of Munich (left) and Bavaria (right) with the
Frauenkirche in the background
Munich
–
Bombing damage to the Altstadt. Note the roofless and pockmarked Altes Rathaus looking up the Tal. The roofless Heilig-Geist-Kirche is on the right of the photo. Its spire, without the copper top, is behind the church. The Talbruck gate tower is missing completely.
28.
Public domain
–
The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
Public domain
–
Newton's own copy of his
Principia, with hand-written corrections for the second edition
Public domain
–
L.H.O.O.Q. (1919). Derivative work by the
Dadaist Marcel Duchamp based on the
Mona Lisa.
29.
Catholic Encyclopedia
–
The first volume appeared in March 1907 and the last three volumes appeared in 1912, followed by a master index volume in 1914 and later supplementary volumes. It was designed to give its readers full and authoritative information on the cycle of Catholic interests, action. The Catholic Encyclopedia was published by the Robert Appleton Company, a company incorporated at New York in February 1905 for the express purpose of publishing the encyclopedia. The five members of the encyclopedias Editorial Board also served as the directors of the company, in 1912 the companys name was changed to The Encyclopedia Press. Publication of the volumes was the sole business conducted by the company during the projects lifetime. The encyclopedia was designed to serve the Roman Catholic Church, concentrating on information related to the Church and it records the accomplishments of Catholics and others in nearly all intellectual and professional pursuits, including artists, educators, poets and scientists. The volumes came out sequentially the first two in 1907 and the last three in 1912, The editors had their first editorial meeting at the office of The Messenger, on West 16th Street, New York City. The text received a nihil obstat from an official censor, Remy Lafort, on November 1,1908 and this review process was presumably accelerated by the reuse of older authorized publications. A first supplement was published in 1922, a supplement in nine loose-leaf sections was published by The Gilmary Society between 1950 and 1958. In 1912, a special completely illustrated commemorative volume was awarded to patrons who contributed to the start of the enterprise by buying multiple encyclopedia sets early on. The encyclopedia was later updated under the auspices of The Catholic University of America and a 17-volume New Catholic Encyclopedia was first published in 1967, and then in 2002. The Catholic Encyclopedia and its makers states that, The work is entirely new, the editors have insisted that the articles should contain the latest and most accurate information to be obtained from the standard works on each subject. Those who wrote new articles in English include Anthony Maas and Herbert Thurston, under United States copyright law, all works published in the United States before 1923 are in the public domain. Knight founded the website New Advent to house the undertaking, volunteers from the United States, Canada, France, and Brazil helped in the transcription of the original material. The site went online in 1995, and transcription work ended in 1997, in 2007, Catholic Answers published a watermarked version derived from page scans. This version has since replaced with a transcription of the Encyclopedia similar to that found at the New Advent website. The Catholic Answers transcription, however, is a transcription of the original text, whereas the New Advent version at times modernizes certain words. Other scanned copies of the 1913 Encyclopedia are available on Google Books, at the Internet Archive, wikisource also hosts a transcription project backed by the scans hosted at Commons
Catholic Encyclopedia
–
Cover page of 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume 1.
30.
Protestant
–
Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
Protestant
–
(
The Ninety-Five Theses)
Protestant
–
The Memorial Church in
Speyer, Germany
Protestant
–
Key figures of the Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther and John Calvin depicted on a church
pulpit. These reformers emphasised preaching and made it a centerpiece of worship.
Protestant
–
The Bible translated into
vernacular by Martin Luther. The supreme authority of
scripture is a fundamental principle of Protestantism.
31.
Church of Sweden
–
The Church of Sweden is the largest Christian church in Sweden. A member of the Porvoo Communion, the Church professes the Lutheran branch of Christianity and it is composed of thirteen dioceses, divided into parishes. It is a national church which, working with a democratic organisation and through the ministry of the church. The Primate of the Church of Sweden is the Archbishop of Uppsala — currently Antje Jackelén, today, the Church of Sweden is an Evangelical Lutheran church. 6.2 million people are members of the Church of Sweden and it is liturgically and theologically high church, having retained priests, vestments, and the Mass during the Swedish Reformation. In common with other Evangelical Lutheran churches, the Church of Sweden maintains the historical episcopate, the Church of Sweden is known for its liberal position in theological issues, particularly the question of homosexuality. When Bishop Eva Brunne was consecrated as Bishop of Stockholm in 2009, despite a significant yearly loss of members, its membership of 6,225,091 people accounts for 63. 2% of the Swedish population. Until 2000 it held the position of state church, the high membership numbers are because until 1996 all newborn children were made members, unless their parents had actively cancelled their membership. Approximately 2% of the members regularly attend Sunday services. According to a Gallup poll conducted in 2009, 17% of the Swedish population considered religion as an important part of their daily life, King Gustav I Vasa instigated the Church of Sweden in 1536 during his reign as King of Sweden. This act separated the church from the Roman Catholic Church and its canon law, in 1571, the Swedish Church Ordinance became the first Swedish church order following the Reformation. The Church of Sweden became Lutheran at the Uppsala Synod in 1593 when it adopted the Augsburg Confession to which most Lutherans adhere, at this synod, it was decided that the church would retain the three original Christian creeds, the Apostles, the Athanasian, and the Nicene. In 1686, the Riksdag of the Estates adopted the Book of Concord, although certain parts, labelled Confessio fidei, were considered binding. Confessio dei included the three aforementioned Creeds, the Augsburg Confession and two Uppsala Synod decisions from 1572 and 1593, during the 20th century the Church of Sweden oriented itself strongly towards liberal Christianity and human rights. In 1957, the assembly rejected a proposal for ordination of women. Since 1960, women have been ordained as priests, and since 1994, a proposal to perform same-sex weddings was approved on October 22,2009 by 176 of 249 voting members of the Church of Sweden Synod. The Christian church in Scandinavia was originally governed by the archdiocese of Bremen, in 1104 an archbishop for all Scandinavia was installed in Lund. Uppsala was made Swedens archdiocese in 1164, and remains so today, the papal diplomat William of Modena attended a church meeting in Skänninge in March 1248, where the ties to the Catholic Church were strengthened
Church of Sweden
–
Uppsala, with its large cathedral, remains the seat of the Church of Sweden.
32.
Stefan (Archbishop of Uppsala)
–
Stefan was created the first Archbishop of Uppsala in Sweden in the year 1164, a post he held until his death. Stefan was a Cistercian monk from Alvastra monastery, in 1164 Stefan travelled to Sens in France to meet Pope Alexander III. The Pope was seeking refuge in Sens because of disputes in Rome, present in Sens was another refugee, the Archbishop of Lund, Eskil, who had supported the wrong king in Denmark and thus been forced into exile. The Pope agreed to grant Sweden an Archbishop and this matter had already been discussed a decade earlier, but because of civil conflicts was never realized. A pallium had however made in Lund for that occasion. The pallium was now given to Stefan, the Archbishop of Lund was declared primate of Uppsala, and thereby given the right to ordain the Archbishop of Uppsala. What is likely to be a protocol from the Sens meeting is still in existence at the Swedish Royal Library, svea Rike Ärkebiskopar, Uppsala,1935 article Stefan Nordisk Familjebok
Stefan (Archbishop of Uppsala)
–
Insignia of Stefan
33.
Jarler
–
Jarler was Archbishop of Sweden from 1236 to 1255. Jarler was one of the two earliest known Swedish students at the University of Paris, during his time as archbishop, the Dominican and Franciscan monks settled in Sweden. These orders benefited the Christian awareness among the common populations through their preaching, in Sweden, the political climate was shaky. In 1247, the house of Folkung, revolted against the king, Eric XI of Sweden, also in 1247, a vigorous delegate from the Pope, Vilhelm of Sabina, was sent to Sweden to investigate the recurring accusations of marriage among priests, and other alleged problems. As these rules show, the Swedish Church was still in an unstable state. The rules established an important foundation, even though they were not always followed, in 1254 Jarler sent a letter to the Pope, requesting permission to resign his post. He was one of the few Swedish archbishops to have made this request, the reasons he gave were that he was old and crippled. The Pope granted his resignation, but before the message had arrived in 1255 and this article contains content from the Owl Edition of Nordisk familjebok, a Swedish encyclopedia published between 1904 and 1926, now in the public domain. Nordisk familjebok, article Vilhelm av Sabina In Swedish Nordisk familjebok, article Jarler In Swedish Svea Rikes Ärkebiskopar,1935, Uppsala
Jarler
–
External links and references [edit]
34.
Jakob Ulvsson
–
Jakob Ulvsson was Archbishop of Uppsala, Sweden, 1469–1515 and the founder of Uppsala University. Jakob Ulvsson came from a family background in Uppland and studied at the universities in Rostock. He spent the years 1465–1470 in Rome and was meanwhile appointed Canon of Uppsala in 1465, after Sten Stures victory in the Battle at Brunkeberg in 1471, the situation stabilized and Jakob participated in the work of the privy council. He is usually regarded is the initiator of the university in Uppsala. Jakob Ulvsson was also appointed first chancellor of the university, in 1497, he and the rest of the council accepted king Hans as king of Sweden. He resigned from the archbishopric in 1515 and he remained in Sweden until his death in 1521. Archbishop of Uppsala Gunnar Olsson, Jakob Ulvsson, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon, Vol.20, pp. 97-103
Jakob Ulvsson
–
The Most Reverend Jacob Ulfsson
35.
Gustav Trolle
–
Gustav Eriksson Trolle was Archbishop of Uppsala, Sweden, in two sessions, during the turbulent Reformation events. He was the son of Eric Arvidsson Trolle, a regent of Sweden during the era of the Kalmar Union. After returning from abroad, in Cologne and Rome, he was in 1513 elected vicar in Linköping. One year later he became Archbishop of Uppsala, in 1515 he got into an argument with the Swedish regent Sten Sture the Younger, who spread the rumour that he was allied with the King Christian II of Denmark. True or not, it resulted in Trolle being removed from his office, in the winter of 1517, Almarestäket was demolished by orders from the Swedish government. The Danish threat grew stronger, and Trolle was among those who spoke in favour of the Danish King, in 1520, Christian II of Denmark entered Sweden, and Trolle was rewarded by being reappointed Archbishop of Uppsala. He crowned Christian King of Sweden on November 4,1520 and this, and subsequent events, supports the notion of the two having made a deal previous to Christians conquest of Sweden. Gustav Trolle presented a list of antagonists who had caused him to suffer, King Christian gathered several people, and had them executed at the so-called Bloodbath of Stockholm on November 10,1520. Christian returned home a few months later and Trolle was one of those put in charge of the government, but he was unpopular, and in September the following year he was forced to leave Sweden, and move to Denmark where he lived for several years. In 1526 he then met with Christian in the Netherlands, Christian had been dethroned from Denmark, but was eager to get back in power. He renounced his Lutheran faith so that he could gain the support of the Catholic Church and he gathered an army and marched to conquer Norway in 1530. After a few years of feuds, Trolle was mortally wounded in a battle at Øksnebjerg, on Fyn and he was buried at the cathedral in Schleswig. He was described by Olaus Petri as a stiff and obstinate man, for a long time after his death, he was regarded as a traitor to the Swedish people. This was also the view among the Swedish 19th-century historians such as Anders Fryxell
Gustav Trolle
–
The Most Reverend Gustav Trolle
36.
Petrus Kenicius
–
Petrus Kenicius was Archbishop of Uppsala in the Church of Sweden from 1609 to his death. He got his education from the Universities of Wittenberg and Rostock, in 1589 he was put in prison by King John III of Sweden, together with, among others, Nicolaus Olai Bothniensis who would become archbishop in 1599-1600. The reason were disagreements with the Kings non-Lutheran liturgy, after being released, he was at the Uppsala Synod in 1593 as one of the twelve assessors. And in 1595 he was ordained Bishop of Skara and he was considered a fine and hardworking person who dedicated much time and care to the University in Uppsala and the Church. In his old age, he was weakened by age and sickness, list of Archbishops of Uppsala Nordisk Familjebok, article Kenicius In Swedish Svenskt Biografiskt Handlexikon, article Kenicius In Swedish
Petrus Kenicius
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The Most Reverend Petrus Kenicius
37.
Laurentius Paulinus Gothus
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Laurentius Paulinus Gothus was a Swedish theologian, astronomer and Archbishop of Uppsala. In 1588 Gothus travelled to Germany and studied in the Rostock University for three years and he was influenced by Pierre de la Ramée and his philosophy rather than the Lutheran scholastics. After getting an M. A. he returned home to Uppsala in time for the Uppsala Synod in 1593 where the founding dogmas of the Swedish Lutheran Church were made final and he was appointed professor of logic at the recently reopened, and now Lutheran focused, Uppsala University. In 1598 he re-transferred himself to the professorship in astronomy, in 1606, his antagonist Duke Charles was crowned and was not too happy about this. When a comet appeared on the sky in 1607, Laurentius declared he could interpret what this signified, the belief in astrology and the significance of heavenly signs were still strong, and Laurentius was no exception. His interpretations made him important for the King, he reinstated him at the university, a while later, he got involved in philosophical disputes with the professor in philosophy, Jonas Magni, who was an adherent of Aristotle. Laurentiuss had from Ramée acquired a scepticism towards this philosophy and defended his views rigorously, in 1628, he was tasked with the investigation of the visionary Margareta i Kumla. Laurentius wrote many theological and astronomical works and also published calendars and he furthermore published a thorough Ethica Christiana 1615–30, a work in six parts in Swedish about Lutheranism. Following this, he in 1631 wrote a summary of work which has been called the prime catechetical work from 17th century Sweden. He also wrote historical works about Swedish history
Laurentius Paulinus Gothus
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The Most Reverend Laurentius Paulinus Gothus
38.
Johannes Canuti Lenaeus
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Johannes Canuti Lenaeus was a professor at Uppsala University and Archbishop of Uppsala in the Church of Sweden from 1657 to his death. After several years of studies, mainly in Germany at universities in Rostock and Wittenberg, after more studies in Germany, he was also appointed professor in Greek and Hebrew. After being ordained priest, he was in 1613 also appointed professor of theology and he text he wrote, Logica peripatetica gave a revival to the philosophy of peripatetics and was for a time used as a study book. His father-in-law was former Archbishop Petrus Kenicius, and Johannes was seen as a natural successor
Johannes Canuti Lenaeus
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The Most Reverend Johannes Canuti Lenaeus
39.
Lars Stigzelius
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Lars Stigzelius was Archbishop of Uppsala in the Church of Sweden from 1670 to his death. He was the son of a priest and was a student at the Uppsala University until his Master of Arts in 1625, after undertaking a travel through Europe in 1630, he in 1640 became professor of theology in Uppsala. This problem he had from 1630, when he became professor of logic, until, as said,1640, when in the 1660s Cartesian thoughts spread to the university, Stigzelius was working against it. He had a reputation at the University as being highly knowledgeable, for instance he was working to remove exorcism as one of the Church dogmas. Nordisk familjebok, article Stigzelius, p.1377 In Swedish
Lars Stigzelius
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The Most Reverend Laurentius Stigzelius
40.
Johan Baazius the younger
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Johan Baazius the younger was born in Jönköping July 17,1626 as the a son of a knowledgeable theologian and bishop of Växjö. He was Archbishop of Uppsala in the Church of Sweden from 1677 to his death on May 12,1681 and he was himself known as knowledgeable already at a young age. After further studies in Uppsala University, Königsberg University and some universities, mainly in Germany. In 1653 he was made court chaplain by Queen Christina. After this he held offices, for instance as bishop of Växjö from 1667, bishop of Skara 1673. He died suddenly in his sleep after returning from a visit to Stockholm, besides being knowledgeable, he was also known as a pious man who was serious about his duties
Johan Baazius the younger
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The Most Reverend Johannes Baazius den yngre
41.
Olov Svebilius
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Olov Svebilius was Bishop of Linköping, 1678-1681 and Archbishop of Uppsala, Sweden, 1681-1700. He was born in Ljungby, close to Kalmar in Sweden on 1 January 1624 and he studied at the University of Uppsala 1638, two years later he enrolled in the Königsberg University, and thereafter moved back to Uppsala to finish his studies. Together with two Swedish members of the nobility he undertook a travel through Europe in 1651-1656, on returning he was ordained priest and later vicar. In 1663 he was appointed vicar in his home town Ljungby where he was very comfortable and he was appointed court chaplain in 1668 and gave the King communion in 1670. He was also entrusted with commissioning the new Bible translation and revising the Swedish book of hymns, the most notable is perhaps A simple explanation of Martin Luthers little catechism, a book that was read throughout the country. He was the Speaker of the Clergy in the Riksdag between 1682-1697 and he is said to have been a person of great authority. List of Archbishops of Uppsala Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon In Swedish
Olov Svebilius
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The Most Reverend Olov Svebilius
42.
Erik Benzelius the Elder
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Erik Benzelius was a Swedish theologian and Archbishop of Uppsala. Benzelius was born at the Bentseby farm in the parish of Luleå in northern Sweden, son of the farmer and he took a family name derived from his birthplace, rather than using the patronymic as was common in the Swedish peasantry. He was raised by a relative who was a merchant in Uppsala, and studied at Uppsala University, returning to Uppsala, he was appointed professor extraordinary of history and moral philosophy in 1665, of theology in 1666, and 1670 ordinary professor of theology. He became bishop of Strängnäs in 1687, and succeeded Olov Svebilius in 1700 as Archbishop of Uppsala, Benzelius was a typical representative of 17th-century Swedish Lutheran orthodoxy, was careful not to deviate from established theological principles, and lacked originality in his writing. Nevertheless, he was an author of works in theology. Of the seven sons of Benzelius, three later were appointed archbishops of Uppsala, one after the other, Erik, Jakob, list of Archbishops of Uppsala R. Holm, Benzelius, Eric d. ä. in Svenskt biografiskt lexikon, vol. Nordisk familjebok, 2nd ed. Vol.2, col
Erik Benzelius the Elder
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The Most Reverend Erik Benzelius den äldre
43.
Mathias Steuchius
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Mathias Steuchius was Bishop of the Diocese of Lund,1694 to 1714 and Archbishop of Uppsala in the Swedish Church from 1714 to his death. Steuchius grew up in Härnösand in northern Sweden, where his father Petrus Steuchius was superintendent and he was ordained to priest in 1672 and participates in the Riksdag of the Estates in 1672 and 1675. In 1676 he became professor of logics and metaphysics at the Uppsala University, in 1683 his father died, and Mathias superseded him. He worked as superintendent for twelve years, and put much effort into bringing Christianity, in 1693 he was made doctor of theology in Uppsala, and in 1694 promoted to professor. But already in June 1694 he was summoned to Lund, to be appointed Bishop of Lund, at the death of Haquin Spegel, Steuchius was elected new archbishop in 1714. He worked in Uppsala until his death in 1730, Steuchius was known as a devoted and righteous man by his way of living and teaching. List of Archbishops of Uppsala Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon article Steuchius
Mathias Steuchius
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The Most Reverend Mathias Steuchius
44.
Johannes Steuchius
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Johannes Steuchius was Archbishop of Uppsala in the Church of Sweden from 1730 to his death. He was born in Härnösand, the son of the previous archbishop Mathias Steuchius and his family name was ennobled in 1719 to Steuch. Before he became archbishop, he was a professor of logic, nordisk familjebok, article Steuchius In Swedish Entry of Johannes Steuchius in the Rostock Matrikelportal
Johannes Steuchius
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The Most Reverend Johannes Steuchius
45.
Erik Benzelius the younger
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Erik Benzelius the younger was a priest, theologian, librarian, bishop of Linköping, 1731-1742 and Archbishop of Uppsala, Sweden, 1742–1743. He was a learned man and one of Swedens important Enlightenment figures. As his name indicates, he was the son of Erik Benzelius the elder, the elder Erik also held the office of archbishop, he was a most learned man who had studied in universities around Europe and he was also a professor of theology at the University of Uppsala. Like his father, the young Erik first studied at Uppsala and this was not uncommon for ambitious and somewhat wealthy people during the era. The academic world had grown in importance as had the sciences, Erik met among others Leibniz and Malebranche. He also spent a deal of time studying books and scripts from large. He bought or copied several of them, returning to Uppsala in 1702, he was appointed librarian at the University of Uppsala. He was fond of books and worked to expand the librarys collection, then he studied to be a priest and was ordained in 1709. He also constantly kept in contact with learned men from Europe and these included botanists, mathematicians, historians and scientists of other faculties. The correspondence have been kept and were published after his death, Benzelius married Anna Svedberg in 1703. She was daughter of the Swedish clergyman Jesper Swedberg and sister of the scientist Emanuel Swedenborg, Erik was a benefactor of Emanuel, and perhaps the only person to pay due respect to his scientific discoveries. Erik was a supporter of all kinds of knowledge and discoveries, there is also evidence to suggest that he had contact with Johan Kemper a Kabbalist and Jewish convert to Christianity who also worked at the University of Uppsala. Some scholars see Kemper as a source for apparent Kabbalistic influences on Swedenborgs thought. Benzelius theology was marked by his fathers beliefs and he wrote and published several books in theology. For instance, he was the founder of the first scientific magazine in Sweden, Acta literaria Suecia and he was also an active member of the Swedish parliament, the Riksdag of the Estates, from 1723 to his death. And he was described as being interested in anything that might benefit his country. He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1740, and was its president in 1743
Erik Benzelius the younger
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The Most Reverend Erik Benzelius den yngre
46.
Henric Benzelius
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Henrik Benzelius was Bishop of Lund from 1744 to 1747, and Archbishop of Uppsala in the Church of Sweden from 1747 to his death. Benzelius was one of the people sent by Charles XII of Sweden to the Middle East, travelling to Egypt, after returning for a time he took up a post in Lund University. He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1746 and he was also a manuscript collector. List of Archbishops of Uppsala Minuscule 400 – one of his manuscripts Nordisk Familjebok, article Henrik Benzelius In Swedish The Swedish Connection
Henric Benzelius
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The Most Reverend Henric Benzelius
47.
Samuel Troilius
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Samuel Troilius was Archbishop of Uppsala in the Church of Sweden from 1758 to his death. He was born in Stora Skedvi parish in the province of Dalarna, in school he was noted for his talent. Thereafter he continued in his fathers trail, by studying to be a priest. Through some connections, he moved to the capital Stockholm in 1740 as court chaplain, and the following year became the confessor of the Swedish Royal Family. He did make some harsh, and later condemned as overly superstitious, judgement in matters of witchcraft and magic while working in Dalarna, after the death of the Bishop of Västerås Kalsenius in 1751, he was unanimously elected new bishop there. In 1758, after the death of the archbishop, he was elected archbishop, in 1756, he and his descendants were ennobled under the name von Troil. The family were to have members on bishops and archbishops seats. The two marriages he suffered were with Anna Elisabeth Angerstein in 1740 and with Brita Elisabet Silfverstolpe in 1751, in 1760, Troilius was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. List of Archbishops of Uppsala Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon, article Samuel Troilius In Swedish
Samuel Troilius
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The Most Reverend Samuel Troilius
48.
Magnus Beronius
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Magnus Olai Beronius was Archbishop of Uppsala in the Church of Sweden from 1764 to his death. He studied in Uppsala for nine years to a degree in 1716. In 1724 he was elected lecturer in Gävle, after that he undertook a travel through Europe, and came home in 1727. He was appointed professor first in poetry, and then he changed to theology and he was also the priesthoods representative in the troubled Swedish parliament Riksdag of the Estates assemblies in 1765-1766. He was described as a pious and gentle man who undertook his work with carefulness, there is said to be nothing extraordinary about him. He and his five children were ennobled under the name Björnstjerna in 1760, list of Archbishops of Uppsala Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon, article Beronius In Swedish
Magnus Beronius
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The Most Reverend Magnus Beronius
49.
Carl Fredrik Mennander
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Carl Fredrik Mennander was Bishop of Turku, Finland, from 1757–1775 and then Archbishop of Uppsala in the Church of Sweden from 1775 to his death. He arrived as a student at the University of Uppsala in 1731, in 1735 he travelled to Turku, Finland, and finished his education with a Master of Arts. He stayed in Turku for fifteen years, and made important improvements there within the school system. He was ordained priest, and also had a professorship in physics, in 1757 he was consecrated Bishop of Turku. In 1775 he was elected Archbishop of Uppsala by the cathedral chapter and he became highly engaged in the matters of the Uppsala University and published many disputations, speeches and dissertations. At his death, he had gathered one of the finest book collections of his time and he was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences from 1744. Nordisk familjebok, article Mennander Sv. biografiskt handlexikon, article Mennander List of Archbishops of Uppsala
Carl Fredrik Mennander
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The Most Reverend Karl Fredrik Mennander
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Olaus Magnus". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Otto Hartig (1913). "
