1.
National Register of Historic Places
–
The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
National Register of Historic Places
–
Logo used for the NRHP.
National Register of Historic Places
–
Old Slater Mill, a historic district in
Pawtucket, Rhode Island, was the first property listed in the National Register on November 13, 1966.
National Register of Historic Places
–
The
Loren Andrus Octagon House in
Washington, Michigan has been on the NRHP since September 3, 1971.
National Register of Historic Places
–
Built in 1800 by
Samuel McIntire in
Salem, the
Stephen Phillips House is operated as a
historic house museum by
Historic New England and open for public tours.
2.
Fayetteville, AR
–
Fayetteville is the third-largest city in Arkansas and county seat of Washington County. The city is located within the county and has been home of the University of Arkansas since the institutions founding in 1871. Fayetteville is on the outskirts of the Boston Mountains, deep within the Ozarks, known as Washington until 1829, the city was named after Fayetteville, Tennessee, from which many of the settlers had come. It was incorporated on November 3,1836 and was rechartered in 1867, the four-county Northwest Arkansas Metropolitan Statistical Area is ranked 105th in terms of population in the United States with 463,204 in 2010 according to the United States Census Bureau. The city had a population of 73,580 at the 2010 Census, at 1,400 feet of elevation, it is also one of the highest major US cites between the western Great Plains and the Appalachian Mountains. Fayetteville is home to the University of Arkansas, the states largest university, when classes are in session, thousands of students on campus dramatically change the citys demographics. Thousands of Arkansas Razorbacks alumni and fans travel to Fayetteville to attend football, basketball, the Universitys mens track and field program has won 41 national championships to date. Forbes also ranked Fayetteville as the 24th-best city for business and careers in 2016, lonely Planet named Fayetteville among its top 20 places to visit in the South in 2016. Based in nearby Bentonville, the Walmart corporation has dominated Fayettevilles economy, the city hosts the Wal-Mart Shareholders Meetings each year at the Bud Walton Arena. In 1828, George McGarrah settled at Big Spring with his family on the modern day corner of Spring and Willow, founding the town of Washington, on October 17, Washington County was established, Washington chosen as the county seat. The Washington Courthouse was finished in 1829, and also contained the post office, later in the year Postmaster Larkin Newton changed the name to the Fayetteville Courthouse, to avoid confusing with Washington, Hempstead County. Two councilmen selected to name the city were from Fayetteville, Tennessee and that original Fayetteville was named for General Lafayette, a French general who helped the colonies gain independence in the American Revolutionary War. The first store in Fayetteville was opened by John Nye in a building constructed by James Holmsley. In 1832 David Walker, Chief Justice of the Arkansas supreme court, in 1822 Archibald Yell, the second Governor of Arkansas, built a house and called it Waxhaw after his home in North Carolina. This was on the outskirts of town then but now is a named after him that connects College. The first hotels were the Burnside House and the Onstott House, Fayetteville was incorporated as a town on November 3,1836. In 1859, a city charter was obtained from the Legislature, during the Civil War the municipal government was suspended and was not reinstated until 1867. Rhea was the president of the trustees in 1836, J. W. Walker was the first mayor under the charter of 1859
Fayetteville, AR
–
Clockwise from top: Fayetteville skyline around the
Historic Square,
Donald W. Reynolds Razorback Stadium,
Old Main,
Wilson Park, the
Fayetteville Depot, and the
Washington County Courthouse.
Fayetteville, AR
–
The house that served as Union headquarters during the
action at Fayetteville is operated today as
a museum about the war.
Fayetteville, AR
–
The split between the Springfield Plateau and the
Boston Mountains occurs in the center of
Washington County, Arkansas very near Fayetteville. The rough, mountainous terrain south of Fayetteville is the Boston Mountains while the more-habitable Springfield Plateau contains the cities of
Springdale,
Bentonville and
Rogers to the north.
Fayetteville, AR
–
Mount Sequoyah rises above Fayetteville on the city's eastern side
3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
4.
Second Empire architecture
–
Second Empire is an architectural style, most popular in the latter half of the 19th century and early years of the 20th century. It was so named for the elements in vogue during the era of the Second French Empire. The style quickly spread and evolved as Baroque Revival architecture throughout Europe and its suitability for super-scaling allowed it to be widely used in the design of municipal and corporate buildings. In the United States, where one of the architects working in the style was Alfred B. Mullett, buildings in the style were often closer to their 17th-century roots than examples of the found in Europe
Second Empire architecture
–
Mairie de Tarbes (Hautes-Pyrénées, France, An example of French Second Empire architecture
Second Empire architecture
–
Élysée Palace garden façade.
Second Empire architecture
–
Alfred B. Mullett 's former
State, War and Navy Building, Washington, D.C., begun during the
Grant administration and built between 1871 and 1888.
Second Empire architecture
–
Old City Hall, Boston, Massachusetts
5.
University of Arkansas
–
The University of Arkansas is a public, co-educational, land-grant, space-grant, research university in Fayetteville, in the U. S. state of Arkansas. More than 26,000 students are enrolled in over 188 undergraduate, graduate and it is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as a research university with highest research activity. Founded as Arkansas Industrial University in 1871, its present name was adopted in 1899 and it is noted for its strong architecture, agriculture, business, communication disorders, creative writing, history, law, and Middle Eastern studies programs. Enrollment for the semester of 2014 was 26,237. Academic programs are in excess of 200, the ratio of students to faculty is approximately 19,1. The University of Arkansas was founded in 1871 on the site of a farm that overlooked the Ozark Mountains. The university was established under the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act of 1862, the universitys founding also satisfied the provision in the Arkansas Constitution of 1868 that the General Assembly was to establish and maintain a State University. Bids from state towns and counties determined the universitys location, the citizens of Fayetteville and Washington County. Pledged $130,000 toward securing the university, a sum that proved to be more than other offers, classes started on January 22,1872. Completed in 1875, Old Main, a brick building designed in the Second Empire style, was the primary instructional. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and its design was based on the plans for the main academic building at the University of Illinois, which has since been demolished. However, the clock and bell towers were switched at Arkansas, the northern taller tower is the bell tower, and the southern shorter tower is the clock tower. One legend for the switch is that the taller tower was put to the north as a reminder of the Union victory during the Civil War. A second legend is that the contractor accidentally swapped the tower drawings after having had too much to drink, although the southern tower was designed with clock faces, it never held a working clock until October 2005. The bell tower has always had some type of chime, initially a bell that was rung on the hour by student volunteers, electronic chimes were installed in 1959. In addition to the chimes of the clock, the universitys Alma Mater plays at 5 pm every day. Old Main housed many of the earliest classes at the university, the lawn at Old Main serves as an arboretum, with many of the trees native to the state of Arkansas found on the lawn. Sitting at the edge of the lawn is Spoofers Stone, a place for couples to meet, students play soccer, cricket and touch football on the lawns open green
University of Arkansas
–
Old Main on the University of Arkansas campus.
University of Arkansas
–
Vol Walker Hall contains the
School of Architecture.
University of Arkansas
–
Bell Engineering Center contains the
College of Engineering.
University of Arkansas
–
University of Arkansas School of Law.
6.
Fayetteville, Arkansas
–
Fayetteville is the third-largest city in Arkansas and county seat of Washington County. The city is located within the county and has been home of the University of Arkansas since the institutions founding in 1871. Fayetteville is on the outskirts of the Boston Mountains, deep within the Ozarks, known as Washington until 1829, the city was named after Fayetteville, Tennessee, from which many of the settlers had come. It was incorporated on November 3,1836 and was rechartered in 1867, the four-county Northwest Arkansas Metropolitan Statistical Area is ranked 105th in terms of population in the United States with 463,204 in 2010 according to the United States Census Bureau. The city had a population of 73,580 at the 2010 Census, at 1,400 feet of elevation, it is also one of the highest major US cites between the western Great Plains and the Appalachian Mountains. Fayetteville is home to the University of Arkansas, the states largest university, when classes are in session, thousands of students on campus dramatically change the citys demographics. Thousands of Arkansas Razorbacks alumni and fans travel to Fayetteville to attend football, basketball, the Universitys mens track and field program has won 41 national championships to date. Forbes also ranked Fayetteville as the 24th-best city for business and careers in 2016, lonely Planet named Fayetteville among its top 20 places to visit in the South in 2016. Based in nearby Bentonville, the Walmart corporation has dominated Fayettevilles economy, the city hosts the Wal-Mart Shareholders Meetings each year at the Bud Walton Arena. In 1828, George McGarrah settled at Big Spring with his family on the modern day corner of Spring and Willow, founding the town of Washington, on October 17, Washington County was established, Washington chosen as the county seat. The Washington Courthouse was finished in 1829, and also contained the post office, later in the year Postmaster Larkin Newton changed the name to the Fayetteville Courthouse, to avoid confusing with Washington, Hempstead County. Two councilmen selected to name the city were from Fayetteville, Tennessee and that original Fayetteville was named for General Lafayette, a French general who helped the colonies gain independence in the American Revolutionary War. The first store in Fayetteville was opened by John Nye in a building constructed by James Holmsley. In 1832 David Walker, Chief Justice of the Arkansas supreme court, in 1822 Archibald Yell, the second Governor of Arkansas, built a house and called it Waxhaw after his home in North Carolina. This was on the outskirts of town then but now is a named after him that connects College. The first hotels were the Burnside House and the Onstott House, Fayetteville was incorporated as a town on November 3,1836. In 1859, a city charter was obtained from the Legislature, during the Civil War the municipal government was suspended and was not reinstated until 1867. Rhea was the president of the trustees in 1836, J. W. Walker was the first mayor under the charter of 1859
Fayetteville, Arkansas
–
Clockwise from top: Fayetteville skyline around the
Historic Square,
Donald W. Reynolds Razorback Stadium,
Old Main,
Wilson Park, the
Fayetteville Depot, and the
Washington County Courthouse.
Fayetteville, Arkansas
–
The house that served as Union headquarters during the
action at Fayetteville is operated today as
a museum about the war.
Fayetteville, Arkansas
–
The split between the Springfield Plateau and the
Boston Mountains occurs in the center of
Washington County, Arkansas very near Fayetteville. The rough, mountainous terrain south of Fayetteville is the Boston Mountains while the more-habitable Springfield Plateau contains the cities of
Springdale,
Bentonville and
Rogers to the north.
Fayetteville, Arkansas
–
Mount Sequoyah rises above Fayetteville on the city's eastern side
7.
Arkansas
–
Arkansas is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Its name is of Siouan derivation from the language of the Osage denoting their related kin, the states diverse geography ranges from the mountainous regions of the Ozark and the Ouachita Mountains, which make up the U. S. Interior Highlands, to the forested land in the south known as the Arkansas Timberlands, to the eastern lowlands along the Mississippi River. Arkansas is the 29th largest by area and the 33rd most populous of the 50 United States, the capital and most populous city is Little Rock, located in the central portion of the state, a hub for transportation, business, culture, and government. The northwestern corner of the state, such as the Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers Metropolitan Area and Fort Smith metropolitan area, is a population, education, the largest city in the eastern part of the state is Jonesboro. The largest city in the part of the state is Pine Bluff. The Territory of Arkansas was admitted to the Union as the 25th state on June 15,1836, in 1861 Arkansas withdrew from the United States and joined the Confederate States of America during the Civil War. Upon returning to the Union in 1868, the state would continue to suffer due to its reliance on slavery. White rural interests continued to dominate the politics until the Civil Rights Movement. Arkansas began to diversify its economy following World War II and relies on its service industry, aircraft, poultry, steel, tourism, cotton, and rice. The culture of Arkansas is observable in museums, theaters, novels, television shows, restaurants, wright, and physicist William L. McMillan, who was a pioneer in superconductor research, have all lived in Arkansas. The name Arkansas derives from the root as the name for the state of Kansas. The Kansa tribe of Native Americans are closely associated with the Sioux tribes of the Great Plains, the word Arkansas itself is a French pronunciation of a Quapaw word, akakaze, meaning land of downriver people or the Sioux word akakaze meaning people of the south wind. In 2007, the legislature passed a non-binding resolution declaring the possessive form of the states name to be Arkansass which has been followed increasingly by the state government. Arkansas borders Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, Oklahoma to the west, Missouri to the north, as well as Tennessee, the United States Census Bureau classifies Arkansas as a southern state, sub-categorized among the West South Central States. The state line along the Mississippi River is indeterminate along much of the border with Mississippi due to these changes. Arkansas can generally be split into two halves, the highlands in the northwest half and the lowlands of the southeastern half, the highlands are part of the Southern Interior Highlands, including The Ozarks and the Ouachita Mountains. The southern lowlands include the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Arkansas Delta and this dual split can yield to general regions named northwest, southwest, northeast, southeast, or central Arkansas
Arkansas
–
View from the
Ozark Highlands Scenic Byway in
Boxley Valley
Arkansas
Arkansas
–
The Ozarks: bend in the Buffalo River from an overlook on the Buffalo River Trail near Steel Creek
Arkansas
–
The flat terrain and rich soils of the Arkansas Delta near
Arkansas City are in stark contrast to the northwestern part of the state.
8.
Chicago
–
Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
Chicago
–
Clockwise from top:
Downtown Chicago, the
Chicago Theatre, the
'L',
Navy Pier,
Millennium Park, the
Field Museum, and the
Willis Tower.
Chicago
–
Traditional
Potawatomi costume on display at the
Field Museum
Chicago
–
A 1903 painting of Chicago in 1833
Chicago
–
An artist's rendering of the
Great Chicago Fire of 1871
9.
John Mills Van Osdel
–
John Mills Van Osdel was an American architect who is considered the first Chicago architect. He is considered a peer of the most prominent architects in the history of Chicago and he has also done significant work throughout Illinois and the Midwest, although much of it no longer exists. John M. Van Osdel was born in Baltimore, Maryland on July 31,1811, during Johns teenage years, James was temporarily paralyzed in an accident and the family thereafter struggled through poverty. To help the family, John began to work as a carpenter himself and he moved to New York, New York to work with his father once recovery was complete. In the city, Van Osdel found the Apprentices Library, a catalogue of books related to carpentry and he returned to Baltimore in 1829 to work. The next year, Van Osdel began a school for prospective draftsmen. In 1836, after relocation to New York, Van Osdel met New York State Assemblyman William B. When Ogden moved west to Chicago, Illinois, he requested that Van Osdel follow him, after its completion, Van Osdel became engaged in steamboat construction, building the James Allen and George W. Dole. After construction began on the Illinois and Michigan Canal, Van Osdel built several water pumps and he returned to New York in 1840 to tend to his sick wife and to work as an associate editor for Rufus Porters American Mechanic. The next year, after Van Osdel fell ill, he returned to Chicago, Van Osdel built some of the citys first grain elevators upon his return. In 1843, he co-founded an iron foundry and machine factory with Elihu Granger, with his health continuing to fail, he left the partnership two years later to focus on his architecture. Van Osdel opened an office on Clark Street, the first architectural office in Chicago, during his time there he designed the Cook County Courthouse, the Chicago City Hall, and the Tremont House. He also designed a house for Governor Joel Aldrich Matteson which later saw use as the Illinois Executive Mansion, by 1859, Van Osdel was making over $32,000 in profit per year. Van Osdel married Caroline Gailer in 1832, after her death, he married Martha McClellan. Van Osdel had no children, although he did adopt a few. He was named a trustee of the Illinois Industrial University, now known as the University of Illinois. As a member of its Committee on Buildings and Grounds, he was instrumental in the founding of a university in Chicago. Upon completion of the branch, he was named its Treasurer, politically, Van Osdel was active in the abolition movement
John Mills Van Osdel
–
The
Old McHenry County Courthouse, a
National Register of Historic Places listing in
Woodstock, Illinois
John Mills Van Osdel
–
Palmer House Hotel Ladies Entrance (1903-09-19)
John Mills Van Osdel
–
La Porte County, Indiana Second Court House c.1848
10.
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
–
The University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, also known as U of I, University of Illinois, UIUC, or simply Illinois, is a public research-intensive university in the U. S. state of Illinois. Founded in 1867 as a land-grant institution in the cities of Champaign and Urbana, it is the flagship campus of the University of Illinois system. In fiscal year 2015, total research expedentures at Illinois totaled $640 million, the campus library system possesses the second-largest university library in the United States after Harvard University. The university also hosts the National Center for Supercomputing Applications and is home to the fastest supercomputer on a university campus, the university comprises 17 colleges that offer more than 150 programs of study. Additionally, the university operates an extension that offers programs to more than 1.5 million registrants per year around the state of Illinois. The university holds 647 buildings on 4,552 acres and its operating budget in 2016 was over $2 billion. Even though Illinois is a university, only about 12% of the budget comes from the state. Between several cities, Urbana was selected in 1867 as the site for the new school, the University opened for classes on March 2,1868, and had two faculty members and 77 students. Gregory is largely credited with establishing the University as it is today, Gregorys grave is on the Urbana campus, between Altgeld Hall and the Henry Administration Building. His headstone reads, If you seek his monument, look about you, the Library, which opened with the school in 1868, started with 1,039 volumes. Subsequently, President Edmund J. James, in a speech to the Board of Trustees in 1912 and it is now one of the worlds largest public academic collections. In 1870, the Mumford House was constructed as a farmhouse for the schools experimental farm. The Mumford House remains the oldest structure on campus, the original University Hall was the fourth building built, it stood where the Illini Union stands today. During the Presidency of Edmund J. James, James is credited for building the foundation of the large Chinese international student population on campus, on June 11,1929, the Alma Mater statue was unveiled. The Alma Mater was established by donations by the Alumni Fund, the University replaced the original university hall with Gregory Hall and the Illini Union. After World War II, the university experienced rapid growth, the enrollment doubled and the academic standing improved. This period was marked by large growth in the Graduate College and increased federal support of scientific. During the 1950s and ’60s the university experienced the turmoil common on many American campuses, among these were the water fights of the fifties and sixties
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
–
The original University Hall, which stood until 1938, when it when it was replaced by Gregory hall and the
Illini Union. Pieces were used in the erection of Hallene Gateway dedicated in 1998
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
–
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
–
John Milton Gregory, the university's first president
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
–
Statue on campus titled "
Alma Mater " by
Lorado Taft
11.
War Eagle Mill
–
War Eagle Mill is a working gristmill in Benton County, Arkansas. A mill has been located on the site as early as 1832, the mill currently operates as an undershot gristmill, and houses a store and restaurant. The mill is located approximately 10 miles east of the city of Rogers in War Eagle, Arkansas, sylvanus and Cathryn Blackburn moved to the War Eagle Valley in 1832 and built a mill next to War Eagle Creek. In 1848 a flood pushed the mill into the river, washing it downstream, the Blackburns rebuilt the mill and expanded it to include a sawmill. Business prospered as the population increased. After 1860, with the Civil War, northwest Arkansas residents were caught between strongly Confederate Arkansans to the south and Union-supporting Missourians just a few miles north. The Blackburns five sons enlisted in the Confederate Army, while the Blackburns took the rest of their family to Texas, in 1862, the Union Army moved into northern Arkansas and the War Eagle Valley, and used the mill to grind grain. As the Confederate Army advanced into the area, the Union Army concentrated near Pea Ridge, Confederate soldiers used the mill for two days, but burned it down to prevent it being used again by the Union. After the Battle of Pea Ridge, the country was laid waste by the retreating Confederates. Many residents abandoned their homesteads and fled, after the war ended in 1865, the Blackburn family returned to find only their house still standing. Sylvanus son, James Austin Cameron Blackburn, reconstructed the mill again by 1873, J. A. C. decided to expand mill production by adding a more powerful grinding machine run by a turbine engine instead of a water wheel. Their sawmill, reportedly the largest in Arkansas, led J. A. C. to become known as the Lumber King of northwest Arkansas, Lumber cut at the War Eagle sawmill was used to build much of Fayetteville, Arkansas—including Old Main on the University of Arkansas campus. After winning a seat in the Arkansas Senate, J. A. C. sold the mill to the Kilgore family who operated it until 1924 when the mill burned down and this fire left only the foundation and remnants of the building. In 1973, Jewel Medlin purchased the property and his wife Leta and daughter Zoe Medlin Caywood found blueprints and rebuilt the mill for the third time. The design was modified slightly to bring back the water wheel that had been used over 100 years earlier. War Eagle Mill is the only working watermill in Arkansas, and is powered by an eighteen-foot cypress water wheel and they mill and sell organic grain, cereal and flour products commercially on site. War Eagle Bridge List of historic gristmills War Eagle Mill Explore Southern History - War Eagle Mill and Bridge - Northwest Arkansas Mill Pictures - War Eagle Mill
War Eagle Mill
–
War Eagle Mill as reconstructed in 1973.
War Eagle Mill
–
1860 photo of the second mill, with sawmill addition
12.
Benton County, Arkansas
–
Benton County is a county located in the U. S. state of Arkansas. As of the 2010 census, the population was 221,339, the county was formed on 30 September 1836 and was named after Thomas Hart Benton, a U. S. In 2012, Benton County voters elected to make the county wet, Benton County is part of the Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers, AR-MO Metropolitan Statistical Area. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 884 square miles. Most of the water is in Beaver Lake, the population density was 181 people per square mile. There were 64,281 housing units at a density of 76 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 90. 87% White,0. 41% Black or African American,1. 65% Native American,1. 09% Asian,0. 08% Pacific Islander,4. 08% from other races, and 1. 82% from two or more races. 8. 78% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race, as of 2005 Benton Countys population was 81. 7% non-Hispanic white, while the percentage of Latinos grew by 60 percent in the time period. Latinos are attracted to the growth of industrial jobs, home construction. 1. 1% of the population was African-American,1. 6% was Native American,1. 7% was Asian and 0. 2% of the population was Pacific Islander,1. 6% reported two or more races, usually not black-white due to a minuscule African-American population. And 12. 8% was Latino, but the United States Hispanic Chamber of Commerce believed the official estimate is underreported,21. 10% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.60 and the family size was 3.01. In the county, the population was out with 26. 60% under the age of 18,8. 60% from 18 to 24,29. 40% from 25 to 44,21. 10% from 45 to 64. The median age was 35 years, for every 100 females there were 97.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.90 males, the median income for a household in the county was $40,281, and the median income for a family was $45,235. Males had an income of $30,327 versus $22,469 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,377, about 7. 30% of families and 10. 10% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13. 80% of those under age 18 and 7. 30% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 census, the county population was 221,339, the racial makeup of the county was 76. 18% Non-Hispanic white,1. 27% Black or African American,1. 69% Native American,2. 85% Asian,0. 30% Pacific Islander
Benton County, Arkansas
–
Benton County Courthouse, July 2011
Benton County, Arkansas
–
Townships in Benton County, Arkansas as of 2010
13.
Brick
–
A brick is building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Traditionally, the term referred to a unit composed of clay. A brick can be composed of clay-bearing soil, sand, and lime, Bricks are produced in numerous classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary with region and time period, and are produced in bulk quantities. Two basic categories of bricks are fired and non-fired bricks, block is a similar term referring to a rectangular building unit composed of similar materials, but is usually larger than a brick. Lightweight bricks are made from expanded clay aggregate, fired bricks are one of the longest-lasting and strongest building materials, sometimes referred to as artificial stone, and have been used since circa 5000 BC. Air-dried bricks, also known as mudbricks, have an older than fired bricks. Bricks are laid in courses and numerous patterns known as bonds, collectively known as brickwork, the earliest bricks were dried brick, meaning that they were formed from clay-bearing earth or mud and dried until they were strong enough for use. The oldest discovered bricks, originally made from shaped mud and dating before 7500 BC, were found at Tell Aswad, in the upper Tigris region, ceramic, or fired brick was used as early as 3000 BC in early Indus Valley cities. In pre-modern China, bricks were being used from the 2nd millennium BCE at a site near Xian, the carpenters manual Yingzao Fashi, published in 1103 at the time of the Song dynasty described the brick making process and glazing techniques then in use. He also had to know when to quench the kiln with water so as to produce the surface glaze, Early civilisations around the Mediterranean adopted the use of fired bricks, including the Ancient Greeks and Romans. The Roman legions operated mobile kilns, and built large brick structures throughout the Roman Empire, during the Early Middle Ages the use of bricks in construction became popular in Northern Europe, after being introduced there from Northern-Western Italy. An independent style of architecture, known as brick Gothic flourished in places that lacked indigenous sources of rocks. Examples of this style can be found in modern-day Denmark, Germany, Poland. A clear distinction between the two styles developed at the transition to Baroque architecture. In Lübeck, for example, Brick Renaissance is clearly recognisable in buildings equipped with terracotta reliefs by the artist Statius von Düren, production of bricks increased massively with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the rise in factory building in England. For reasons of speed and economy, bricks were increasingly preferred as building material to stone and it was at this time in London, that bright red brick was chosen for construction to make the buildings more visible in the heavy fog and to help prevent traffic accidents. The transition from the method of production known as hand-moulding to a mechanised form of mass-production slowly took place during the first half of the nineteenth century. His mechanical apparatus soon achieved widespread attention after it was adopted for use by the South Eastern Railway Company for brick-making at their factory near Folkestone, the Bradley & Craven Ltd ‘Stiff-Plastic Brickmaking Machine’ was patented in 1853, apparently predating Clayton
Brick
–
A wall constructed in glazed-headed
Flemish bond with bricks of various shades and lengths
Brick
–
A pallet of bricks stacked without mortar
Brick
–
Raw Indian brick
Brick
–
An old brick wall in
English bond laid with alternating courses of headers and stretchers
14.
Kiln
–
A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber, a type of oven, that produces temperatures sufficient to complete some process, such as hardening, drying, or chemical changes. Kilns have been used for millennia to turn objects made from clay into pottery, tiles, various industries use rotary kilns for pyroprocessing—to calcinate ores, to calcinate limestone to lime for cement, and to transform many other materials. The word kiln descends from the Old English cylene (/ˈkylene/, which was adapted from the Latin culīna kitchen, cooking-stove, burning-place. During the Middle English Period, the n was not pronounced, as evidenced by kiln having frequently been spelled without the n, Another word, miln, a place where wheat is ground, also had a silent n. Whereas the spelling of miln was changed to mill to match its pronunciation, kiln maintained its spelling, which most likely led to a common mispronunciation, however, there are small bastions where the original pronunciation has endured. Kiln, Mississippi, a town known for its wood drying kilns that once served the timber industry, is still referred to as the Kill by locals. Unwittingly adding the n sound at the end of kiln is due to people being introduced to the word through the language before ever hearing the actual pronunciation. Phonetically, the ln in kiln is categorized as a digraph, from English Words as Spoken and Written for Upper Grades by James A. Bowen 1900, The digraph ln, n silent, occurs in kiln. A fall down the kiln can kill you, Bowen was pointing out the humorous fact that kill and kiln are homophones. A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning, the earliest known kiln dates to around 6000 BC, and was found at the Yarim Tepe site in modern Iraq. Neolithic kilns were able to produce greater than 900 °C. Ceramics require heat at high temperatures so chemical and physical reactions will occur to permanently alter the unfired body, in the case of pottery, clay materials are shaped, dried and then fired in a kiln. The final characteristics are determined by the composition and preparation of the clay body, after a first firing glazes may be used and the ware is fired a second time to fuse the glaze into the body. A third firing at a lower temperature may be required to fix overglaze decoration, modern kilns often have sophisticated electrical control systems to firing regime, although pyrometric devices are often also used. Clay consists of fine-grained particles, that are weak and porous. Clay is combined with other minerals to create a clay body. Part of the process includes sintering. This heats the clay until the particles partially melt and flow together, creating a strong, single mass, composed of a glassy phase interspersed with pores, through firing, the pores are reduced in size, causing the material to shrink slightly
Kiln
–
Charcoal kilns, California
Kiln
–
Indian brick kiln
Kiln
–
Anagama kiln firing.
Kiln
–
Farnham Pottery,
Wrecclesham,
Surrey with the preserved:bottle kiln: on the right of photo
15.
Sandstone
–
Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains. Most sandstone is composed of quartz or feldspar because these are the most common minerals in the Earths crust, like sand, sandstone may be any color, but the most common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, grey, pink, white, and black. Since sandstone beds often form highly visible cliffs and other topographic features, quartz-bearing sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure, usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts. They are formed from cemented grains that may either be fragments of a rock or be mono-minerallic crystals. The cements binding these grains together are typically calcite, clays, grain sizes in sands are defined within the range of 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. The formation of sandstone involves two principal stages, first, a layer or layers of sand accumulates as the result of sedimentation, either from water or from air. Typically, sedimentation occurs by the settling out from suspension. The most common cementing materials are silica and calcium carbonate, which are derived either from dissolution or from alteration of the sand after it was buried. Colours will usually be tan or yellow, a predominant additional colourant in the southwestern United States is iron oxide, which imparts reddish tints ranging from pink to dark red, with additional manganese imparting a purplish hue. Red sandstones are seen in the Southwest and West of Britain, as well as central Europe. The regularity of the latter favours use as a source for masonry, either as a building material or as a facing stone. These physical properties allow the grains to survive multiple recycling events. Quartz grains evolve from rock, which are felsic in origin. Feldspathic framework grains are commonly the second most abundant mineral in sandstones, Feldspar can be divided into two smaller subdivisions, alkali feldspars and plagioclase feldspars. The different types of feldspar can be distinguished under a petrographic microscope, below is a description of the different types of feldspar. Alkali feldspar is a group of minerals in which the composition of the mineral can range from KAlSi3O8 to NaAlSi3O8. Plagioclase feldspar is a group of solid solution minerals that range in composition from NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8. Lithic framework grains are pieces of ancient source rock that have yet to weather away to individual mineral grains, accessory minerals are all other mineral grains in a sandstone, commonly these minerals make up just a small percentage of the grains in a sandstone
Sandstone
–
Cut slab of sandstone showing
Liesegang banding
Sandstone
–
Devonian Sandstone at Suur Taevaskoda,
Põlva County,
Estonia
Sandstone
–
Alcove in the
Navajo Sandstone
Sandstone
–
Sandstone Rock-cut tombs (
Kokhim) in
Petra,
Jordan
16.
Corinthian order
–
The Corinthian order is the last developed of the three principal classical orders of ancient Greek and Roman architecture. The other two are the Doric order which was the earliest, followed by the Ionic order, when classical architecture was revived during the Renaissance, two more orders were added to the canon, the Tuscan order and the Composite order. The Corinthian, with its offshoot the Composite, is the most ornate of the orders, characterized by slender fluted columns and elaborate capitals decorated with acanthus leaves and it was employed in southern Gaul at the Maison Carrée, Nîmes and at the comparable podium temple at Vienne. Other prime examples noted by Mark Wilson Jones are the order of the Basilica Ulpia and the arch at Ancona the column of Phocas. The Corinthian order is named for the Greek city-state of Corinth, however, according to the architectural historian Vitruvius, the column was created by the sculptor Callimachus, probably an Athenian, who drew acanthus leaves growing around a votive basket. Its earliest use can be traced back to the Late Classical Period, the earliest Corinthian capital was found in Bassae, dated at 427 BC. In its proportions, the Corinthian column is similar to the Ionic column, though it is more slender, the abacus upon the capital has concave sides to conform to the outscrolling corners of the capital, and it may have a rosette at the center of each side. Corinthian columns were erected on the top level of the Roman Colosseum, holding up the least weight and their height to width ratio is about 10,1. One variant is the Tivoli Order, found at the Temple of Vesta, the Tivoli Orders Corintinan Capital has two rows of Acanthus and its abacus is decorated with oversize fleuron in the form of hibiscus flowers with pronounced spiral pistils. The column flutes have flat tops, the frieze exhibits fruit swag suspended between bucrania. Above each swag is a rosette, the cornice does not have modillions. Indo-Corinthian capitals are capitals crowning columns or pilasters, which can be found in the northwestern Indian subcontinent and these capitals are typically dated to the 1st centuries of our era, and constitute important elements of Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara. The classical design was adapted, usually taking a more elongated form. Indo-Corinthian capitals also incorporated figures of the Buddha or Bodhisattvas, usually as central figures surrounded, the Corinthian architrave is divided in two or three sections, which may be equal, or they may bear interesting proportional relationships, one with another. Above the plain, unadorned architrave lies the frieze, which may be carved with a continuous design or left plain. At the Capitol the proportions of architrave to frieze are exactly 1,1, above that, the profiles of the cornice moldings are like those of the Ionic order. If the cornice is deep, it may be supported by brackets or modillions. The Corinthian column is almost always fluted, if it is not, it is often worth pausing to unravel the reason why
Corinthian order
–
The
Pantheon provided a prominent model for Renaissance and later architects, through the medium of
engravings
Corinthian order
–
Corinthian columns in
Jerash, Jordan
Corinthian order
–
Figure of the Buddha, within a Corinthian capital,
Gandhara, 3–4th century,
Musee Guimet.
Corinthian order
–
Vincenzo Scamozzi offers his version of the Corinthian capital, in a portrait by
Veronese (Denver Art Museum)
17.
Iron
–
Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series and it is by mass the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earths outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earths crust, like the other group 8 elements, ruthenium and osmium, iron exists in a wide range of oxidation states, −2 to +6, although +2 and +3 are the most common. Elemental iron occurs in meteoroids and other low oxygen environments, but is reactive to oxygen, fresh iron surfaces appear lustrous silvery-gray, but oxidize in normal air to give hydrated iron oxides, commonly known as rust. Unlike the metals that form passivating oxide layers, iron oxides occupy more volume than the metal and thus flake off, Iron metal has been used since ancient times, although copper alloys, which have lower melting temperatures, were used even earlier in human history. Pure iron is soft, but is unobtainable by smelting because it is significantly hardened and strengthened by impurities, in particular carbon. A certain proportion of carbon steel, which may be up to 1000 times harder than pure iron. Crude iron metal is produced in blast furnaces, where ore is reduced by coke to pig iron, further refinement with oxygen reduces the carbon content to the correct proportion to make steel. Steels and iron alloys formed with metals are by far the most common industrial metals because they have a great range of desirable properties. Iron chemical compounds have many uses, Iron oxide mixed with aluminium powder can be ignited to create a thermite reaction, used in welding and purifying ores. Iron forms binary compounds with the halogens and the chalcogens, among its organometallic compounds is ferrocene, the first sandwich compound discovered. Iron plays an important role in biology, forming complexes with oxygen in hemoglobin and myoglobin. Iron is also the metal at the site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants. A human male of average height has about 4 grams of iron in his body and this iron is distributed throughout the body in hemoglobin, tissues, muscles, bone marrow, blood proteins, enzymes, ferritin, hemosiderin, and transport in plasma. The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys can be evaluated using a variety of tests, including the Brinell test, Rockwell test, the data on iron is so consistent that it is often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests. An increase in the content will cause a significant increase in the hardness. Maximum hardness of 65 Rc is achieved with a 0. 6% carbon content, because of the softness of iron, it is much easier to work with than its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium. Because of its significance for planetary cores, the properties of iron at high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively
Iron
–
Iron, 26 Fe
Iron
–
Spectral lines of iron
Iron
–
Iron meteorites, similar in composition to the Earth's inner- and outer core
Iron
–
Hydrated
iron(III) chloride, also known as ferric chloride
18.
J. William Fulbright College of Arts and Sciences
–
The J. William Fulbright College of Arts and Sciences is the University of Arkansas college for students with interest in the liberal arts. It is named for former University President and United States Senator J. William Fulbright, the College has 19 different academic departments. Fulbright Colleges Creative Writing and Translation programs rank among the top in the nation, in 2012, Fulbright College awarded the most undergraduate degrees of the eight colleges at the University of Arkansas. William Fulbright College of Arts and Sciences-Annual Report, shields Appointed Dean Welcome to Fulbright College,2015
J. William Fulbright College of Arts and Sciences
–
Vol Walker Hall viewed from
Old Main
J. William Fulbright College of Arts and Sciences
–
J. William Fulbright College of Arts and Sciences
J. William Fulbright College of Arts and Sciences
–
Schools and Colleges
J. William Fulbright College of Arts and Sciences
19.
Cornerstone
–
The rite of laying a cornerstone is an important cultural component of eastern architecture and metaphorically in sacred architecture generally. Some cornerstones include time capsules from, or engravings commemorating, the time a building was built. Often, the ceremony involved the placing of offerings of grain, wine and these were symbolic of the produce and the people of the land and the means of their subsistence. This in turn derived from the practice in more ancient times of making an animal or human sacrifice that was laid in the foundations. The object of the sacrifice is to give strength and stability to the building and it is believed that the man will die within the year. Not long ago there were still shadow-traders whose business it was to provide architects with the necessary for securing their walls. In these cases the measure of the shadow is looked on as equivalent to the shadow itself, and to bury it is to bury the life or soul of the man, who, deprived of it, must die. Ancient Japan legends talk about Hitobashira, in which maidens were buried alive at the base or near some constructions as a prayer to ensure the buildings against disasters or enemy attacks and this person is usually asked to place their hand on the stone or otherwise signify its laying. Often still, and certainly until the 1970s, most ceremonies involved the use of a manufactured and engraved trowel that had a formal use in laying mortar under the stone. Similarly, a hammer was often used to ceremonially tap the stone into place. Freemasons sometimes perform the public cornerstone laying ceremony for notable buildings and this ceremony was described by The Cork Examiner of 13 January 1865 as follows. After this, Bishop Gregg spread cement over the stone with a specially made for the occasion by John Hawkesworth, a silversmith. He then gave the stone three knocks with a mallet and declared the stone to be duly and truly laid, the Deputy Provincial Grand Master of Munster poured offerings of corn, oil and wine over the stone after Bishop Gregg had declared it to be duly and truly laid. The Provincial Grand Chaplain of the Masonic Order in Munster then read out the prayer, May the Great Architect of the universe enable us as successfully to carry out. The choir and congregation sang the Hundredth Psalm. In Freemasonry, which grew from the practice of stonemasons, the initiate is placed in the north-east corner of the Lodge as a foundation stone. This is intended to signify the unity of the North associated with darkness, a cornerstone will sometimes be referred to as a foundation-stone, and is symbolic of Christ, whom the Apostle Paul referred to as the head of the corner and is the Chief Cornerstone of the Church. Many of the ancient churches will place relics of the saints, especially martyrs
Cornerstone
–
A cornerstone with bronze relief images
Cornerstone
–
The 1925 cornerstone ceremony of the
Washington, D.C. Jewish Community Center
Cornerstone
–
Ceremonial masonry stone of the
Los Angeles Central Library building, laid in 1925
Cornerstone
–
Cornerstone of the
Cathedral of Saint Paul in Macau (1602).
20.
Dollar sign
–
The dollar sign is a symbol primarily used to indicate the various units of currency around the world. The symbol can interchangeably have one or two vertical strokes, note that the two-stroked version is not the same symbol as the cifrão. In common usage, the sign appears to the left of the amount specified, the best documented explanation holds that the sign evolved out of the Spanish and Spanish American scribal abbreviation pˢ for pesos. A study of late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century manuscripts shows that the s gradually came to be written over the p, a variation, though less plausible, of this hypothesis derives the sign from a combination of the Greek character psi and S. There are a number of hypotheses about the origin of the symbol, some with a measure of academic acceptance. Kingdom of Sicily Denaro minted in the Kingdom in Sicily at least by 1258–1266 had what could be construed as a dollar symbol. These coins were widely circulated due to the Crusades – and specifically the Crusade that targeted Tunis, several alternative hypotheses relate specifically to the dollar sign drawn with two vertical lines. A common hypothesis holds that the sign derives from the Spanish coat of arms, in 1492, Ferdinand II of Aragon adopted the symbol of the Pillars of Hercules and added the Latin warning Non plus ultra meaning nothing further beyond, indicating this is the end of the world. But when Christopher Columbus came to America, the legend was changed to Plus ultra, the Pillars of Hercules wrapped in a banner thus became a symbol of the New World. In this example the right-hand pillar clearly resembles the dollar sign, the symbol was adopted by Charles V and was part of his coat of arms representing Spains American possessions. The symbol was later stamped on coins minted in gold and silver, the coin, also known as Spanish dollar, was the first global currency used in the entire world since the Spanish Empire was the first global Empire. These coins, depicting the pillars over two hemispheres and a small S-shaped ribbon around each, were spread throughout America, Europe and Asia. According to this, traders wrote signs that, instead of saying Spanish dollar, had this made by hand. When the US got independence from the UK, they created the American dollar, a dollar sign with two vertical lines could have started off as a monogram of USA, used on money bags issued by the United States Mint. The letters U and S superimposed resemble the historical double-stroke dollar sign, robert Morris was such a zealous patriot – known as the Financier of the Revolution in the West – that conjecture does not overstep its bounds in purporting this hypothesis as viable. A similar idea claims that the letters U and S would stand for unit of silver, referencing pieces of eight again, another hypothesis is that it derives from the symbol used on a German Thaler. This refers to the Bible, Numbers, Chapter 21, a similar symbol, constructed by superposition of S and I or J, was used to denote German Joachimsthaler. It was known in the English-speaking world by the 17th century, robert Morris was the first to use that symbol in official documents and in official communications with Oliver Pollock
Dollar sign
–
Image of a 1768 Spanish Colonial Real silver coin, showing the PTSI mint mark in the lower right and left quadrants and the
Pillars of Hercules surrounding a picture of the world.
Dollar sign
–
Evolution of the dollar sign according to the best documented hypothesis (top) and one alternative hypothesis (bottom)
Dollar sign
–
The plaque in St. Andrews.
21.
Stairwell
–
A stairway, staircase, stairwell, flight of stairs, or simply stairs is a construction designed to bridge a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. Stairs may be straight, round, or may consist of two or more straight pieces connected at angles, special types of stairs include escalators and ladders. Some alternatives to stairs are elevators, stairlifts and inclined moving walkways as well as stationary inclined sidewalks, a stair, or a stairstep is one step in a flight of stairs. In buildings, stairs is a term applied to a flight of steps between two floors. A stair flight is a run of stairs or steps between landings, a staircase or stairway is one or more flights of stairs leading from one floor to another, and includes landings, newel posts, handrails, balustrades and additional parts. A stairwell is a compartment extending vertically through a building in which stairs are placed. A stair hall is the stairs, landings, hallways, or other portions of the hall through which it is necessary to pass when going from the entrance floor to the other floors of a building. Box stairs are stairs built between walls, usually with no support except the wall strings, Stairs may be in a straight run, leading from one floor to another without a turn or change in direction. Stairs may change direction, commonly by two flights connected at a 90 degree angle landing. Stairs may also return onto themselves with 180 degree angle landings at each end of straight flights forming a vertical stairway commonly used in multistory, many variations of geometrical stairs may be formed of circular, elliptical and irregular constructions. Stairs may be a component of egress from structures and buildings. Stairs are also provided for convenience to access floors, roofs, levels, Stairs may also be a fanciful physical construct such as the stairs that go nowhere located at the Winchester Mystery House. Stairs are also a used in art to represent real or imaginary places built around impossible objects using geometric distortion. Stairway is also a metaphor for achievement or loss of a position in the society. Each step is composed of tread and riser, tread The part of the stairway that is stepped on. It is constructed to the specifications as any other flooring. The tread depth is measured from the edge of the step to the vertical riser between steps. The width is measured from one side to the other, riser The vertical portion between each tread on the stair
Stairwell
–
Stairway of the
Opéra Garnier (
Paris,
France)
Stairwell
–
Stairways in
Persepolis, Iran, built ca. 550 B.C.
Stairwell
–
A straight stairway with tiled treads, a double railing and two landings in the "Porta Garibaldi" station,
Milan
Stairwell
–
The simplest form of staircase, down to
Man o'War Cove,
Dorset,
England
22.
Campus of the University of Arkansas
–
There are many buildings on the University of Arkansas campus. Most of the structures are part of the University of Arkansas Campus Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places. This article focuses on the non-listed buildings, David W. Mullins Library is located in the center of campus. It is the third largest library in the state of Arkansas next to the Clinton Presidential Library and it contains 4 floors of information in almost every kind of modern medium. This includes several special archives related to Arkansas history and it is also one of the newer buildings on campus. It is named after David Wiley Mullins, who was the president of the university from 1960 to 1974, the Arkansas Union, is at the center of campus and student life. 3FM, and several other small stores and offices. The entire building has wireless access and a student technology center that loans laptops out to students. This building serves as the home for the department and contains faculty studios, music classrooms, rehearsal and practice spaces. It was constructed in 1976 as an addition to the Fine Arts Building which was designed by Edward Durell Stone in 1950, Ferritor Hall is the current home of 31 research laboratories and nine environmental rooms supporting the study of biological, chemistry and biochemistry. Construction began in 1997 and the facility opened in August 2000, the official dedication ceremony was held March 2,2001. The building is dedicated to Daniel E. Ferritor, sociology professor and Chancellor Emeritus of the University of Arkansas, bell Engineering Center was built in 1987 when the university outgrew Engineering Hall. Donald W. Reynolds Stadium is the home field of the Arkansas Razorbacks football team. The actual field of play is officially named Frank Broyles Field, the stadium has an approximate seating capacity of 76,000. It featured the Jerry Jones/Jim Lindsey Hall of Champions, a museum to University of Arkansas sports, the Bev Lewis Center for Womens Athletics was partially funded with a gift from Bob and Marilyn Bogle, and named for the University’s longtime coach and Women’s AD Bev Lewis. The facility was opened in 2003, Bud Walton Arena is the home of the Arkansas Razorbacks and LadyBacks basketball teams. It is located in the far west of the campus, the arena seats 19,368 patrons, making it the fifth-largest on-campus arena in college basketball. It is named for James Bud Walton, co-founder of Wal-Mart, the 1993-94 Arkansas Razorbacks mens basketball team won the national championship in the arenas first year. The 7-foot-3 statue faces the Fulbright Peace Fountain and was dedicated in 2002, the Fulbright Peace Fountain is located between Vol Walker Hall and Old Main
Campus of the University of Arkansas
–
Graduate Education Building
Campus of the University of Arkansas
–
JB Hunt Center for Academic Excellence, November 2012
Campus of the University of Arkansas
–
David W. Mullins Library
Campus of the University of Arkansas
–
East Entrance to Mullins
23.
Vol Walker Hall
–
Vol Walker Hall is a building on the University of Arkansas campus in Fayetteville, Arkansas. It contains the Fay Jones School of Architecture, the structure was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1992. The University of Arkansas Board of Trustees changed the name to honor James Volney Vol Walker in the spring of 1934. An 1877 University of Arkansas alumnus, respected lawyer, and member of the Arkansas legislature, Vol Walker Hall was born when University President John C. Futrall decided to utilized Public Works Administration funds available to the University of Arkansas to build a new library, planning for the new library began in March 1931. A similar library at the University of Rochester was used as a blueprint, the hall contained the University library from 1935 until 1968, when it was supplanted by Mullins Library. It was at time that the name was changed to Vol Walker Hall. A three-year renovation and expansion of Walker Hall was completed in 2014, the design center added 37,000 square feet of studio, faculty, and classroom space and allows the Fay Jones School of Architecture to be entirely housed under one roof for the first time. National Register of Historic Places listings in Washington County, Arkansas University of Arkansas
Vol Walker Hall
–
Vol Walker Library-University of Arkansas, Fayetteville
Vol Walker Hall
–
Steven L. Anderson Design Center
Vol Walker Hall
–
Schools and Colleges
Vol Walker Hall
24.
Arboretum
–
An arboretum in a narrow sense is a collection of trees only. Related collections include a fruticetum, and a viticetum, a collection of vines, more commonly, today, an arboretum is a botanical garden containing living collections of woody plants intended at least partly for scientific study. An arboretum specializing in growing conifers is known as a pinetum, other specialist arboreta include saliceta, populeta, and querceta. The term arboretum was first used in an English publication by John Claudius Loudon in 1833 in The Gardeners Magazine, egyptian Pharaohs planted exotic trees and cared for them, they brought ebony wood from the Sudan, and pine and cedar from Syria. It is reported that Hatshepsut had these trees planted in the courts of her Deir el Bahri mortuary temple complex, Arboreta are special places for the cultivation and display of a wide variety of different kinds of trees and shrubs. Many tree collections have been claimed as the first arboretum, in most cases, however, Arboreta differ from pieces of woodland or plantations because they are botanically significant collections with a variety of examples rather than just a few kinds. Of course there are many tree collections that are older than the eighteenth century in different parts of the world. Loudons Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum,8 vols, Loudon urged that a national arboretum be created and called for arboreta and other systematic collections to be established in public parks, private gardens, country estates and other places. He regarded the Derby Arboretum as the most important landscape-gardening commission of the part of his career because it demonstrated the benefits of a public arboretum. The more lofty trees suffered from the high winds. We walked round the two spirals of this coil of trees and shrubs, viz. from Acer to Quercus. There is no garden scene about London so interesting, a plan of Loddiges arboretum was included in The Encyclopaedia of Gardening,1834 edition. One example of an early European tree collection is the Trsteno Arboretum, the date of its founding is unknown, but it was already in existence by 1492, when a 15 m span aqueduct to irrigate the arboretum was constructed, this aqueduct is still in use. The garden was created by the prominent local Gučetić/Gozze family and it suffered two major disasters in the 1990s but its two unique and ancient Oriental Planes remained standing. Udhagamandalam Arboretum, The Nilgiris, India The arboretum at Ooty was established in 1992 with an aim of conserving native and indigenous trees and it was established during the year 1992 and maintained by Department of Horticulture with Hill Area Development Programme funds. The area is the natural habitats of indigenous and migratory birds. During the year 2005-2006, it was rehabilated with funds provided by the Hill Area Development Programme by providing permanent fencing, a foot path, and other infrastructure facilities. The arboretum is the realization of the dream of William Douglas Cook, the arboretum is now the National Arboretum of New Zealand, and holds some 4,000 different trees, shrubs and climbers
Arboretum
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Autumn colours at
Westonbirt Arboretum,
Gloucestershire, England
Arboretum
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Neptune's fountain at
Trsteno Arboretum
Arboretum
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Looking South-South-East at the Event Pavilion from the
Chinese Tulip Tree plantings at The
National Arboretum Canberra.
Arboretum
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During part of the 18th century,
Abney Park Cemetery was the largest arboretum in
Europe.
25.
J. William Fulbright
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James William Fulbright was a United States Senator representing Arkansas from January 1945 until his resignation in December 1974. He was also a segregationist who signed the Southern Manifesto, Fulbright opposed McCarthyism and the House Un-American Activities Committee and later became known for his opposition to American involvement in the Vietnam War. His efforts to establish an exchange program eventually resulted in the creation of a fellowship program which bears his name. Fulbright was born in Sumner, Missouri, the son of Roberta and he earned a history degree from the University of Arkansas in 1925, where he became a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity. He was elected president of the student body and a star player for the Razorback football team from 1921 to 1924. Fulbright later studied at Oxford University, where he was a Rhodes Scholar at Pembroke College, Fulbright was a lecturer in law at the University of Arkansas from 1936 until 1939. He was appointed president of the school in 1939, making him the youngest university president in the country and he held this post until 1941. The School of Arts and Sciences at the University of Arkansas is named in his honor and he was a member of the Founding Council of the Rothermere American Institute, University of Oxford. Fulbrights sister, Roberta, married Gilbert C, Swanson, the head of the Swanson frozen-foods conglomerate, and was the maternal grandmother of media figure Tucker Carlson. Fulbright was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1942, during this period, he became a member of the House Foreign Affairs Committee. The House adopted the Fulbright Resolution which supported international peace-keeping initiatives and this brought Fulbright to national attention. In 1943 a confidential analysis by Isaiah Berlin of the House and it continued, A young wealthy ex-Rhodes scholar, whose major experience so far has been of farming and business. He has already shown versatile competence and ability in business as special attorney in the Anti-Trust Division of the Justice Department and he was elected to the Senate in 1944, unseating incumbent Hattie Carraway, the first woman ever elected to the U. S. Senate. In his first general election to the Senate, Fulbright defeated the Republican Victor Wade of Batesville,85.1 to 14.9 percent. Benjamin Travis Laney, a more conservative Democrat than Fulbright, won the race for governor of Arkansas in the election by a similar margin,86 to 14 percent for Republican Harley C. Stump, the mayor of Stuttgart. The program was established to increase understanding between the peoples of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge. It is considered one of the most prestigious award programs and it operates in 155 countries, Fulbright became a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in 1949, and served as chairman from 1959 to 1974–he was the longest-serving chair in that committees history
J. William Fulbright
–
J. William Fulbright
J. William Fulbright
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An earlier portrait of Senator Fulbright.
J. William Fulbright
26.
Bill Clinton
–
William Jefferson Clinton is an American politician who served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Prior to the Presidency he was the 40th Governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981, before that, he served as Arkansas Attorney General from 1977 to 1979. A member of the Democratic Party, Clinton was ideogically a New Democrat, Clinton is married to Hillary Clinton, who served as United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013 and U. S. Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, and served the Democratic nominee for President in 2016, Bill Clinton and Hillary Rodham both earned degrees from Yale Law School, where they met and began dating. As Governor of Arkansas, Clinton overhauled the states education system, Clinton was elected President of the United States in 1992, defeating incumbent George H. W. Bush. At age 46, he was the third-youngest president and the first from the Baby Boomer generation, Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history and signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement. After failing to pass health care reform, the Democratic House was ousted when the Republican Party won control of the Congress in 1994. Two years later, in 1996, Clinton became the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected to a second term, Clinton passed welfare reform and the State Childrens Health Insurance Program, providing health coverage for millions of children. Clinton was acquitted by the U. S. Senate in 1999, the Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus between the years 1998 and 2000, the last three years of Clintons presidency. In foreign policy, Clinton ordered U. S. Clinton left office with the highest end-of-office approval rating of any U. S. President since World War II, since then, Clinton has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. He created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address international causes, such as the prevention of AIDS, in 2004, Clinton published his autobiography, My Life. In 2009, Clinton was named the United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti, since leaving office, Clinton has been rated highly in public opinion polls of U. S. Presidents. Clinton was born on August 19,1946, at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas and he was the son of William Jefferson Blythe Jr. a traveling salesman who had died in an automobile accident three months before his birth, and Virginia Dell Cassidy. His parents had married on September 4,1943, but this later proved to be bigamous. Soon after their son was born, his mother traveled to New Orleans to study nursing, leaving her son in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and ran a small grocery store. At a time when the Southern United States was segregated racially, in 1950, Bills mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr. who owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas, with his brother and Earl T. Ricks. The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950, although he immediately assumed use of his stepfathers surname, it was not until Clinton turned fifteen that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward his stepfather. In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. Johns Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and Hot Springs High School—where he was a student leader, avid reader
Bill Clinton
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Bill Clinton
Bill Clinton
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William Jefferson Blythe III, in 1950 at age four
Bill Clinton
–
Clinton's boyhood home in
Hope, Arkansas
Bill Clinton
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Clinton ran for President of the
Student Council while attending the School of Foreign Service at
Georgetown University.
27.
Church bell
–
A church bell in the Christian tradition is a bell which is rung in a church for a variety of church purposes, and can be heard outside the building. Traditionally they were used to call worshippers to the church for a communal service and they are also rung on special occasions such as a wedding, or a funeral service. In some religious traditions they are used within the liturgy of the service to signify to people that a particular part of the service has been reached. The ringing of bells, in the Christian tradition, is also believed to drive out demons. It is hung within a steeple or belltower of a church or religious building, such bells are either fixed in position or hung from a pivoted beam so they can swing to and fro. A rope hangs from a lever or wheel attached to the headstock, and when the bell ringer pulls on the rope the bell back and forth. Bells that are hung dead are normally sounded by hitting the bow with a hammer or occasionally by a rope which pulls the internal clapper against the bell. A church may have a bell, or a collection of bells which are tuned to a common scale. They may be stationary and chimed, rung randomly by swinging through a small arc, before modern communications, church bells were a common way to call the community together for all purposes, both sacred and secular. The injunction to pray the Lords prayer thrice daily was given in Didache 8,2 f, as such, the Catechism of the Catholic Church states that the Early Church prayed the Lords Prayer thrice a day, supplanting the former Amidah predominant in the Hebrew tradition. The Christian tradition of the ringing of bells from a belltower is analogous to the Islamic tradition of the adhan from a minaret. Most Christian denominations ring church bells to call the faithful to worship, in the United Kingdom predominantly in the Anglican church, there is a strong tradition of change ringing on full-circle tower bells for about half an hour before a service. This originated from the early 17th century when bell ringers found that swinging a bell through a large arc gave more control over the time between successive strikes of the clapper. This culminated in ringing bells through a circle, which let ringers easily produce different striking sequences. In Christianity, the ringing of bells is traditionally believed to drive out demons. The ringing of a bell to announce a death is called a death knell. A more modern tradition where there are full-circle bells is to use half-muffles when sounding one bell as a tolled bell, or all the bells in change-ringing. This means a leather muffle is placed on the clapper of each bell so that there is a loud open strike followed by a muffled strike, which has a very sonorous and mournful effect
Church bell
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The new bells of
Notre Dame de Paris on display in the nave in February 2013 before being hung in the towers of the cathedral.
Church bell
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Cutaway drawing of a church bell, showing construction.
Church bell
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The sacring ring or Gloria wheels used at the St. Jude Thaddeus Church in the former Spanish colony of the Philippines.
Church bell
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A set of bell hammers for the bell of the church at Kovač Hill in
Križ, Sevnica (Slovenia). The bell was decorated with a garland due to the solemn blessing of the church.
28.
Westminster Chimes
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The Westminster Quarters is the most common name for a clock chime melody used by a set of four bells to chime on each quarter-hour. The number of chime sets matches the number of hours that have passed. It is also known as the Westminster Chimes, or the Cambridge Quarters from its place of origin, the melody consists of four different permutations of four pitches in the key of E major plus one arrangement omitting B3 and repeating E4. The pitches are B3, E4, F♯4 and G♯4. The notes used are, g♯4, f♯4, e4, b3 e4, g♯4, f♯4, b3 e4, f♯4, g♯4, e4 g♯4, e4, f♯4, b3 b3, f♯4, g♯4, e4 played as three crotchets and a minim. These are always played in the order 1,2,3,4,5, in other words, the cycle of five, is played twice in the course of an hour. For a clock chiming mechanism, this has the advantage that the mechanism that trips the hammers need only store five sequences instead of ten, the mechanism then plays two complete sets of five sequences for each complete hour. In musical terms, the first and third quarters finish on the dominant, whilst the second and this produces the very satisfying musical effect that has contributed so much to the popularity of the chimes. Note that the pitch of the Big Ben clip is closer to F than E in modern concert pitch and this is why the chime is also played by the bells of the so-called Red Tower in Halle, the native town of Handel. It was written in 1793 for a new clock in St Mary the Great, in the mid-19th century the chime was adopted by the clock tower at the Palace of Westminster, whence its fame spread. It is now possibly the most commonly used chime for striking clocks, according to the church records of Trinity Episcopal Church, this chime sequence was incorporated into a tower clock mechanism by the E. Howard & Co. The clock and chime in Trinitys steeple base was dedicated in December 1875 and it holds the distinction of being the first tower clock in the United States to sound the Cambridge Quarters. The chime is also used in some doorbells and school bells, most of the schools in Japan, South Korea, China and Taiwan play the chimes to signal the end and beginning of periods. It is also used in Japan by some loudspeakers installed in areas as a time signal. Brisbane City Hall plays the chimes every 15 minutes, in Ottawa, the Peace Tower also signals the quarter hour using the Westminster Quarters. On the Japanese game show Panel Quiz Attack 25 on TV Asahi, in Indonesia, train stations play this sound as a sign of train departure and arrival. Upon arrival of a train, the chimes will be looped continuously until it departs from the station, the chimes are further adopted for many modern quartz chiming clocks. One example is Seiko Westminster-Whittington-St. Micheal lineup, each of New York City Subways rolling stock since the R44 model features the first two notes of the chimes as a warning to the passengers that the doors are closing
Westminster Chimes
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The Elizabeth Tower of the Palace of Westminster, the namesake of the chime
29.
Alma mater
–
Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
Alma mater
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The Alma Mater statue by
Mario Korbel, at the entrance of the
University of Havana in
Cuba.
Alma mater
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John Legate's Alma Mater for Cambridge in 1600
Alma mater
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Alma Mater (1929, Lorado Taft),
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
