1.
Ebenezer Howard
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The publication resulted in the founding of the garden city movement, and the building of the First Garden City, Letchworth Garden City, commenced in 1903. Howard aimed to reduce the alienation of humans and society from nature, Howard is believed by many to be one of the great guides to the town planning movement, with many of his garden city principles being used in modern town planning. Howard was born in Fore Street, City of London, the son of Ebenezer Howard, a baker and he was sent to schools in Suffolk and Hertfordshire. Howard left school at 15 and began working as a stenographer in London, Howard subsequently had several clerical jobs, including one with Dr Parker of the City Temple. In 1871, at the age of 21, influenced partly by a farming uncle and he went to Nebraska, and after his farming efforts failed, discovered he did not wish to be a farmer. He then relocated to Chicago and worked as a reporter for the courts, in the US he became acquainted with, and admired, poets Walt Whitman and Ralph Waldo Emerson. Howard began to ponder ways to improve the quality of life, by 1876 he was back in England, where he found a job with Hansard company, which produces the official verbatim record of Parliament, and he spent the rest of his life in this occupation. Howards time in parliament exposed him to ideas about social reform, in August 1879 he married Eliza Ann Bills. Howard has been described as a humble and practical inventor who used his time to create outlines of new cities. It was the milieu of the 1800s which led Howard to consider the social problems of the time. Howard mingled with free thinkers, anarchists and socialists, whose revolutionary, following the death of his wife Eliza Ann Bills in 1907 he married Edith Annie Hayward, who ended her days as Edith, Lady Howard, and with whom he is buried in Letchworth Cemetery. Howard read widely, including Edward Bellamys 1888 utopian novel, Looking Backward, and Henry Georges economic treatise, Progress and Poverty, and thought much about social issues. He disliked the way cities were being developed and thought people should live in places that should combine the best aspects of both cities and the countryside. The only publication he wrote in his life was titled To-Morrow, A Peaceful Path to Real Reform, Garden Cities of To-morrow was based on ideas of social and urban reform. This book offered a vision of free of slums and enjoying the benefits of both town and country. He illustrated the idea with his famous Three Magnets diagram, which addressed the question Where will the people go, the choices being Town, Country or Town-Country. Garden Cities of Tomorrow proposed that society be reorganised with networks of cities that would break the strong hold of capitalism. It proposed the creation of new towns of limited size, planned in advance
2.
Garden city movement
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The garden city movement is a method of urban planning that was initiated in 1898 by Sir Ebenezer Howard in the United Kingdom. Garden cities were intended to be planned, self-contained communities surrounded by greenbelts, containing areas of residences, industry. Inspired by the utopian novel Looking Backward and Henry Georges work Progress and Poverty, Howard published his book To-morrow, the garden city would be self-sufficient and when it reached full population, another garden city would be developed nearby. Howard envisaged a cluster of several cities as satellites of a central city of 58,000 people, linked by road. Howard’s To-morrow, A Peaceful Path to Real Reform sold enough copies to result in a second edition and this success provided him the support necessary to pursue the chance to bring his vision into reality. Howard believed that all agreed the overcrowding and deterioration of cities was one of the troubling issues of their time. He quotes a number of respected thinkers and their disdain of cities, Howard’s garden city concept combined the town and country in order to provide the working class an alternative to working on farms or ‘crowded, unhealthy cities’. To build a city, Howard needed money to buy land. He decided to get funding from gentlemen of responsible position and undoubted probity and he founded the Garden City Association, which created First Garden City, Ltd. in 1899 to create the garden city of Letchworth. However, these donors would collect interest on their investment if the city generated profits through rents or, as Fishman calls the process. Howard tried to include working class cooperative organisations, which included over two members, but could not win their financial support. In 1904, Raymond Unwin, an architect and town planner, along with his partner Barry Parker, won the competition run by First Garden City Ltd. to plan Letchworth. However, the architects ignored Howard’s symmetric design, instead replacing it with a more ‘organic’ design, Letchworth slowly attracted more residents because it was able to attract manufacturers through low taxes, low rents and more space. Despite Howard’s best efforts, the prices in this garden city could not remain affordable for blue-collar workers to live in. The populations comprised mostly skilled middle class workers, after a decade, the First Garden City became profitable and started paying dividends to its investors. Although many viewed Letchworth as a success, it did not immediately inspire government investment into the line of garden cities. Likely in frustration, Howard bought land at Welwyn to house the garden city in 1919. The purchase was at auction, with money Howard desperately and successfully borrowed from friends, the Welwyn Garden City Corporation was formed to oversee the construction
3.
Arts and Crafts movement
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It stood for traditional craftsmanship using simple forms, and often used medieval, romantic, or folk styles of decoration. It advocated economic and social reform and was essentially anti-industrial and it had a strong influence on the arts in Europe until it was displaced by Modernism in the 1930s, and its influence continued among craft makers, designers, and town planners long afterwards. It was inspired by the ideas of architect Augustus Pugin, writer John Ruskin, the movement developed earliest and most fully in the British Isles, and spread across the British Empire and to the rest of Europe and North America. It was largely a reaction against the perceived impoverished state of the arts at the time. The Arts and Crafts style emerged from the attempt to reform design, but it was as much a movement of social reform as design reform and its leading practitioners did not separate the two. The art historian Nikolaus Pevsner has said that exhibits in the Great Exhibition showed ignorance of basic need in creating patterns. Owen Jones, for example, declared that Ornament, fiona MacCarthy says that unlike later zealots like Gandhi, William Morris had no practical objections to the use of machinery per se so long as the machines produced the quality he needed. Morriss followers also had differing views or changed their minds over time. C. R. Ashbee, for example, a figure in the Arts and Crafts Movement. At the time of his Guild of Handicraft, initiated in 1888, he said, We do not reject the machine, but we would desire to see it mastered. Morris insisted that the artist should be a working by hand and advocated a society of free craftspeople. Because craftsmen took pleasure in their work, he wrote, the Middle Ages was a period of greatness in the art of the common people. The treasures in our museums now are only the common used in households of that age. Medieval art was the model for much Arts and Crafts design and medieval life, before capitalism, the founders of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society did not insist that the designer should also be the maker. Peter Floud, writing in the 1950s, said that The founders of the Society, never executed their own designs, but invariably turned them over to commercial firms. The Arts and Crafts Movement was associated with socialist ideas in the persons of Morris, T. J. Cobden Sanderson, Walter Crane, Ashbee, in the early 1880s Morris was spending more of his time on socialist propaganda than on designing and making. Ashbee established a community of craftsmen, the Guild of Handicraft, in east London and those adherents who were not socialists, for example, Alfred Hoare Powell, advocated a more humane and personal relationship between employer and employee. Lewis Foreman Day, a successful and influential Arts and Crafts designer, was not a socialist either
4.
London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham
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The London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham is a London borough in West London, and forms part of Inner London. Traversed by the east-west main roads of the A4 Great West Road, the local council is Hammersmith and Fulham London Borough Council. The borough is unique in London in having three professional clubs, Chelsea, Fulham and Queens Park Rangers. The borough was formed in 1965 by merging the Metropolitan Borough of Hammersmith and it was known as the London Borough of Hammersmith until its name was changed on 1 January 1979 by the borough council. The two had joined together previously in the parish of Fulham until 1834 as the hamlet of Hammersmith had no church until much later. They were joined together again under the Fulham District from 1855 to 1886, there followed numerous international fairs and exhibitions for a century until the construction of Earls Court II in the borough in the 1980s. This was dismantled by developers in 2015, after the 2012 Olympics, 60% of the boroughs population is White British, 20% white non-British, 5% black Caribbean, 8% black African with various other ethnicities making up the remaining 11 percent. The borough has the second-highest proportion of adults of any borough in England and Wales. Around 50% of households are owner–occupiers, and 22% of households were listed as other – that is and these are generally two or more unrelated adults living together, such as students or cohabiting couples. The unemployment rate is well below average at under 5%, although of these, the borough also has the 4th highest house prices in the country. See external links below for more information from the borough. Virgin Group operates its headquarters at The School House,50 Brook Green, sony Mobile Communications has its headquarters in the borough. Iberia operates the Iberia House in the borough, all Nippon Airways operates the London Office on the fourth floor of Hythe House. South African Airways has its United Kingdom office in the South African Airways House, CE Europe, a subsidiary of Capcom, has its head office in the George House in Hammersmith in the borough. As of May 2011 it will be relocating to the Metro Building in Hammersmith, iran Airs London offices are also located in the borough. The airline moved there by Wednesday 4 January 2012, coca-Cola, Disney and LOréal also all have UK headquarters in Hammersmith, as well as a number of other major businesses. For a 15-year period Air France had its UK and Ireland office in Hammersmith, in 2006 the UK and Ireland office was moved to Hatton Cross, London Borough of Hounslow. Also, TAP Portugal runs an office in the Borough
5.
A40 road in London
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The A40 is a major trunk road connecting London to Fishguard, Wales. In the 1960s Westway was constructed, easing access to. The A40 links the City of London and the West End to the M40 motorway, the route is called The London to Fishguard Trunk Road in legal documents and acts. The A40 officially starts where St. Martins Le Grand meets Cheapside, here it shares a terminus with the A1, the main north London radial. First forming Newgate Street and then through Holborn to Holborn Viaduct and this viaduct carries the A40 over the A201 and on to Holborn Circus where the A40 crosses the terminus of the A4. The A40 here is named High Holborn, one of the four Inns of Court, Grays Inn, is on the north side of the road. Another, Lincolns Inn, is on the south side, the road is now in the Borough of Camden. Leaving Holborn, the A40 crosses into the City of Westminster, the British Museum is close at this point. After crossing the end of Tottenham Court Road at St Giles Circus. Oxford Street is Europes busiest shopping street, many chain stores have their flagship store on the street, including John Lewis, Debenhams, Marks and Spencers, House of Fraser and Selfridges. There are several stations along the road, the Central line runs under Oxford Street and is London Undergrounds second busiest line with 180 million passengers a year. The busiest stations are Tottenham Court Road, Oxford Circus, and Bond Street, the road forms the northern boundary of Soho, the main theatres and cinemas are located to the south near Leicester Square. The area contains a number of clubs, bars and music venues. Centre Point was one of Londons first skyscrapers, the A40 continues as Oxford Street to Marble Arch at the north-east corner of Hyde Park. Nearby is Speakers Corner, where people are allowed considerable freedom of speech. Nearby is the site of Tyburn gallows, where executions took place from 1388 to 1793. At Marble Arch is a road junction of Oxford Street, Park Lane, Bayswater Road. The A40 has taken three courses from here over the last thirty years, the last change was in 2000, when Westway lost its motorway status and became the A40
6.
Wormwood Scrubs
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Wormwood Scrubs, known locally as The Scrubs, is an open space located in the north-eastern corner of the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham in west London. It is the largest open space in the Borough, at 80 ha, the eastern part, known as Little Wormwood Scrubs, is cut off by Scrubs Lane and the West London Line railway. It has been a public space since the Wormwood Scrubs Act of 1879. The southern edge of the Scrubs is the site of two important buildings. At the western end is HM Prison Wormwood Scrubs, built between 1875 and 1891 by convict labour, to the east of the prison is the Hammersmith Hospital campus, which includes the relocated Queen Charlottes and Chelsea Hospital. Within the area are several facilities, including the Linford Christie stadium, tens of football pitches. Queens Park Rangers Football Club played on The Scrubs between 1893 and 1896, in the early 19th century the whole district was open fields, and included several areas of common land. In 1812 an area of 190 acres known as Wormholt Scrubs was leased by the War Office from the Manor of Fulham. This was in order to exercise cavalry horses which until that point had been hacked out in Hyde Park, Belgrave Square and this common land became known as Wormwood Scrubs,135 acres of which was bought by the War Office in 1878. Under this act, the military were able to expel civilians from the Scrubs whenever they were training, the Scrubs became recognised as the duelling ground of London, with several duels having been fought there. In 1908, the route for the Olympic Marathon went across the Scrubs on the stages of the race from Windsor Castle to the Olympic Stadium at White City. The airship shed was used to train RNAS armoured car crews and it remained as an emergency landing ground until the 1930s. Until 1940 it was served by St. Quintin Park and Wormwood Scrubs and it was closed after heavy bombing damage during the Second World War. The prison is located just yards from the scene of the Massacre of Braybrook Street in 1966, holloway and his campaign petitioned the House of Lords, supported by the then MP for Fulham Nick Raynsford, and won concessions. The existing nature reserve includes an area known as Lesters Embankment, the campaign attracted considerable national publicity in 1987, and even a musical. On 10 March 2009 the prison was listed as a Grade II building, the Scrubs, one of the largest open spaces close to central London, is always under threat of development. Other sources of income from the space include the rental of sports fields, advertising billboards, the accounting for costs and revenues of the Charity have been a matter of debate between the Council, currently sole Trustee of the Trust, and the Friends of Wormwood Scrubs. Areas of Wormwood Scrubs, mainly the next to the boundary, are a Local Nature Reserve and these areas include Braybrook Woods, Martin Bells Wood and the Central Woodland Copse
7.
Wormholt Park
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Wormholt Park is a public park in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham. The park dates from the early 1900s when the Ecclesiastical Commissioners decided to sell parts of the Wormholt, the open air swimming pool known as The White City Lido was built on the western edge of the park, on Bloemfontein Road. It designed by R Hampton Clucas, Borough Engineer, and was built by 60 unemployed men in six months and it cost £13,149 It opened on 4 August 1923. It was 150 by 75 feet with small lawns both ends, on a 250 by 150 feet plot, the two shallow ends were 3 feet 6 inches and the deep centre was 7 feet 3 inches. It closed after the 1979 season and was replaced with a pool in the Janet Adegoke Leisure Centre. This in turn was demolished in 2003, friends of Wormholt Park Retrieved July 2015 Wormholt Park at the London Borough of Hammersmith & Fulham Retrieved July 2015 Wormholt Park, the first hundred years Retrieved January 2016
8.
London Underground
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The London Underground is a public rapid transit system serving London and some parts of the adjacent counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom. The network has expanded to 11 lines, and in 2015–16 carried 1.34 billion passengers, the 11 lines collectively handle approximately 4.8 million passengers a day. The system has 270 stations and 250 miles of track, despite its name, only 45% of the system is actually underground in tunnels, with much of the network in the outer environs of London being on the surface. In addition, the Underground does not cover most southern parts of Greater London, the current operator, London Underground Limited, is a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London, the statutory corporation responsible for the transport network in Greater London. As of 2015, 92% of operational expenditure is covered by passenger fares, the Travelcard ticket was introduced in 1983 and Oyster, a contactless ticketing system, in 2003. Contactless card payments were introduced in 2014, the LPTB was a prominent patron of art and design, commissioning many new station buildings, posters and public artworks in a modernist style. Other famous London Underground branding includes the roundel and Johnston typeface, to prepare construction, a short test tunnel was built in 1855 in Kibblesworth, a small town with geological properties similar to London. This test tunnel was used for two years in the development of the first underground train, and was later, in 1861, the worlds first underground railway, it opened in January 1863 between Paddington and Farringdon using gas-lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives. It was hailed as a success, carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day, the Metropolitan District Railway opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an underground inner circle connecting Londons main-line termini. The Metropolitan and District railways completed the Circle line in 1884, built using the cut and this opened in 1890 with electric locomotives that hauled carriages with small opaque windows, nicknamed padded cells. The Waterloo and City Railway opened in 1898, followed by the Central London Railway in 1900, the Metropolitan Railway protested about the change of plan, but after arbitration by the Board of Trade, the DC system was adopted. When the Bakerloo was so named in July 1906, The Railway Magazine called it an undignified gutter title, by 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines. In January 1913, the UERL acquired the Central London Railway, the Bakerloo line was extended north to Queens Park to join a new electric line from Euston to Watford, but World War I delayed construction and trains reached Watford Junction in 1917. During air raids in 1915 people used the stations as shelters. An extension of the Central line west to Ealing was also delayed by the war, the Metropolitan promoted housing estates near the railway with the Metro-land brand and nine housing estates were built near stations on the line. Electrification was extended north from Harrow to Rickmansworth, and branches opened from Rickmansworth to Watford in 1925, the Piccadilly line was extended north to Cockfosters and took over District line branches to Harrow and Hounslow. In 1933, most of Londons underground railways, tramway and bus services were merged to form the London Passenger Transport Board, the Waterloo & City Railway, which was by then in the ownership of the main line Southern Railway, remained with its existing owners. In the same year that the London Passenger Transport Board was formed, in the following years, the outlying lines of the former Metropolitan Railway closed, the Brill Tramway in 1935, and the line from Quainton Road to Verney Junction in 1936
9.
East Acton tube station
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East Acton is a London Underground station in East Acton in west London. The station is on the Central line, between White City and North Acton stations, and in Travelcard Zone 2 and it is close to Wormwood Scrubs prison and Queen Charlottes and Chelsea Hospital. The station opened in 1920 on the Ealing Broadway extension of the Central London Railway, since the CLR was exclusively a passenger service, two extra dedicated tracks for the GWRs freight trains were opened in 1938, but were closed in 1964. The trackbed of these rails is now overgrown, with vegetation visible immediately to the north of the station, the station has recently been refurbished, with the staircases improved and the East Acton Underground roundels replaced with larger, newer versions. London Buses route 7,70,72,228,272 and 283 serve the station
10.
Great Western Railway
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The Great Western Railway was a British railway company that linked London with the south-west and west of England, the Midlands, and most of Wales. It was founded in 1833, received its enabling Act of Parliament on 31 August 1835, Goods wagons were painted red but this was later changed to mid-grey. Great Western trains included long-distance express services such as the Flying Dutchman, the Cornish Riviera Express and it also operated many suburban and rural services, some operated by steam railmotors or autotrains. The company pioneered the use of larger, more economic goods wagons than were usual in Britain and it operated a network of road motor routes, was a part of the Railway Air Services, and owned ships, docks and hotels. The Great Western Railway originated from the desire of Bristol merchants to maintain their city as the port of the country. The company was founded at a meeting in Bristol in 1833 and was incorporated by Act of Parliament in 1835. Isambard Kingdom Brunel, then aged twenty-nine, was appointed engineer and this was by far Brunels largest contract to date. Firstly, he chose to use a gauge of 7 ft to allow for the possibility of large wheels outside the bodies of the rolling stock which could give smoother running at high speeds. Secondly, he selected a route, north of the Marlborough Downs and this meant the line was not direct from to London to Bristol. From Reading heading west, the line would curve in a northerly sweep back to Bath, the first 22.5 miles of line, from Paddington station in London to Maidenhead Bridge station, opened on 4 June 1838. When Maidenhead Railway Bridge was ready the line was extended to Twyford on 1 July 1839, the cutting was the scene of a railway disaster two years later when a goods train ran into a landslip, ten passengers who were travelling in open trucks were killed. This accident prompted Parliament to pass the 1844 Railway Regulation Act requiring railway companies to provide carriages for passengers. The next section, from Reading to Steventon crossed the Thames twice, a 7. 25-mile extension took the line to Faringdon Road on 20 July 1840. Meanwhile, work had started at the Bristol end of the line, on 17 December 1840, the line from London reached a temporary terminus at Wootton Bassett Road west of Swindon and 80.25 miles from Paddington. The section from Wootton Bassett Road to Chippenham was opened on 31 May 1841, as was Swindon Junction station where the Cheltenham and Great Western Union Railway to Cirencester connected. That was an independent line worked by the GWR, as was the Bristol and Exeter Railway, in 1851, the GWR purchased the Kennet and Avon Canal, which was a competing carrier between London, Reading, Bath and Bristol. The GWR was closely involved with the C&GWUR and the B&ER, the South Wales Railway had opened between Chepstow and Swansea in 1850 and became connected to the GWR by Brunels Chepstow Bridge in 1852. It was completed to Neyland in 1856, where a port was established
11.
Central London Railway
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The Central London Railway, also known as the Twopenny Tube, was a deep-level, underground tube railway that opened in London in 1900. The CLRs tunnels and stations form the section of the London Undergrounds Central line. The railway company was established in 1889, funding for construction was obtained in 1895 through a syndicate of financiers and work took place from 1896 to 1900. After a rejected proposal to turn the line into a loop, it was extended at the end to Wood Lane in 1908. In 1920, it was extended along a Great Western Railway line to Ealing to serve a total distance of 17.57 kilometres. After initially making good returns for investors, the CLR suffered a decline in numbers due to increased competition from other underground railway lines. In 1913, it was taken over by the Underground Electric Railways Company of London, in 1933 the CLR was taken into public ownership along with the UERL. In November 1889, the CLR published a notice of a bill that would be presented to Parliament for the 1890 parliamentary session. The CLR was to run in a pair of tunnels under Bayswater Road, Oxford Street, New Oxford Street, High Holborn, Holborn, Holborn Viaduct, Newgate Street, Cheapside, and Poultry. Stations were planned at Queens Road, Stanhope Terrace, Marble Arch, Oxford Circus, Tottenham Court Road, Southampton Row, Holborn Circus, St. Martins Le Grand and King William Street. The tunnels were to be 11 feet in diameter, constructed with a tunnelling shield, at stations, the tunnel diameter would be 22 feet or 29 feet depending on layout. A depot and power station were to be constructed on a 1. 5-acre site on the west side of Queens Road, hydraulic lifts from the street to the platforms were to be provided at each station. The City Corporation also objected, concerned about damage to buildings close to the route caused by subsidence as was experienced during the construction of the C&SLR. The Dean and Chapter of St Pauls Cathedral objected, concerned about the risks of undermining the cathedrals foundations, Sir Joseph Bazalgette objected that the tunnels would damage the citys sewer system. In November 1890, with the C&SLR about to start operating, the eastern terminus was changed to Cornhill and the proposed Southampton Row station was replaced by one in Bloomsbury. Intermediate stations were added at Lansdowne Road, Notting Hill Gate, Davies Street, the earlier plan to connect to the C&SLR was dropped and the diameter of the CLRs tunnels was increased to 11 feet 6 inches. This time the bill was approved by both Houses of Parliament and received Royal Assent on 5 August 1891 as the Central London Railway Act,1891, in November 1891, the CLR publicised another bill. The proposals received assent as the Central London Railway Act,1892 on 28 June 1892, the money to build the CLR was obtained through a syndicate of financiers including Ernest Cassel, Henry Oppenheim, Darius Ogden Mills, and members of the Rothschild family
12.
Hammersmith
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Hammersmith is a district in west London, located in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham. It is bordered by Shepherds Bush to the north, Kensington to the east, Chiswick to the west and it is linked by Hammersmith Bridge to Barnes in the southwest. The area is one of west Londons key commercial and employment centres and it is a major transport hub for west London, with two London Underground stations and a bus station at Hammersmith Broadway. In the early 1660s, Hammersmiths first parish church, which later became St Pauls, was built by Sir Nicholas Crispe who ran the brickworks in Hammersmith and it contained a monument to Crispe as well as a bronze bust of King Charles I by Hubert Le Sueur. In 1696 Sir Samuel Morland was buried there, the church was completely rebuilt in 1883, but the monument and bust were transferred to the new church. The Hammersmith Suspension Bridge, designed by William Tierney Clark, was built across the Thames in 1827, in 1984–1985 the bridge received structural support, and between 1997 and 2000 the bridge underwent major strengthening work. In 1745, two Scots, James Lee and Lewis Kennedy, established the Vineyard Nursery, over six acres devoted to landscaping plants, during the next hundred and fifty years the nursery introduced many new plants to England, including fuchsia and the standard rose tree. Major industrial sites included the Osram lamp factory at Brook Green, during both World Wars, Waring & Gillows furniture factory, in Cambridge Grove, became the site of aircraft manufacture. Hammersmith is located at the confluence of a key arterial route out of central London with several local feeder roads and a bridge over the Thames. The focal point of the district is the centre located at this confluence, which houses a shopping centre, bus station, an Underground station. Stretching about 750m westwards from this centre is King Street, Hammersmiths main shopping street. Named after John King, Bishop of London, it contains a shopping centre, many small shops, the Town Hall, the Lyric Theatre, a cinema. King Street is supplemented by other shops along Shepherds Bush Road to the north, Hammersmiths office activity takes place mainly to the eastern side of its centre, along Hammersmith Road and in the Ark, an office complex to the south of the flyover which traverses the area. There are two NHS hospitals in Hammersmith - Charing Cross Hospital to the south on Fulham Palace Road, Charing Cross Hospital is a large multi-disciplinary hospital with accident & emergency and teaching departments run by the Imperial College School of Medicine. The Ark office building, designed by British architect Ralph Erskine, Hammersmith Bridge Road Surgery was designed by Guy Greenfield. 22 St Peters Square the former Royal Chiswick Laundry and Island Records HQ converted to architects studios and it has a Hammersmith Society Conservation award plaque and has been included in tours in Architecture Week. Riverside Studios is a cinema, performance space, bar and cafe, riverside Studios was formerly BBC studios used for TV productions. The Lyric Hammersmith Theatre is just off King Street, Hammersmith Apollo concert hall and theatre is just south of the gyratory
13.
Protected area
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Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural, ecological or cultural values. There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the laws of each country or the regulations of the international organisations involved. There are over 161,000 protected areas in the world with more added daily, by contrast, only 1. 17% of the worlds oceans is included in the worlds ~6,800 Marine Protected Areas. Protected areas are essential for biodiversity conservation, often providing habitat, Protection helps maintain ecological processes that cannot survive in most intensely managed landscapes and seascapes. Generally, protected areas are understood to be those in human occupation or at least the exploitation of resources is limited. As a result, Protected Areas can encompass a range of governance types. Indeed, governance of protected areas has emerged a critical factor in their success, subsequently, the range of natural resources that any one protected area may guard is vast. Of all global terrestrial carbon stock,15. 2% is contained within protected areas, Protected areas in South America hold 27% of the worlds carbon stock, which is the highest percentage of any country in both absolute terms and as a proportion of the total stock. Rainforests,18. 8% of the worlds forest is covered by protected areas, of the 670 ecoregions with forest cover, 54% have 10% or more of their forest cover protected under IUCN Categories I – VI. Mountain protected area coverage has increased globally by 21% since 1990, the categories provide international standards for defining protected areas and encourage conservation planning according to their management aims. Protecting places and resources is by no means a modern concept, over 2000 years ago, royal decrees in India protected certain areas. In Europe, rich and powerful people protected hunting grounds for a thousand years, moreover, the idea of protection of special places is universal, for example, it occurs among the communities in the Pacific and in parts of Africa. However, the protected areas movement doesnt begin until late nineteenth-century in North America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. While the idea of protected areas spread around the world in the twentieth century, thus, in North America, protected areas were about safeguarding dramatic and sublime scenery, in Africa, the concern was with game parks, in Europe, landscape protection was more common. The spectrum of benefits and values of protected areas is recognised not only ecologically, international programmes for the protection of representative ecosystems remain relatively progressive, with less advances in marine and freshwater biomes. There is increasing pressure to take account of human needs when setting up protected areas. Such negotiations are never easy but usually stronger and longer-lasting results for both conservation and people. In some countries, protected areas can be assigned without the infrastructure and networking needed to substitute consumable resources, one of the main concerns regarding protected areas on land and sea is their effectiveness at preventing the ongoing loss of biodiversity
14.
General Permitted Development Order
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The Town and Country Planning Order 2015 is a Statutory Instrument, applying in England, that grants planning permission for certain types of development. The GPDO2015 was made by the Secretary of State under authority granted by sections 59,60, the GPDO2015 came into force on 15 April 2015, and was introduced by Statutory Instrument 2015 No.596. The GPDO2015 revoked The Town and Country Planning Order 1995, since it came into force, the GPDO2015 has been amended by Statutory Instrument 2016 No. 332, by Statutory Instrument 2016 No,1040, and by Statutory Instrument 2017 No.391. The previous version of the legislation, the GPDO1995, came into force on 3 June 1995, during the time it was in force, the GPDO1995 was amended by a number of subsequent statutory instruments. With respect to England, the Planning Jungle website states that the GPDO1995 was amended by a total of 37 subsequent statutory instruments, the following list shows all of the versions of the GPDO from 1948 to present, The Town and Country Planning General Development Order 1948. The Town and Country Planning General Development Order 1959, the Town and Country Planning General Development Order 1963. The Town and Country Planning General Development Order 1973, the Town and Country Planning General Development Order 1977. The Town and Country Planning General Development Order 1988, the Town and Country Planning Order 1995. The Town and Country Planning Order 2015, article 1 sets out that the GPDO2015 applies to all land in England, with exceptions where the land is the subject of a special development order. Article 2 defines various terms within the GPDO2015, article 3 sets out that the GPDO2015 grants planning permission for the classes of development in Schedule 2, subject to any relevant exception, limitation or condition specified in Schedule 2. Article 4 sets out that the Secretary of State or the planning authority may make a direction restricting certain permitted development rights. Schedule 3 sets out the procedure for introducing article 4 directions, Schedule 1 Part 1 defines article 2 land, which includes a national park, an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, a conservation area, The Broads, and a World Heritage Site. Schedule 1 Part 3 defines article 2 land, which consists of designated areas within a total of 17 different local authorities, Schedule 2 specifies the classes of development to which article 3 refers. These classes are contained within 19 Parts, Schedule 2 specifies the classes of development for which planning permission is granted, and specifies the exceptions, limitations, and conditions that apply to some of these classes. These classes are contained within the following 19 Parts, Part 1, Part 4, Temporary buildings and uses. Part 5, Caravan sites and recreational campsites, Part 7, Non-domestic extensions, alterations etc. Part 9, Development relating to roads, Part 12, Development by local authorities
15.
Becontree
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Becontree /ˈbɛkəntriː/ is a large housing estate of approximately 4 square miles in the London Borough of Barking and Dagenham in East London, England. It is located 11 miles east-northeast of Charing Cross and was constructed in the period as the largest public housing estate in the world. The official completion of the estate was celebrated in 1935 with a population of around 100,000 people in 26,000 homes, the building of the estate caused a huge increase in population density which led to demands on services and reforms of local government. An additional 1,000 houses were added in later phases, the estate initially had no industrial and very little commercial development until the May & Baker and Ford Dagenham sites opened nearby, and a shopping area was built at Heathway. The estate is named after the ancient Becontree Hundred, which covered the area and is recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086. The name is Old English and means tree of a man named Beohha, the tree would have stood on Becontree Heath, just outside the eastern boundary of the estate. The majority of the estate was in the parish of Dagenham and the estate is in the Dagenham post town. Because of the lack of land in the County of London. G. Topham Forrest was the architect of the LCC. Becontree was developed between 1921 and 1935 by the LCC as a cottage estate of around 26,000 homes. The very first house completed, in Chittys Lane, is recognisable by a blue council plate embedded in the wall, the building of the estate took longer than anticipated. The LCC hoped to build 24,000 homes by 1924 and they were only able to achieve 3,000 and the works were extended into three phases lasting until 1935. On 13 July 1935 the official completion of the estate was celebrated with the opening of Parsloes Park by MP Christopher Addison. However, the demand for housing meant that a further 800 homes were built in 1937, with a population of 115,652, it was the largest public housing development in the world. After the Second World War, between 1949 and 1951,600 houses were built by the LCC in Dagenham in an adjacent to the estate called Heath Park. The LCC built the estate to rehouse people from Londons East End, however, the residents were almost all relatively prosperous working class, such as factory workers and busmen. Privet hedges were planted along the pavements at the end of front garden and during the spring. Although the estate regulations stipulated that the gardens must be maintained in order, however, to encourage the application of this rule, prizes were awarded for the best kept gardens
16.
Castelnau, London
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Castelnau is a road in Barnes, in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, south west London, approximately 5.1 miles west from Charing Cross on the south side of the River Thames. About 1.1 miles long, it is the road south from Hammersmith Bridge. It was originally named Upper Bridge Road, an area of Barnes including Castelnau was designated a conservation area in 1977. The name Castelnau is also used informally for Castelnau Estate, Castelnau means new castle in the Occitan language. Castelnau was developed after the opening of Hammersmith Bridge in 1827, Major Charles Lestock Boileau built Castelnau Villas, designed by the architect William Laxton, in 1842, followed by rows of cottages called Castelnau Row, Castelnau Place and Gothic Cottages. After his death in 1889, Upper Bridge Road was renamed Castelnau, in 1926, London County Council built a cottage estate of 640 houses, called Castelnau Estate, on the site of a market garden. In 1971 these passed to ownership of Richmond upon Thames Council, Castelnau is noted for 20 pairs of exceptional classical villas which were built in 1842 by Major Boileau. There are also two churches, Holy Trinity Barnes Catholic Church of St Osmund, Barnes
17.
Mottingham
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Mottingham is a district of south east London with parts in both the London boroughs of Bromley and Greenwich. It is located south of Eltham, and 9 miles southeast of Charing Cross, the earliest records of Mottingham are from 862 AD when it was recorded as Modingahema, which means the land of Modas people and is commonly interpreted as the proud place. The compasse of the hole was about eighty yards, and so profound, the cause of the incident, referred to as a marvellous accident at the time, was then unknown, and it is likely that a sinkhole had developed. The area is well coursed with streams, both above and below ground, and the collapse or shifting of subsoil might be attributed to them, the site of the sinkhole is now unknown, and the incident is also largely unknown. The only body of standing water that is in the area today is a lake at The Tarn Bird Sanctuary, in the NW corner of The Tarn opposite Mottingham Station is an ice well dating from about 1760 which supplied Eltham Lodge. Mottingham was originally a hamlet in Eltham parish, in the Blackheath hundred of Kent, in 1840 it was included in the Metropolitan Police District by the Metropolitan Police Act 1839. A key year in the history of Mottingham was 1866, when the area connected to the railway system with the construction of Mottingham station. Also in 1866, Mottingham received separate civil parish status, thus separating itself from Eltham, in 1881 the parish had a population of 779 and covered an area of 642 acres. When the County of London was created in 1889, Mottingham was excluded from the new county and now formed a protrusion of Kent, bordering London to the west, north and east. From 1894 to 1934 it formed a part of the Bromley Rural District and had its own parish council. In 1931 the parish had a population of 2,120, in 1934 the rural district and the Mottingham civil parish were abolished and the area was transferred to Chislehurst and Sidcup Urban District. In 1965 the urban district was abolished and the area was transferred from Kent to Greater London, the boundary between Bromley and Greenwich, and between Bromley and Lewisham, around Mottingham was adjusted in 1994. The first church in Mottingham was St Andrews Church on Court Road which was established in 1884, and which further helped establish Mottingham as separate from Eltham. A local landmark is Eltham College, a school founded in 1842 as the London Missionary Societys School for the Sons of Missionaries. The famous cricketer Dr W. G. Grace lived in retirement for years in Mottingham – a blue plaque marks his residence. He was buried in Beckenham Crematorium, Mottingham borders Eltham to the north, New Eltham to the east, Chislehurst to the south, Elmstead to the south west, Grove Park to the west and Lee to the north west. London County Council bought the Court Farm estate in the early 1930s, the first houses were to the west of Mottingham Road and completed in 1935. The estate was fairly self-contained, the community included a shopping centre
18.
St Helier, London
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St. Helier is a residential cottage estate in the London boroughs of Merton and Sutton. The portion of the north of Green Lane and Bishopsford Road is in Merton. The site of the St. Helier estate has been connected to long-term charity since the early 17th century, Henry Smith was a wealthy citizen and salter of London who gave much money to parishes in London and Surrey during his lifetime and in his will. He is buried in Wandsworth parish church and is supposed to have born in Wandsworth. In 1617 he gave £500 towards the purchase of land in Carshalton, another £100 bequest came from Mrs. Elizabeth Blackwell. In 1814 the lands were described as being just over 116 acres and having a building, barn, the Wandsworth Poor Lands lay on either side of Wrythe Lane at the southernmost part of the St. Helier estate footprint. Another local benefactor was Christopher Muschamp, who died in 1660 and is buried at All Saints and he bequeathed £200 to buy land, the yearly rental of which was to purchase apprenticeships for two poor children who had been born in the parish. Pasture land was bought from Henry Byne in Cannon Sheephouse Lane, like the adjoining Sutton Common, most of the area remained semi-rural until the early 20th century. The estate was built between 1928 and 1936 by the London County Council for the re-housing of people from decaying inner London areas, landscaping on the large-scale town planning scheme was by landscape architect Edward Prentice Mawson. Its development was spurred by the opening of Morden Underground station in 1926, and these services provided rapid links into central London for the residents. The estate was named in honour of Lady St. Helier and it was the second largest of a series of out-county cottage estates and was based on the Garden City ideas of Ebenezer Howard. The area had previously consisted largely of lavender fields, the last remnants of the famous Mitcham lavender industry, the imposing St. Helier Hospital was opened in 1938. John Major, UK Prime Minister from 1990 to 1997, was born there, the estates Bishop Andrewes Church, in Wigmore Road, was designed by the architect Geddes Hyslop in 1933. Today ownership of housing on the estate is split between private and local authority, with people taking advantage of the right to buy scheme since the 1970s. The hospital still exerts an imposing presence on the estate, both economically and physically, most of the buildings are original and many are still being used for their original purposes. There has been an amount of infilling around the outskirts. The area is served by London Bus routes 80,151,154,157,164,280, S1, S4, N44 and St Helier railway station
19.
Chingford
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Chingford is a district of the London Borough of Waltham Forest in North East London, situated 10 miles northeast of Charing Cross. Historically a rural Essex parish, it gained urban district status in 1894, Chingford is close to the Essex border of Epping Forest District. It borders Sewardstone to the north, Woodford Green and Buckhurst Hill to the east, to the west lie William Girling and King George V reservoirs, known together as the Chingford Reservoirs, and the River Lea. Across these, Chingford is linked with Ponders End through the A110 Lea Valley Road, to the north and east lies Epping Forest, the most part of which is in Essex but is maintained by the City of London Corporation. The River Ching runs through the area, and the town of Chingford is close to a number of fords of that river. However, old maps and descriptions give a name for the settlement long before the river has a name and this idea is compounded by links to royalty using the area for hunting in centuries gone by. However, the most generally accepted explanation by place name genealogists is that the name has its origin as Shingly Ford—that is. One notable local landmark is Queen Elizabeths Hunting Lodge, originally called the Great Standing, it was built for King Henry VIII in 1543, and was used as a grandstand to watch the hunting of deer, although it has been heavily altered over time. The building is located on Chingford Plain within Epping Forest and is open to the public, the lodge is preserved under the Epping Forest Preservation Act. Originally a barn built in the century, Butlers Retreat. The building is adjacent to the Queen Elizabeths Hunting Lodge and takes its name from the 1891 occupier John Butler, retreats originally served non-alcoholic refreshments as part of the Temperance movement. After closing in 2009 the building was refurbished by the City of London Corporation, All Saints Church in Chingford Mount dates back to the 12th century. Directly opposite the church is Chingford Mount Cemetery, best known today as the place of the Kray family. Friday Hill House, Simmons Lane, off Friday Hill, dating from 1839, was a house built and owned by Robert Boothby Heathcote. It was he who paid for the building of the church of St Peter and he is buried in the Boothby family vault in All Saints Churchyard, Old Church Road. The vault was purchased by Robert Boothby, who lived in the manor house. The present building has been used as an education centre. Pimp Hall Dovecote is situated in an area at the bottom of Friday Hill
20.
Hanwell
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Hanwell is a town in the London Borough of Ealing, west London, England. Hanwell is about 2.5 km west of Ealing Broadway and it is the westernmost location of the LONDON post town. The earliest surviving reference is AD959 when it is recorded as Hanewelle in pledge, the origin of the name is uncertain, various suggestions have been put forward. Near to the old Rectory and close to Hanwell spring is a stone of about a ton in weight. In Anglo-Saxon the word Han denoted a boundary stone and this juxtaposition of these two natural features could have given rise to the name Han-well which dates back to before the Domesday Book. The original borders of the parish stretched from the bend of the River Brent at Greenford and its geography, before the draining of the marshes, formed a natural boundary between the different tribes of the south east of England. This gives some support to the suggestion that Han came from the Saxon han for cockerel, if so, the name is derived from Han-créd-welle. Han-créd or cock-crow meant the border between night and day, and is neither one nor the other, so Hanwell would mean well upon the boundary. For more see, River Brent, Hydronymy, the only other Hanwell in Britain is a small parish in Oxfordshire on the boundary with Warwickshire. The Uxbridge Road was turnpiked between Uxbridge and Tyburn in 1714, the revenue from tolls enabled an all-weather metaled road surface of compacted gravel to be laid down. This constant movement of people along the road, brought about the establishment of coaching inns along the road as it crossed the River Brent and passed through the parish of Hanwell. In these inns, travellers could stable their horses, place their carts or goods in storage and secure board. The first inn on crossing the River Brent is The Viaduct which is on the north side, named after the Wharncliffe Viaduct, its original name was the Coach and Horses. At the back of the pub, some of the stable building can be seen. Early in the 20th century, The Viaduct received a new faïence façade which Nikolaus Pevsner succinctly described as a jolly tiled Edwardian pub, unfortunately, today the profusion of street furniture detracts somewhat from the original impact that these rich mid-browns and mid-cream glazed tiles gave the building. Next was the Duke of Wellington which lay approximately 400 m closer to London on the side of the road. However, this had been demolished by the 1920s and was not rebuilt, established in the 18th century, it has been subsequently rebuilt in the Tudorbethan style. The next pub occupies the site of what was probably the very first inn to be established on the Oxford Road as it ran through Hanwell and it lies on the south side of the road
21.
Headstone, London
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Headstone is a residential area in London, England, north-west of Harrow and immediately north of North Harrow. A green buffer exists between Headstone and North Harrow that consists of a manor site and football and rugby pitches. However, there are points of flux and overlap. To the west the area abuts the large and predominantly agricultural pasture of Pinner Park, Headstone Manor is fourteenth century with many later additions and renovations, it is a significant place of interest in its own right. This has led to the barns having remained largely intact to the present.5 miles south of Harrow & Wealdstone, there is a large LCC cottage estate built on 153 acres south of the Uxbridge road housing 5,000 people. Harrow Weald Common adjoins the northern border of the area, open for walking and mountain biking equally, this is on the northern boundary of Harrow Weald. On this common which rises steeply in the north to climb the hill of Weald Wood, towards the southwestern, Headstone, side is the Bannister Sports Centre, Pinner Park features a miniature railway and a cricket ground with pavilion. St Georges Anglican parish church, serving the area, was built by John Samuel Alder, the area benefits from frequent bus services towards the more commercialised Harrow, to Hatch End very close to the north, to Pinner south-westwards and Stanmore, north-eastwards. Headstone Lane railway station has three trains per hour in both directions
22.
Kenton
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Kenton is an area in northwest London, England, partly in the London Borough of Harrow and partly in the London Borough of Brent. The hamlet was recorded as Keninton in 1232, the name derives from the personal name of the Saxon Coena and the Old English tun, a farm - and means the farm of Coena and his family who once lived on a site near here. Before the 20th century, the settlement was concentrated around in what was Kenton Lane and is now part of the present day Woodgrange Avenue. The Windermere is a Grade II listed public house in Windermere Avenue and it is on the Campaign for Real Ales National Inventory of Historic Pub Interiors and was built in 1938. The Plough public house was Kentons first, opening in the early 18th century and it is now an Indo-Chinese fusion restaurant and bar called Blue Ginger. The main road through the area is Kenton Road, the local school is Priestmead Primary School on Hartford Avenue. The local high school is Claremont High School on Claremont Avenue off Kenton Road, Kenton station was opened by the London and North Western Railway on 15 June 1912. The Metropolitan Railways Northwick Park and Kenton station followed on 28 June 1923, the coming of the railways was soon followed by suburban development, most of Kenton being built between the Wars. The London County Council built the Kenmore Park cottage estate between the wars, there are 654 houses on the 58 acres site, a housing density of 11.3 per acre. Thomas Francis Nash owned building companies which from the 1920s onward built numerous private housing estates in Kenton, Ruislip, costin was another local building company that built much of Kenton between the wars. Local estate agents use the term Nash-built or Costin-built to describe properties built by them in Kenton. The song refers to the pleasant valley high suburban boredom factor then prevalent in the area and it is said that Kenton Kev refers in fact to Kevin Jones, the US-based property magnate, who was actually born in Kenton. The song was written by Paul Bonin, Philip Ulysses Sanders and Melanie Hickford, all of whom grew up, ISBN 0-7153-8595-X Kenton Recreation Ground – Kenton Recreation Ground featuring The Old Bowls Cafe
23.
Royal Borough of Greenwich
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The Royal Borough of Greenwich is a London borough in south-east London, England. The local council is Greenwich London Borough Council which meets in Woolwich Town Hall, the councils offices are also based in Woolwich, the main urban centre in the borough. Greenwich is world-famous as the location of the Prime Meridian. The Prime Meridian running through Greenwich and the Greenwich Observatory is where the designation Greenwich Mean Time, or GMT began, in 2012, Greenwich was listed as a top ten global destination by Frommers – the only UK destination to be listed. Greenwich was one of six host boroughs for the 2012 London Olympics and events were held at the Royal Artillery Barracks, Greenwich Park and it is also the home borough of professional football club Charlton Athletic. It was formed in 1965 by merging the areas of the metropolitan boroughs of Greenwich. The name Charlton was briefly considered for the borough, Greenwich once applied for city status, but was turned down. If the application had been accepted the borough would have known as the City of Greenwich. The borough lies along the bank of the River Thames between Deptford and Thamesmead. It has an area of 5,044 hectares, because of the bends of the river, its waterfront is as long as 8.5 miles. The boroughs population in 2011 was 254,557,52. 3% of the community defined themselves as white British. The largest minority groups represented were of Black and Asian heritage, central Greenwich Town contains a UNESCO World Heritage Site centred on Christopher Wrens Royal Naval College and the Old Royal Observatory. The 2013/14 Mayor was Cllr Angela Cornforth, the 2014/15 Mayor was Cllr M Hayes. The 2015/16 Mayor was Cllr Norman Adams, the 2016/17 Mayor is Cllr Olu Babatola, the first African born individual to be elected to the office. The ‘time-ball’ is set with small rubies, the Executive is composed of ten Labour members, led by Cllr Chris Roberts who has been Leader of the Council since 2001. Arms were originally granted to the London Borough by letters patent dated 1 October 1965, although much of the 1965 design has been retained, the arms have been altered in 2012 by the addition of a representation of the Thames. In addition a crest and supporters were added to the arms, the Royal Borough of Greenwich is twinned with, – Tema, Ghana – Reinickendorf, Berlin, Germany – Maribor, Slovenia Greenwich London Borough Council comprises 51 councillors. The Labour Party currently has a majority on the council, holding 43 seats
24.
Hampstead Garden Suburb
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Hampstead Garden Suburb is a suburb, north of Hampstead, west of Highgate and east of Golders Green. It is an example of early twentieth-century domestic architecture and town planning located in the London Borough of Barnet in northwest London, the master plan was prepared by Barry Parker and Sir Raymond Unwin. Comprising just over 5000 properties, and home to around 13,000 people, Hampstead Garden Suburb was founded by Henrietta Barnett, who, with her husband Samuel, had started the Whitechapel Art Gallery and Toynbee Hall. In 1906, Barnett set up the Hampstead Garden Suburb Trust Ltd, the provisions of the new act, Hampstead Garden Suburb Act 1906, allowed less land to be taken up by roads and more by gardens and open spaces. Other consultant architects involved with the Hampstead development include George Lister Sutcliffe, however, with no industry, no public houses and few shops or services, the suburb, unlike the garden cities, made no attempt to be self-contained. In the 1930s the Suburb expanded to the north of the A1, while more characterful than most other suburban housing, some of the housing to the north is considered, overall, of less architectural value. On Central Square, laid out by Sir Edwin Lutyens, there are two churches, St. Judes Church and The Free Church, as well as a Quaker Meeting House. There are two mixed state primary schools in the Suburb, Garden Suburb and Brookland, There is also a state girls grammar school, Henrietta Barnett School. The school used to house The Institute, an education centre. Shops and other services are provided in the parade of Market Place. Shopping areas adjacent to the suburb include Temple Fortune, Golders Green, little Wood contains an open air arena, which is used for summer theatrical performances by a local amateur theatre society. In 2015, the association decided to implement a yellow. The HGS Trust maintains the character and amenity of the Suburb and is responsible for implementing the management scheme and it has offices in Finchley Road. Freeholders are required to get the approval of the Trust before altering the external appearance of their properties. Consent is also required for significant changes to gardens, erection of garden sheds, the Trust is also the freeholder of the majority of the remaining leasehold property in the Suburb which are mostly held on very long leases. Urban town planning had been restricted by the byelaws established after the 1875 Housing Act, which had de facto called for a grid street layout. This had prevented Cadbury building workers houses within a city, for Unwin to design a street structure that followed the contours, and built houses in cul-de-sacs a parliamentary act was needed. The Hampstead Garden Suburb Trust sponsored a private bill, the three relevant sections of the Act were Section 2 There shall not be built in the Garden Suburb on the average throughout a greater proportion of houses to the acre than eight
25.
Raymond Unwin
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Sir Raymond Unwin was a prominent and influential English engineer, architect and town planner, with an emphasis on improvements in working class housing. Raymond Unwin was born in Rotherham, Yorkshire and grew up in Oxford, after his father sold up his business and he was educated at Magdalen College School, Oxford. In 1884 he returned to the North to become an engineer for Stavely Iron & Coal Company near Chesterfield. Unwin had become interested in social issues at an age and was inspired by the lectures and ideals of John Ruskin. In 1885 he moved to Manchester and became secretary of Morriss local Socialist League and he wrote articles for the Leagues newspaper and spoke on street corners for its cause and for the Labour Church. He also became a friend of the socialist philosopher Edward Carpenter. In 1887 he returned to Staveley Iron as an engineer, working on development of mining townships and various other buildings, in 1893 he married Barry Parkers sister Ethel, and formed a partnership in 1896 based in Buxton, Derbyshire. The partners preferred the simple style and made it their aim to improve housing standards for the working classes. They were also members of the Northern Art Workers Guild and were friends of Edgar Wood the leading Arts and Crafts architect in the North of England. A notable example of one of their earliest collaborations at Clayton, Staffordshire, is dated to 1899, parker and Unwin were involved in designing many of the interior fittings, which remain in the house to this day, and the initial layout of the large gardens. Goodfellow sold the house in 1926 to Colley Shorter who ran the pottery works of Wilkinsons. He renamed it Chetwynd House and when he married his star designer Clarice Cliff in 1940, she moved into the house and it is her association that has made the house particularly famous since. In 1903 they were involved with the Cottages Near a Town Exhibit for the Northern Art Workers Guild of Manchester, in 1904 after their plan was adopted they opened a second office at Baldock. In 1905 Henrietta Barnett asked them to plan the new suburb at Hampstead. Unwin moved from Letchworth to Hampstead in 1906, and he lived here for the rest of his life at the farmstead Wyldes Farm, in 1907, Ealing Tenants Limited, a progressive cooperative in west London, appointed him to take forward the development of Brentham garden suburb. Unwin joined the Local Government Board in December 1914, in 1915 he was seconded to the Ministry of Munitions to design the villages of Gretna and Eastriggs and supervise others. That post had evolved into the Chief Technical Officer for Housing and this report marked Unwins definitive break from the traditional garden city concept, as it proposed that the new developments should be peripheral satellites rather than fully-fledged garden cities. Unwin became technical adviser to the Greater London Regional Planning Committee in 1929, Unwin was President of the Royal Institute of British Architects from 1931 to 1933, was knighted in 1932 and consulted by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt on the New Deal in 1933
26.
Grid plan
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The grid plan, grid street plan or gridiron plan is a type of city plan in which streets run at right angles to each other, forming a grid. In the context of the culture of ancient Rome, the grid method of land measurement was called centuriation. The grid plan dates from antiquity and originated in multiple cultures, by 2600 BC, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, were built with blocks divided by a grid of straight streets, running north-south and east-west. Each block was subdivided by small lanes, the cities and monasteries of Gandhara, dating from the 1st millennium BC to the 11th century AD, also had grid-based designs. Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan since 1959, was founded on the grid-plan of the nearby ruined city of Sirkap. A workers village at Giza, Egypt, housed a rotating labor force and was out in blocks of long galleries separated by streets in a formal grid. Many pyramid-cult cities used a common orientation, an axis from the royal palace. Hammurabi was a king of the Babylonian Empire who made Babylon one of the greatest cities in antiquity and he rebuilt Babylon, building and restoring temples, city walls and public buildings, and building canals for irrigation. The streets of Babylon were wide and straight, intersected approximately at right angles, the tradition of grid plans is continuous in China from the 15th century BC onward in the traditional urban planning of various ancient Chinese states. Guidelines put into form in the Kaogongji during the Spring and Autumn period stated. Three gates on each side of the lead into the nine main streets that crisscross the city. Teotihuacan, near modern-day Mexico City, is the largest ancient grid-plan site in the Americas, the citys grid covered eight square miles. Perhaps the most well-known grid system is spread through the colonies of the Roman Empire. The archetypal Roman Grid was introduced to Italy first by the Greeks, with such information transferred by way of trade, although the idea of the grid was present in Hellenic societal and city planning, it was not pervasive prior to the 5th century BC. However, it slowly gained primacy through the work of Hippodamus of Miletus, the concept of a grid as the ideal method of town planning had become widely accepted by the time of Alexander the Great. His conquests were a step in the propagation of the grid plan throughout colonies, some as far-flung as Taxila in Pakistan, that would later be mirrored by the expansion of the Roman Empire. The Greek grid had its streets aligned roughly in relation to the points and generally looked to take advantage of visual cues based on the hilly landscape typical of Greece. The Etruscan people, whose territories in Italy encompassed what would eventually become Rome and it was based on Greek Ionic ideas, and it was here that the main east-west and north-south axes of a town could first be seen in Italy
27.
Public Health Act 1875
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The Public Health Act 1875 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It is one of the Public Health Acts and its purpose was to combat filthy urban living conditions, which caused various public health threats, including the spread of many diseases such as cholera and typhus. Reformers wanted to resolve problems, because sewage was flowing down the street daily. The Act required all new construction to include running water. This Act also led to the government prohibiting the construction of housing by building contractors. The Act also meant that public health authority had to have a medical officer. But reformers eventually helped to counteract the governments laissez-faire attitude, home Secretary Richard Cross was responsible for drafting the legislation, and received much good will from trades union groups in the consequent years for humanising the toil of the working man. The Act also meant that towns had to have pavements and street lighting, Public Health, The Practical Guide to the Public Health Act,1875, and Correlated Acts, for the Use of Medical Officers of Health and Inspectors of Nuisances. William Cunningham Glen and Alexander Glen, the Public Health Act,1875, and the Law relating to Public Health, Local Government, and Urban and Rural Sanitary Authorities. The Public Health Act 1875, Arranged in a Dictionary Index Form, the Public Health Act 1875, Suggestions as to the Preparation of District Maps, and of Plans for the Main Sewerage, Drainage, and Water Supply
28.
Privet
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A privet is a flowering plant in the genus Ligustrum. Some species have become widely naturalized or invasive where introduced, the generic name was applied by Pliny the Elder to L. vulgare. It is often suggested that the name privet is related to private, privet Ligustrum is a group of shrubs and small trees of southern and eastern Asia, from the Himalayas extending into Australia. They may be evergreen or deciduous, and are tolerant of different soil types and they often have conspicuous heads of white flower. In addition to being cultivated to create ornamental hedges and foliage, privet is also used in horticulture. The Oval leaf privet Ligustrum ovalifolium is used for hedges, while its flexible twigs are used as cords for lashing. Chinese privet is used in herbal medicine. The decoction of leaves or bark helps to treat diarrhea, stomach ulcers, chronic bowel problems, chapped lips, sore mouths and throats. Privet leaves and bark have bitter properties that make a tea for improving appetite. Some species produce a fruit, which is toxic to humans. Symptoms from eating privet fruit include nausea, headache, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, weakness, low blood pressure, a plant may produce thousands of fruits, most of which are eaten by birds. Privet is a invasive species because of its ability to outcompete and therefore displace native vegetation. Various species are now a problem in North America and Australia, privet is a core part of Michael Frayns novel, Spies, which was published in 2002. The Integrated Taxonomic Information System lists eleven accepted species of Ligustrum, additional species are listed in other references. Invasive species in the United States Environmental issues in the United States
29.
Road verge
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A road verge is a narrow strip of grass or plants, and sometimes also trees, located between the carriageway curb and the boundary of a road. Verges are known by dozens of names, often quite regional, see Terminology. The land is often public property, with maintenance usually being a municipal responsibility, some municipal authorities, however, require that abutting property owners maintain their respective verge areas, as well as the adjunct footpaths or sidewalks. Verges are also part of sustainability for water conservation or the management of urban runoff and water pollution. Snow that has been ploughed off the street in colder climates often is stored in the area of the verge by default, in some countries, verges are the last location of habitats for a range of flora. The main disadvantage of a road verge is that the right-of-way must be wider, in some localities, a wider verge offers opportunity for later road widening, should the traffic usage of a road demand this. For this reason, footpaths are usually sited a significant distance from the curb and this term verge has many synonyms and dialectal differences. Some dialects and idiolects lack a specific term for this area, terms used include, Berm, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, New Zealand. Boulevard, North Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, Wisconsin, United States Upper Midwest, Winnipeg, curb lawn, Kalamazoo, Michigan, Elyria, Ohio, Miami County, Ohio, Greenville, South Carolina. Curb strip, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Florida, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Oregon, Washington Devil strip or devilstrip, Akron, Ohio, Northeast Ohio. This term was used more widely to refer to the space between tracks on a streetcar line, a space not wide enough to stand in as cars passed. Grassplot, East Coast of the United States, Pennsylvania, Island strip, Long Island, New York Nature strip, Australia. Parking, Illinois, Iowa, Western United States, parking strip, Washington, Oregon, Utah, much of California. Parkway, Greater Los Angeles, San Francisco Bay Area, West Coast of the United States, Ohio, Illinois, Missouri, Florida, parkway strip, Austin, Texas, Fort Collins, Colorado. Road allowance, Ottawa, Canada Road reserve, sidewalk plot, Virginia, Maryland, Indiana, Tennessee. Tree lawn or treelawn, Ohio, Indiana, New York, verge, England, New Zealand, Western Australia. This is done for reducing runoff of rain and domestic water, for their carrying waterborne pollution off-site into storm drains and sewer systems, and for the groundwater recharge of aquifers. For Santa Monica, another reason for use of tree-lawns is to reduce current beach
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Urban forestry
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Urban forestry is the care and management of single trees and tree populations in urban settings for the purpose of improving the urban environment. Urban forestry advocates the role of trees as a part of the urban infrastructure. Urban foresters plant and maintain trees, support appropriate tree and forest preservation, conduct research, function, the dynamic operation of the forest, includes biochemical cycles, gas exchange, primary productivity, competition, succession, and regeneration. In urban environments, forest functions are related to the human environment. Trees are usually selected, planted, trimmed, and nurtured by people, often with specific intentions, as when a tree is planted in a front yard to shade the driveway and frame the residence. The functional benefits provided by this tree depend on attributes, such as species and location, as well as management activities that influence its growth, crown dimensions. Urban forest functions are often oriented toward human outcomes, such as shade, beauty. As prominent things, arranged in formations, trees command a symbolic. This link that humans have to trees has been theorized by Kellert and Wilson to be a genetically based emotional need to be close to trees, People develop emotional attachments to trees that give them special status and value. Removing hazardous trees can be difficult when it means severing the connection between residents and the trees they love, for many, feelings of attachment to trees in cities influences feelings for preservation of trees in forests. The value that people place on trees is especially evident with respect to big trees, there has always been a public fascination with large trees, especially the largest specimens of trees that reach a mature height of greater than 40 or 50 feet. Urban forests bring many environmental and economic benefits to cities, there are also economic benefits associated with urban trees such as increased land, property, and rental value. Well-maintained trees and landscaped business districts have shown to encourage consumer purchases and attract increased residential, commercial. Trees located in business areas may also increase worker productivity, recruitment, one sustainable solution to this is planting street trees with grates underneath them to hold water. Trees and their soils work to filter runoff pollution and soil contaminants by absorbing them and they also collect water in their limbs and release it back into the atmosphere over time. This makes trees a solution to stormwater runoff issues and urban heating issues, the social and even medical benefits of nature are also dramatic. Urban poverty is common to areas lacking green spaces, visiting green areas in cities can counteract the stress of city life, renew vital energy and restore attention, and improve medical outcomes. Simply being able to see a view out of the window improves self-discipline in inner city girls
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Cottage garden
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The cottage garden is a distinct style that uses informal design, traditional materials, dense plantings, and a mixture of ornamental and edible plants. English in origin, it depends on grace and charm rather than grandeur, the earliest cottage gardens were more practical than todays, with emphasis on vegetables and herbs, fruit trees, perhaps a beehive, and even livestock. Flowers, used to fill spaces, gradually became more dominant, the traditional cottage garden was usually enclosed, perhaps with a rose-bowered gateway. Flowers common to early cottage gardens included traditional florists flowers such as primroses and violets, along with flowers with household use such as calendula, others were the richly scented old-fashioned roses that bloomed once a year, and simple flowers like daisies. In time, cottage-garden sections were added to large estate gardens as well. Modern cottage gardens include countless regional and personal variations and embrace plant materials, traditional roses, with their full fragrance and lush foliage, continue to be a cottage-garden mainstay — along with modern disease-resistant varieties that retain traditional attributes. Informal climbing plants, whether traditional or modern hybrids, are common, as are the self-sowing annuals. Cottage gardens, which emerged in Elizabethan times, appear to have originated as a source for herbs. One theory is that they out of the Black Death of the 1340s. Helen Leach analysed the historical origins of the cottage garden, subjecting the garden style to rigorous historical analysis, along with the ornamental potager. Authentic gardens of the yeoman cottager would have included a beehive and livestock, the peasant cottager of medieval times was more interested in meat than flowers, with herbs grown for medicinal use and cooking, rather than for their beauty. By Elizabethan times there was more prosperity, and thus more room to grow flowers, even the early cottage garden flowers typically had their practical use—violets were spread on the floor, calendulas and primroses were both attractive and used in cooking. Others, such as sweet william and hollyhocks were grown entirely for their beauty, the naturalness of informal design began to be noticed and developed by the British leisured class. Alexander Pope was a proponent of less formal gardens, calling in a 1713 article for gardens with the amiable simplicity of unadorned nature. Other writers in the 18th century who encouraged less formal, and more natural, gardens included Joseph Addison, william Robinson and Gertrude Jekyll helped to popularise less formal gardens in their many books and magazine articles. Robinsons The Wild Garden, published in 1870, contained in the first edition an essay on The Garden of British Wild Flowers, from the 1890s his lifelong friend Jekyll applied cottage garden principles to more structured designs in even quite large country houses. Her Colour in the Flower Garden is still in print today, the Arts and Crafts Exhibition of 1888 began a movement toward an idealised natural country garden style. The garden designs of Robinson and Jekyll were often associated with Arts and Crafts style houses, the cottage garden ideal was also spread by artists such as water-colourist Helen Allingham
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Mullion
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A mullion is a vertical element that forms a division between units of a window, door, or screen, or is used decoratively. When dividing adjacent window units, its purpose is to provide structural support to an arch or lintel above the window opening. Its secondary purpose may be as a support to the glazing of the window. When used to support glazing, they are teamed with horizontal elements called transoms which divide an openings upper part into one or more additional lights. In the commercial industry, the term floating mullion is also applied to an interlock profile which is fitted in between a pair of double swing doors. Stone mullions were used in Armenian, Saxon and Islamic architecture prior to the 10th century and they became common across Europe in the Romanesque architecture, with paired windows divided by a mullion, set beneath a single arch becoming a fashionable architectural form. The same structural form was used for open arcades as well as windows, in Gothic architecture windows became larger and arrangements of multiple mullions and openings were used, both for structure and ornament. This is particularly the case in Gothic churches where stained glass is set in lead, mullioned windows of a simpler form continued to be used into the Renaissance and various Revival styles. Italian windows with a mullion, dividing the window into two equal elements are said to be biforate, or to parallel the Italian, bifore windows. Mullions may be made of any material, but wood and aluminum are most common, I. M. Pei used all-glass mullions in his design of JFK Airports Terminal 6, unprecedented at the time. Mullions are vertical elements and are confused with transoms, which lie horizontally. The word is also confused with the muntin which is the word for the very small strips of wood or metal that divide a sash into smaller glass panes or lights. A mullion acts as a member, in most applications the mullion transfers wind loads and weight of the glazing. Although in the instance of a wall screen, the mullions only support the weight of the transoms, glass. Also in the case of a wall screen the weight of glazing can be supported from above this puts the mullions under tension rather than compression. In traditional designs today, mullions and transoms are normally used in combination with divided-light windows, came Glass mullion system Mullion wall Muntin Stained glass Transom Müller, W. G. Vogel. Examples of houses with mullioned windows in the UK
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Sash window
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The oldest surviving examples of sash windows were installed in England in the 1670s, for example at Ham House. The invention of the window is sometimes credited, without conclusive evidence. Others see the window as a Dutch invention. To facilitate operation, the weight of the panel is usually balanced by a heavy steel, lead. The sash weight is connected to the window by a braided cotton sash cord, or a chain, breakage of this cord requires disassembly, or destruction, of the trim pieces to gain access for repair. The term sash windows is used interchangeably with the term box sash windows in the United Kingdom, historically box sash windows are heavier and more stately in nature than modern sash windows, but both terms are used within the industry when referring to the same type of window. The name hung sash window, which is usual in the United States than in the United Kingdom. These windows are found in older buildings in warmer climates. A significant advantage of double-hung windows is that they provide efficient cooling of interiors during warm weather, a double-hung window where the upper sash is smaller than the lower is termed a cottage window. A single-hung window has two sashes, but normally the top sash is fixed and only the bottom sash slides, triple- and quadruple-hung windows are used for tall openings, common in New England churches. Construction is usually of softwood, and these sashes were traditionally only single-glazed, early sash windows were made from high-quality wood that has lasted generations and should, if at all possible, be repaired with similar-quality slow-growth wood rather than being replaced. The glass in old windows can be as important as the sashes themselves, old glass is easily recognised by its imperfections which give a degree of distortion both when looking through it and when looking at it from the outside. Of these, the glass still currently being manufactured in the traditional way is cylinder. All other old glass is therefore irreplaceable and should be carefully conserved and/or protected before any work is carried out, modern double-glazed sash windows are now available, but depending on their aesthetic style, can be frowned upon. Traditional problems with solid wooden sash windows include rot, swelling or distortion of the woodwork or rattling in the wind and these problems can be solved by careful repair and the introduction of draught stripping. It is also a problem for inexperienced painters to paint the sash stuck. The sliding mechanism makes sash windows more vulnerable to these problems than traditional casement windows, sash windows are relatively high maintenance, but offer advantages in return. However, well-maintained sash windows should last generations without needing parts replaced and it is also possible to clean all the glass from within the building by sliding the two panes to different positions
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Casement window
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A casement is a window that is attached to its frame by one or more hinges. Casement windows are hinged at the side and they are used singly or in pairs within a common frame, in which case they are hinged on the outside. Casement windows are often held open using a casement stay, windows hinged at the top are referred to as awning windows, and ones hinged at the bottom are called hoppers. In the UK, casement windows were common before the window was introduced. These casement windows usually were hinged on the side, and opened inward, by the start of the Victorian era, opening casements and frames were constructed from timber in their entirety. The windows were covered by functional exterior shutters, which opened outward, variants of casement windows are still the norm in many European countries. They are opened with a crank, lever, or cam handle, a crank, stay, or friction hinge is necessary when the window opens outward, to hold the window in position despite wind. Often the glass panes are set in a frame and sealed with beveled putty or glazing compound to secure the glass. Casement windows generally have lower air leakage rates than sliding windows because the sash closes by pressing against the frame, casement windows are also excellent for natural ventilation strategies, especially in hot climates. They can be hinged to open outward and angled in order to direct breezes into the building
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Roof pitch
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In building construction, roof pitch is a numerical measure of the steepness of a roof. Roofs may be flat or pitched. The pitch of a roof is its vertical rise divided by its horizontal span, what is called slope in geometry and stair construction, in the imperial measurement systems it is typically expressed with the rise first and run second. In the USA, the run is denominated by the number 12, for example,3,12,4,12,5,12, and so on. Countries which use metric measurement systems use an angle, or what fall there is per unit of run, and expressed as a 1 in x slope. Where convenient, the LCMs are used, e. g. a 3 in 4 slope, rather than 9, US convention is to use whole numbers when even or the nearest single or two-digit fraction when not. Definitions vary on when a roof is considered pitched, in degrees, 10° is considered a minimum. The exact roof slope in degrees is given by the arctangent, for example, arctan=14. 0° The primary purpose of pitching a roof is to redirect water and snow. Thus, pitch is greater in areas of high rain or snowfall. The steep roof of the tropical Papua New Guinea longhouse, for example, the high, steeply-pitched gabled roofs of northern Europe are typical in regions of heavy snowfall. In some areas building codes require a minimum slope, buffalo, New York and Montreal, Quebec, Canada, specify 6 in 12, a pitch of approximately 26.6 degrees. Carpenters frame rafters on an angle to pitch a roof, gable and other multi-pitched roofs allow for lower primary structures with a corresponding reduction in framing and sheathing materials. Historically roof pitch was designated in two ways, A ratio of the ridge height to the width of the building. List of roof shapes Mono-pitched roof How to determine roof pitch Roof pitch calculator
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Gable
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A gable is the generally triangular portion of a wall between the edges of intersecting roof pitches. The shape of the gable and how it is detailed depends on the system used, which reflects climate, material availability. A gable wall or gable end more commonly refers to the wall, including the gable. A variation of the gable is a gable, which has a stairstep design to accomplish the sloping portion. Gable ends of more recent buildings are often treated in the way as the Classic pediment form. But unlike Classical structures, which operate through trabeation, the ends of many buildings are actually bearing-wall structures. Thus, the detailing can be ambiguous or misleading, gable style is also used in the design of fabric structures, with varying degree sloped roofs, dependent on how much snowfall is expected. Sharp gable roofs are a characteristic of the Gothic and classical Greek styles of architecture, the opposite or inverted form of a gable roof is a V-roof or butterfly roof. While a front-gabled building faces the street with its gable, a building faces it with its cullis. The terms are used in architecture and city planning to determine a building in its urban situation, front-gabled buildings are considered typical for German city streets in the medieval gothic period, while later Renaissance buildings, influenced by Italian architecture are often side-gabled. In America, front-gabled houses, such as the Gablefront house, were primarily between the early 19th century and 1920. A wimperg is a German and Dutch word for a Gothic ornamental gable with tracery over windows or portals and it was a typical element in Gothic Architecture especially in cathedral architecture. Wimpergs often had crockets or other elements in the Gothic style. The intention behind the wimperg was the perception of increased height, the gable end roof is a poor design for hurricane regions, as it easily peels off in strong winds. The part of the roof overhangs the triangular wall very often creates a trap that can catch wind like an umbrella. A series of ornamental timber gables, from existing examples in England and France of the 16th Century
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Dormer
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A dormer is a roofed structure, often containing a window, that projects vertically beyond the plane of a pitched roof. Dormers are commonly used to increase the space in a loft. The term dormer is commonly used to refer to a dormer window although a dormer doesnt necessarily have to contain a window, a dormer is often one of the primary elements of a loft conversion. As a prominent element of many buildings, different types of dormer have evolved to complement different styles of architecture, when the structure appears on the spires of churches and cathedrals, it is usually referred to as a lucarne. Some of the different types of dormer are, Gable fronted dormer, Also called simply a gabled dormer, this is the most common type. It has a pitched roof of two sloping planes, supported by a frame that rises vertically to form a triangular section below the roofline. It is also known as a dog-house dormer, hip roof dormer, Also called a hipped dormer, it has a roof composed of three sloping planes that rise from each side of the dormer frame and converge at the ridge—analogous to the hip roof. Flat roof dormer, The roof of this dormer is a flat plane approximately horizontal. Shed dormer, This dormer also has a flat plane roof. A shed dormer can provide head room over an area than a gabled dormer. Wall dormer, As opposed to the dormer being set part way up the slope of the roof and this means that the face of the dormer is essentially a continuation of the wall above the level of the eaves. Eyebrow or eyelid dormer, A low and wide dormer with a curved roof, instead the roof covering is gradually curved up and over the dormer in a flattened bell curve. Link dormer, This can be a dormer that houses a chimney or a dormer that joins one part of a roof to another, bonneted dormer, This is an arched roof dormer, rounded in shape when viewed from front. Popular in Victorian homes, especially in areas, like the Southcott-style row-houses called Jellybean Row in St. Johns. Nantucket dormer, This is a three-in-one dormer structure composed of two gable dormers connected by a dormer in between. Lucarne, A dormer on the slope of a spire, usually slender. Blind or false dormer, A dormer that is visible externally. These are often used to make the house appear more aesthetically impressive, the word dormer is derived from the Middle French dormeor, meaning sleeping room, as dormer windows often provided light and space to attic-level bedrooms
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Frame and panel
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Frame and panel construction, also called rail and stile, is a woodworking technique often used in the making of doors, wainscoting, and other decorative features for cabinets, furniture, and homes. Usually, the panel is not glued to the frame but is left to float within it so that movement of the wood comprising the panel does not distort the frame. Frame and panel construction at its most basic consists of five members, the panel, the vertical members of the frame are called stiles while the horizontal members are known as rails. A basic frame and panel item consists of a top rail and this is a common method of constructing cabinet doors and these are often referred to as a five piece door. In larger panels it is common to divide the panel into one or more sections, to house the extra panels, dividing pieces known as mid rails and mid stiles or muntins are added to the frame. The panel is either captured in a made in the inside edge of the frame members or housed in an edge rabbet made in the rear inside edge. Panels are made smaller than the available space within the frame to provide room for movement. Wood will expand and contract across the grain, and a panel made of solid wood could change width by a half of an inch. By allowing the wood panel to float, it can expand, a typical panel would be cut to allow 1/4 between itself and the bottom of the groove in the frame. It is common to some sort of elastic material in the groove between the edge of the panel and the frame before assembly. These items center the panel in the frame and absorb seasonal movement, a popular item for this purpose is a small rubber ball, known as a spaceball. Some cabinet makers will use small pieces of cork to allow for movement. The panels are either flat or raised. A flat panel has its visible face flush with the front of the groove in the frame and this gives the panel an inset appearance. This style of panel is made from man-made materials such as MDF or plywood but may also be made from solid wood or tongue. Panels made from MDF will be painted to hide their appearance, a raised panel has a profile cut into its edge so that the panel surface is flush with or proud of the frame. Some popular profiles are the ogee, chamfer, and scoop or cove. Panels may be raised by a number of methods - the two most common in modern cabinetry are by coving on the tablesaw or the use of a panel raising cutter in a router or spindle moulder
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Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
