1.
Chinese language
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Chinese is a group of related, but in many cases mutually unintelligible, language varieties, forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese is spoken by the Han majority and many ethnic groups in China. Nearly 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language, the varieties of Chinese are usually described by native speakers as dialects of a single Chinese language, but linguists note that they are as diverse as a language family. The internal diversity of Chinese has been likened to that of the Romance languages, There are between 7 and 13 main regional groups of Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin, followed by Wu, Min, and Yue. Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, although some, like Xiang and certain Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms, all varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. Standard Chinese is a form of spoken Chinese based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. It is the language of China and Taiwan, as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. It is one of the six languages of the United Nations. The written form of the language, based on the logograms known as Chinese characters, is shared by literate speakers of otherwise unintelligible dialects. Of the other varieties of Chinese, Cantonese is the spoken language and official in Hong Kong and Macau. It is also influential in Guangdong province and much of Guangxi, dialects of Southern Min, part of the Min group, are widely spoken in southern Fujian, with notable variants also spoken in neighboring Taiwan and in Southeast Asia. Hakka also has a diaspora in Taiwan and southeast Asia. Shanghainese and other Wu varieties are prominent in the lower Yangtze region of eastern China, Chinese can be traced back to a hypothetical Sino-Tibetan proto-language. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty, as the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have sought to promulgate a unified standard. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, in addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, the earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BCE in the late Shang dynasty
2.
Portuguese language
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Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
3.
Macau
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Macau, also spelled Macao, officially the Macao Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China, is an autonomous territory on the western side of the Pearl River Delta in East Asia. Macau is bordered by the city of Zhuhai in Mainland China to the north, Hong Kong lies about 64 kilometres to its east across the Delta. With a population of 650,900 living in an area of 30.5 km2, Macau was administered by the Portuguese Empire and its inheritor states from the mid-16th century until late 1999, when it constituted the last remaining European colony in Asia. Portuguese traders first settled in Macau in the 1550s, in 1557, Macau was leased to Portugal from Ming China as a trading port. The Portuguese Empire administered the city under Chinese authority and sovereignty until 1887, sovereignty over Macau was transferred back to China on 20 December 1999. The Joint Declaration on the Question of Macau and Macau Basic Law stipulate that Macau operate with a degree of autonomy until at least 2049. Macau participates in international organizations and events that do not require members to national sovereignty. Macau is a city in Southern China, known for its casinos. Its gaming revenue has been the worlds largest since 2006, with the heavily dependent on gaming. According to The World Factbook, Macau has the fourth highest life expectancy in the world, the present Chinese name means Inlet Gates. Macau is otherwise known in Chinese as Haojing or Jinghai, the name Macau is thought to be derived from the A-Ma Temple, a temple built in 1448 dedicated to Mazu, the goddess of seafarers and fishermen. It is said that when the Portuguese sailors landed at the coast just outside the temple and asked the name of the place, the Portuguese then named the peninsula Macau. The history of Macau is traced back to the Qin dynasty, the first recorded Chinese inhabitants of the area were people seeking refuge in Macau from invading Mongols during the Southern Song. Under the Ming dynasty, fishermen migrated to Macau from Guangdong, the Macau native people were Tanka boat people. Macau did not develop as a settlement until the Portuguese arrived in the 16th century. In 1513, Jorge Álvares became the first Portuguese to land in China, in 1535, Portuguese traders obtained the rights to anchor ships in Macaus harbours and to carry out trading activities, though not the right to stay onshore. In 1557, the Portuguese established a permanent settlement in Macau, the Portuguese continued to pay an annual tribute up to 1863 in order to stay in Macau. By 1564, Portugal commanded western trade with India, Japan, but their pride was damaged by the indifference with which the Chinese treated them
4.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
5.
East India Company
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The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
6.
Portuguese Macau
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Portuguese Macau was the period of Macau as a Portuguese colony and later, an overseas province under Portuguese administration from 1557 to 1999. Macau was both the first and last European colony in China, Portuguese traders first settled in Macau in the 16th century. In 1557 Macau was rented to Portugal by the Chinese empire as a trading port, the Portuguese administered the city under Chinese authority and sovereignty until 1887, when Macau became a colony of the Portuguese Empire. Sovereignty over Macau was transferred back to China on 20 December 1999, the Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration on the Question of Macau and the Macau Basic Law stipulate that Macau operate with a high degree of autonomy until at least 2049, fifty years after the transfer. China–Portugal relations Portuguese Empire Official website of the Portuguese Government of Macau Media related to History of Macau at Wikimedia Commons
7.
Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
8.
Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
9.
Portuguese Empire
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The Portuguese Empire, also known as the Portuguese Overseas, was one of the largest and longest-lived empires in world history and the first colonial empire. It existed for almost six centuries from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the grant of sovereignty to East Timor in 2002, the first era of the Portuguese empire originated at the beginning of the Age of Discovery. Initiated by the Kingdom of Portugal, it would eventually expand across the globe, in 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India. In 1500, either by an accidental landfall or by the secret design. Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts, by 1571, a string of naval outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India and South Asia. This commercial network and the trade had a substantial positive impact on Portuguese economic growth. Though the realms continued to be administered separately, the Council of Portugal ruled the country and its empire from Madrid. As the King of Spain was also King of Portugal, Portuguese colonies became the subject of attacks by three rival European powers hostile to Spain, the Dutch Republic, England, and France. With its smaller population, Portugal was unable to defend its overstretched network of trading posts. Eventually, Brazil became the most valuable colony of the era until, as part of the wave of independence movements that swept the Americas during the early 19th century. The third era represents the stage of Portuguese colonialism after the decolonization of the Americas of the 1820s. The colonial possessions had been reduced to the African coastline, Portuguese Timor, the disastrous 1890 British Ultimatum led to the contraction of Portuguese ambitions in Africa. Macau was returned to China in 1999, the origin of the Kingdom of Portugal lay in the reconquista, the gradual reconquest of the Iberian peninsula from the Moors. There were several motives for their first attack, on the Marinid Sultanate. In 1415 an attack was made on Ceuta, a strategically located North African Muslim enclave along the Mediterranean Sea, although Ceuta proved to be a disappointment for the Portuguese, the decision was taken to hold it while exploring along the Atlantic African coast. At the time, Europeans did not know what lay beyond Cape Bojador on the African coast, under his sponsorship, soon the Atlantic islands of Madeira and Azores were reached and started to be settled producing wheat to export to Portugal. Fears of what lay beyond Cape Bojador, and whether it was possible to return once it was passed, were assuaged in 1434 when it was rounded by one of Infante Henrys captains, Gil Eanes. Once this psychological barrier had been crossed, it became easier to further along the coast
10.
George Chinnery
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George Chinnery was an English painter who spent most of his life in Asia, especially India and southern China. Chinnery was born in London, where he studied at the Royal Academy Schools, George Chinnery moved in 1796 to Ireland, where he enjoyed some success as an artist, and married Marianne on 19 April 1799 in Dublin. Chinnery returned to London in 1801 without his wife and two infant children, in 1802 he sailed to Madras on the ship Gilwell. He established himself as a painter there and then in Calcutta, by 1813 Chinnery was a freemason, listed as a member of Calcuttas well-to-do masonic lodge Star in the East. This was one of three lodges in that city which took part in the official welcome for Lord Moira. Chinnerys masonic career is otherwise little documented, and its connection with his artistic output unexplored, mounting debt prompted a move in 1825 to southern China. From 1825 until his death in 1852 Chinnery based himself in Macau and he painted portraits of Chinese and Western merchants, visiting sea-captains, and their families resident in Macau. His work in oil paint was closely imitated by the Cantonese artist Lam Qua, Chinnery also painted landscapes, and made numerous drawings of the people of Macau engaged in their daily activities. In 1846 he made a visit to Hong Kong, where he suffered from ill health. He died in Macau on 30 May 1852 and is buried in the Old Protestant Cemetery there, other than artistic value, his paintings are historically valuable as he was the only western painter resident in South China between the early and mid 19th century. He vividly depicted the life of people and the landscape of the Pearl River Delta at that period. Among the subjects of his portraits are the Scottish opium traders William Jardine, George Chinnery learnt the Gurney system shorthand from his father and grandfather, and he used his own modified version of this shorthand for jotting quick notes on his pencil sketches. Substantial collections of Chinnerys drawings are to be found in London in the Victoria and Albert Museum and the British Museum, and in Salem, Mass. at the Peabody Essex Museum. Other notable groups are held in Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery, UK, the Hong Kong Museum of Art, the Macau Museum, the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation can claim to have the outstanding corporate collection of Chinnerys works. Loan exhibitions of his pictures have been recently in Centro Cultural de Belém, Lisbon, Metropolitan Teien Art Museum, Tokyo, Hong Kong Museum of History, Hong Kong. Tillotson, Giles, Fan Kwae pictures, Paintings and drawings by George Chinnery and other artists in the collection of the Hong Kong, hutcheon, Robin, Chinnery, Formasia Ltd, Hong Kong,1989. Conner, Patrick, George Chinnery 1774-1852, artist of India, conner, Patrick, The Flamboyant Mr Chinnery, catalogue of exhibition held at Asia House, London,2012. A biographical sketch-book of early Hong Kong
11.
Robert Morrison (missionary)
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Robert Morrison, FRS, was an Anglo-Scottish Protestant missionary to Portuguese Macao, Qing-era Guangdong, and Dutch Malacca, who was also a pioneering sinologist, lexicographer, and translator. After twenty-five years of work he translated the whole Bible into the Chinese language and baptized ten Chinese believers, including Cai Gao, Liang Fa, Morrison cooperated with such contemporary missionaries as Walter Henry Medhurst and William Milne, Samuel Dyer, Karl Gutzlaff, and Peter Parker. He served for 27 years in China with one home to England. The only missionary efforts in China were restricted to Guangzhou and Macau at this time, however, when Morrison was asked shortly after his arrival in China if he expected to have any spiritual impact on the Chinese, he answered, No sir, but I expect God will. Morrison was born on 5 January 1782 in Bullers Green, near Morpeth and he was the son of James Morrison, a Scottish farm laborer and Hannah Nicholson, an English woman, who were both active members of the Church of Scotland. Robert was the youngest son of eight children, at age three, Robert and his family moved to Newcastle where his father found more prosperous work in the shoe trade. Roberts parents were devout Christians and raised their children to know the Bible, at the age of 12 he recited the entire 119th Psalm from memory in front of his pastor without a single mistake. John Wesley was still alive and many foreign mission agencies were being formed during this period of the Evangelical First Great Awakening, in 1796, young Robert Morrison followed his uncle James Nicholson into apprenticeship and later joined the Presbyterian church in 1798. By age 14 Robert left school and was apprenticed to his fathers business, for a couple of years he kept company in disregard of his Christian upbringing and fell occasionally into drunkenness. He read and re-read frequently those few books he was able to obtain, during this period, Robert often spent free time in the garden in quiet meditation and prayer. At work, the Bible or some other such as Matthew Henrys Commentary was open before him while his hands were busy. He regularly attended church on Sundays, visited the sick with the Friendless Poor and Sick Society and he shared his faith in Christ with another young apprentice and to a sailor, showing a deep concern for the conversion of friends and family. On 7 January 1803 he entered George Collisons Hoxton Academy in London and was trained as Congregationalist minister and he visited the poor and sick and preached in the villages around London. By the age of 17 Morrison had been moved reading about the new movement in The Evangelical Magazine. However, he had promised his mother he would not go abroad so long as she lived and was present to care for her during her last illness, after his mothers death in 1804, he joined the London Missionary Society. He had applied to the Society in a letter dated 27 May 1804, the next day he was interviewed by the board and accepted at once without a second interview. The next year, he went to David Bogues Academy in Gosport for further training, for a while he was torn between Timbuktu in Africa and China as possible fields of service. He came across a manuscript of most of the New Testament translated into Chinese in the British Museum and he immediately printed 100 copies of a further tract on the importance of translating and publishing the Holy Scriptures into the Chinese language
12.
Samuel Dyer
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Samuel Dyer 台約爾, was a British Protestant Christian missionary to China in the Congregationalist tradition, who worked among the Chinese in Malaysia. He arrived in Penang in 1827, Dyer, his wife Maria, and their family lived in Malacca and then finally in Singapore. He was known as a typographer for creating a steel typeface of Chinese characters for printing to replace traditional wood blocks, Dyers type was accurate, aesthetically pleasing, durable and practical. Samuel Dyer was born at the Royal Greenwich Hospital, England to John Dyer and he was the fifth of the eight Dyer children. His father was a secretary of the Royal Hospital for Seaman, John was also an acquaintance of Robert Morrison, who was soon to become the first Protestant missionary to China, a connection that would have enormous implications in the life of his son, Samuel. Morrison and his Chinese tutor Yong Sam-tek visited the Dyer home in Greenwich during Morrison’s period of study in medicine, in 1822 he was formally admitted into membership. Dyer later wrote about his time, there, Paddington lives in my warmest affections and it was there that I kneeled on the separating line between Christ and the world. I kneeled and prayed for strength to side with Christ, I arose, and from that good day to this, Jesus has been precious to my soul. The pamphlet consisted of sermon preached at Mrs. Mead’s funeral, ‘’All for Christ and the Good of Souls’’, in 1824 Dyer applied to the London Missionary Society. Then he joined the LMS seminary at Gosport, Hampshire to study theology under Dr. David Bogue and his health began to suffer because of his intense regimen of study at Gosport, walking long distances to preach in villages on Sunday, and his habits of self-denial. He travelled to Islington to recuperate, study theology, Chinese, Dyer also studied under John Pye Smith at Homerton. Smith combined missionary, philological, and scientific interests, Dyer then entered the London Missionary Society training center at Hoxton where his chief attention was given to the Chinese language, reading the Chinese Bible for devotions. In 1827 Samuel Dyer was ordained at Paddington Chapel where he preached, now it is in an area of Malaysia. It was also known as the British Straits Settlement, Dyer had been ordained and commissioned on 20 February 1827 at Paddington Chapel, London. To perpetuate the remembrance of such an example of self-denial and missionary zeal, “The Lord Jesus Christ be with thy spirit. ”4,22 Samuel and Maria had five children while overseas. The Dyers were to have gone on to Anglo-Chinese College in Malacca but a lack of workers lead them to stay in Penang and they both began studying the Min nan Dialect spoken by the local population. After gaining some knowledge of the language, Dyer faced the challenge of producing movable metallic types for the thousands of Chinese characters and he started with a systematic analysis of characters and strokes. At first, using wood reliefs to create the molds from which type could be cast, he soon moved to steel punches
13.
Maria Dyer
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Maria Dyer, was a British Protestant Christian missionary to the Chinese in the Congregationalist tradition, who worked among the Chinese in Malaya. She arrived in Penang in 1827 with her husband, Samuel Dyer and she was the eldest daughter of Joseph Tarn, Director of London Missionary Society. The Dyers lived in Malacca and then finally in Singapore, Maria was known for founding the oldest girls school in Singapore and East Asia that still exists called Saint Margarets Primary School. Her husband died in Macau in 1843 before being able to bring his family to live in China itself at Fuzhou. Maria Tarn was later remarried, to Johann Georg Bausum in 1845, but she died the year at Penang, at age 43. Dyers orphaned daughter, Maria Jane Dyer, married James Hudson Taylor, Samuel and Maria had five children, Maria Dyer, Samuel Dyer, Jr. Burella Hunter Dyer, Maria Jane Dyer, and Ebenezer Dyer. The Memoir of Samuel Dyer, Sixteen Years Missionary to the Chinese, Taylor, James Hudson III, Chang, Irene, Even to Death - The Life and Legacy of Samuel Dyer. Historical Bibliography of the China Inland Mission
14.
Old Protestant Cemetery, George Town
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The Old Protestant Cemetery, also known as Northam Road Cemetery, is a disused Christian cemetery in George Town, Penang, Malaysia. After more than a century of neglect, it is now listed as a Class 1 Heritage Site and is maintained by the Penang Heritage Trust. The cemetery lies in a grove of trees along Northam Road near the historic core of George Town, only metres away from the beachfront. It is also 35 years older than the Old Protestant Cemetery in Macau, in 2012, conservation works were undertaken to protect and preserve the site, although there was some concern about how the restoration was done. Northam Road Cemetery was the first cemetery to be consecrated after Captain Francis Light founded the Prince of Wales Island Settlement in 1786, the first recorded burial was of Lt. William Murray of the Bengal Artillery in 1787, the grave marker is no longer extant. The earliest surviving grave marker is that of one H. D. D, the last person to be buried at the cemetery was Cornelia Josephine Van Someren in 1892. After that, the cemetery was closed and subsequent Christian burials have been carried out in the Western Road Cemetery, the cemetery also contains 12 Chinese graves, refugees of the Taiping Rebellion, as well as the graves of some of Penangs early German merchants and their relatives. There are at least two Armenian graves, of around 500 graves, over 25% are not identifiable due to weathering and damage, the latter due in part to vandals and drug addicts who often hide out at the relatively secluded cemetery. The tablets of many tombs have fallen off, some, which could not be matched to their tombs, are mounted on the south wall. A remarkable portion of the graves are of people who died before reaching 50 years of age, Several graves belong to infants - a poignant reminder of the harsh conditions the early settlers encountered in Penang. Behind this cemetery, accessible through a door in the wall, is the adjacent Roman Catholic Cemetery. Despite its extremely rich historical value, the cemetery is mentioned in tourist brochures and is consequently less often visited than other sites in Penang. The relative lack of attention, as well as the somewhat obscure location. The first known clean-up of the cemetery was in 1894 by British authorities, the cemetery had been closed to new burials two years earlier. Faded inscriptions were also re-inked, and a large signboard in Malay, the cemetery was reopened in time for Francis Lights bicentennial. Another restoration exercise was organised in 2007, the first phase ended on 17 July 2012 and saw the removal of weeds, mosses and fungi on the headstones. The second phase entailed repairs to the structures, and the removal of 80 trees encroaching on the old graves. Experts however expressed concern that the damage to the tombs may have been further aggravated by landscaping workers going about their rounds without supervision
15.
George Spencer-Churchill, 5th Duke of Marlborough
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George Spencer-Churchill, 5th Duke of Marlborough FSA, styled Marquess of Blandford until 1817, was a British nobleman, politician, peer, and collector of antiquities and books. Spencer-Churchill was the eldest son of George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough, francis Spencer, 1st Baron Churchill, was his younger brother. He was later given the degree of Doctor of Laws from the University on 20 June 1792. Lord Blandford represented Oxfordshire in parliament as a Whig between 1790 and 1796 and Tregony as a Tory between 1802 and 1806, from 1804 to 1806 he served under William Pitt the Younger as a Lord of the Treasury. The latter year he was summoned to the House of Lords through a writ of acceleration in his fathers barony of Spencer of Wormleighton, during this time, he lived in Berkshire, at Remenham and Hurst. From 1798, he resided at Whiteknights Park at Earley, near Reading and he was invested as a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries on 8 December 1803. Although the Marquess was born and baptised with the name of George Spencer, soon after succeeding to the Dukedom of Marlborough and this illustrious name did not, however, save him from his mounting debts and his estates were seized and his collections sold. He retired to Blenheim Palace where he lived the remainder of his life off a small annuity granted to the first Duke by Queen Anne, the present Duke is overloaded with debt, is very little better than a common swindler and lets everything about Blenheim. People may shoot and fish at so much per hour and it has required all the authority of a Court of Chancery to prevent his cutting down all the trees in the park. Marlborough married Lady Susan Stewart, daughter of John Stewart, 7th Earl of Galloway and they had four children, George Spencer-Churchill, 6th Duke of Marlborough Lord Charles Spencer-Churchill, married Ethelred Catherine Benett and had issue. Reverend Lord George Henry Spencer-Churchill, married Elizabeth Martha Nares, died and buried in Macao 2 June 1840, whilst as Captain of HBM Ship Druid. Winston Churchill was the dukes great-great-grandson and his eldest son George, Marquess of Blandford, succeeded in the title. The Duchess of Marlborough died at Park Lane, Mayfair, London, in April 1841, aged 73
16.
Winston Churchill
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Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill KG OM CH TD PC DL FRS RA was a British statesman who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 for his overall, in 1963, he was the first of only eight people to be made an honorary citizen of the United States. Churchill was born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough and his father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer, his mother, Jennie Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young officer, he saw action in British India, the Anglo–Sudan War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns, at the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary, during the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government. He then briefly resumed active service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government under Lloyd George as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, at the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister and he led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured. After the Conservative Party suffered a defeat in the 1945 general election. He publicly warned of an Iron Curtain of Soviet influence in Europe, after winning the 1951 election, Churchill again became Prime Minister. His second term was preoccupied by foreign affairs, including the Malayan Emergency, Mau Mau Uprising, Korean War, domestically his government laid great emphasis on house-building. Churchill suffered a stroke in 1953 and retired as Prime Minister in 1955. Upon his death aged ninety in 1965, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral and his highly complex legacy continues to stimulate intense debate amongst writers and historians. Born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the noble Spencer family, Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, like his father. His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough, to highlight his descent from John Churchill, Churchill was born on 30 November 1874, two months prematurely, in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire. From age two to six, he lived in Dublin, where his grandfather had been appointed Viceroy, Churchills brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill, was born during this time in Ireland
17.
John Adams
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John Adams was an American patriot who served as the second President of the United States and the first Vice President. He was a lawyer, diplomat, statesman, political theorist, and, as a Founding Father and he was also a dedicated diarist and correspondent, particularly with his wife and closest advisor Abigail. He collaborated with his cousin, revolutionary leader Samuel Adams, Adams was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, where he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence. He assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776, as a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and acquired vital governmental loans from Amsterdam bankers. Adams was the author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780 which influenced American political theory. Adamss credentials as a revolutionary secured for him two terms as President George Washingtons vice president and also his own election in 1796 as the second president. In his single term as president, he encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the army, the major accomplishment of his presidency was a peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamiltons opposition. Due to his strong posture on defense, Adams is often called the father of the American Navy and he was the first U. S. president to reside in the executive mansion, now known as the White House. In 1800, Adams lost re-election to Thomas Jefferson and retired to Massachusetts and he eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson upon the latters own retirement by initiating a correspondence which lasted fourteen years. He and his wife established a family of politicians, diplomats, Adams was the father of John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States. He died on the anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Modern historians in the aggregate have favorably ranked his administration, John Adams was born on October 30,1735 to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston. He had two brothers, Peter and Elihu. Adams birthplace was then in Braintree, Massachusetts, and is preserved at Adams National Historical Park, Adams mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts. His father was a Congregationalist deacon, a farmer, a cordwainer, the Deacon also served as a selectman and supervised the building of schools and roads. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship, though raised in modest surroundings, Adams felt an acute responsibility to live up to his familys heritage of reverence. Journalist Richard Brookhiser wrote that Adams Puritan ancestors believed they lived in the Bible, England under the Stuarts was Egypt, they were Israel fleeing
18.
John Quincy Adams
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John Quincy Adams was an American statesman who served as a diplomat, United States Senator, member of the House of Representatives, and was the sixth President of the United States from 1825 to 1829. He was a member of the Federalist, Democratic-Republican, National Republican and he was the son of President John Adams and Abigail Adams and thus contributed to the formation of the Adams political family. Adams shaped U. S. foreign policy using his ardently nationalist commitment to U. S. republican values, as a diplomat, Adams played an important role in negotiating key treaties, most notably the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812. As Secretary of State, he negotiated with Britain over the United States northern border with Canada, negotiated with Spain the annexation of Florida, historians generally concur that he was one of the greatest diplomats and secretaries of state in American history. Adams was elected president in a close and controversial four-way contest in 1824, as president he sought to modernize the American economy and promote education. Adams enacted a part of his agenda and paid off much of the national debt, however he was stymied time and again by a Congress controlled by opponents, and his lack of patronage networks helped politicians sabotage him. He lost his 1828 bid for re-election to Andrew Jackson, after leaving office, he was elected as U. S. Representative from Massachusetts in 1830, serving for the last 17 years of his life with greater acclaim than he had achieved as president, animated by his growing revulsion against slavery, Adams became a leading opponent of the Slave Power. Adams predicted the Unions dissolution over slavery, and in such a case, historians have in the aggregate ranked Adams as the 21st most successful president. John Quincy Adams was born on July 11,1767, to John Adams and he was named for his mothers maternal grandfather, Colonel John Quincy, after whom Quincy, Massachusetts, is named. Young Adams was educated by private tutors – his cousin James Thaxter and his fathers law clerk and he soon began to exhibit his literary skills in 1779, when he initiated a diary which he kept until just before he died in 1848. The diary comprised an unprecedented fifty volumes, representing one of the most extensive, much of Adams youth was spent accompanying his father overseas. He accompanied his father on diplomatic missions to France from 1778 until 1779, Adams acquired an education at institutions such as Leiden University. He matriculated in Leiden on January 10,1781, for nearly three years, beginning at the age of 14, he accompanied Francis Dana as a secretary on a mission to Saint Petersburg, Russia, to obtain recognition of the new United States. He spent time in Finland, Sweden, and Denmark and, in 1804, during these years overseas, Adams became fluent in French and Dutch and became familiar with German and other European languages. Though Adams enjoyed Europe, he and his family decided he needed to return to the United States to complete his education and he entered Harvard College, graduated in 1787 with a Bachelor of Arts degree, and was elected by Phi Beta Kappa. Adams, mainly with the influence of his father, had excelled in studies and reached fluency in Latin. Upon entering Harvard he had already translated Virgil, Horace, Plutarch, after graduating from Harvard, he studied law with Theophilus Parsons in Newburyport, Massachusetts from 1787 to 1789
19.
Humphrey Fleming Senhouse
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Captain Sir Humphrey Fleming Senhouse, KCH, CB, was a British Royal Navy officer. He served in the Napoleonic Wars, War of 1812, in China, he commanded HMS Blenheim, in which he died in Hong Kong from fever contracted during the British capture of Canton. Senhouse was born in Barbados and baptised there on 6 June 1781 and he was the third son of William Senhouse and his wife Elizabeth. His father was a lieutenant in the Royal Navy, and surveyor-general of Barbados and his mother was daughter of Samson Wood, the speaker of the Barbados Assembly. His grandfather, Humphrey Senhouse of Netherhall, Cumberland, married Mary, daughter and co-heiress of Sir George Fleming, Senhouse joined the navy in January 1797 on board HMS Prince of Wales, the flagship of Rear-Admiral Henry Harvey in the West Indies Station. In November 1797, he moved to the brig Requin, in which he arrived in England for the first time in 1799, from March 1800 to April 1802, he served in HMS Fisgard under Captains Thomas Byam Martin and Michael Seymour. On 7 April 1802, Senhouse passed his examination, and was promoted as lieutenant of HMS Galgo two days later, in May 1803, he was appointed to HMS Conqueror with Captain Thomas Louis. With Israel Pellew, who relieved Louis in April 1804, Senhouse served in the Mediterranean, West Indies and he again went to the West Indies on board HMS Elephant, and was put on board the flagship of HMS Northumberland under Sir Alexander Cochrane. On 26 January 1809, Senhouse rejoined Cochrane, now in command of HMS Neptune, after assisting in the debarkation of troops in the invasion of Martinique, he was promoted on 7 March to HMS Wolverine, which he commanded in the West Indies until the following December. There, he also commanded HMS Ringdove and HMS Superieure and he was promoted to commander on 2 June. From 1810 to 1812, Senhouse commanded HMS Recruit at Gibraltar, Newfoundland, and he then commanded the 18-gun sloop HMS Martin from 1812 to 1814 in the Halifax Station. In the War of 1812 against the United States, he defended the Martin, aground in Delaware Bay, against a flotilla of eight gunboats and two blockships on 29 July 1813. He was promoted to post-captain on 12 October 1814, and from April to September 1815, from 25 February 1831 to 1834, he served in HMS St Vincent, most of the time as flag-captain to Vice-Admiral Hotham, commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean Station. King William IV told Hotham at Windsor, Sir Henry, you are most fortunate in having one of the cleverest fellows of the navy for your Captain and you are lucky in having him. In July 1831, British warships in the Mediterranean observed smoke caused by the emergence of an island between Pantelleria and Malta. After being detached in the cutter Hind to ascertain its position, Senhouse landed on the island on 3 August. He was nominated a Knight Commander of the Hanoverian Guelphic Order on 13 April 1832, on 9 April 1839, Senhouse commissioned HMS Blenheim. He was sent from England to fill the office of second-in-command of British naval forces in China, commodore James Bremer, commander-in-chief of British forces, entrusted the attack on Anunghoy Island to Senhouse in the capture of the Bogue forts on 26 February 1841
20.
Captain (Royal Navy)
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Please see Captain for other versions of this naval rank. Captain is an officer rank of the Royal Navy. It ranks above Commander and below Commodore and has a NATO ranking code of OF-5, the rank is equivalent to a Colonel in the British Army and Royal Marines, and to a Group Captain in the Royal Air Force. There are similarly named equivalent ranks in the navies of other countries. In former times Royal Navy officers who were Captains by rank and in command of a vessel were referred to as Post-Captains. In the Ministry of Defence, and in Joint Service establishments, the rank insignia features four rings of gold braid with a loop in the upper ring. When in mess dress or mess undress, officers of the rank of Captain and above wear gold-laced trousers, and may wear the undress tailcoat
21.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
22.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
23.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
24.
Historic Centre of Macau
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It represents the architectural legacies of the citys cultural heritage, including monuments such as urban squares, streetscapes, churches and temples. The Historic Centre of Macao is made up of two separated core zones in city center on the Macau peninsula, each core zone is surrounded by a buffer zone. The narrow-stripped Zone 1 is located between Mount Hill and Barra Hill, the Zone is surrounded by a buffer zone that covers a park and immediate urban area. Guia Fortress incorporating Guia Chapel and Guia Lighthouse Most of the items are owned by the Macau Special Administrative Region, cultural Institute of the SAR Government manages the Mandarins House, the Ruins of St. Pauls, the Section of the Old Wall, Mount Fortress and Guia Fortress. The Moorish Barracks is managed by the Macao Harbour Administration Building, the rest of the items are owned and managed by the respective institutions. St. Josephs Seminary Building and Church is owned by St. Josephs Seminary, the Holy House of Mercy Building is owned and managed by Holy House of Mercy Charitable Foundation. Dom Pedro V Theatre is owned and managed by the Management Board of Dom Pedro V Theatre, the nominated buildings of the Historic Center are protected by various laws, including the Basic Law of the Macao SAR
25.
Portas do Cerco
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The Portas do Cerco is an area in Nossa Senhora de Fátima, Macau, China. It is located on the tip of the Macau Peninsula known by its border gate separating Macau from Mainland China. The gate was built in 1849 to replace a crumbling wall that was erected in 1573 to mark the border of the Portuguese colony. It was the site of the Baishaling Incident, a clash between Qing dynasty and Kingdom of Portugal in 1849 over the death of Macaus governor Ferreira do Amaral, led by Colonel Mesquita, Portugal won the small battle which led to the extension of Macaus border northwards. At the limit of expansion, the Portas do Cerco was built with the inscription A pátria honrai. For the next 155 years, the served as the border between Macau and China. Macau, now an administrative region of China, still has an official border with Zhuhai in mainland China a few meters behind the old barrier gate. The new Posto Fronteiriço das Portas do Cerco was opened on January 15,2004, the first formalised border crossing was built in 1573, which was subsequently repaired and rebuilt several times until the present border gate was erected in 1870. It was the site of the Battle of the Barrier between British and Chinese forces on August 19,1840. According to reports, the exchange lasted for 1-and-three-quarter hours leaving one dead and several injured on Macau side. Transmac 2, 3A,5,9, 9A, 28C,34, AP1 TCM10, 10B,17,18,25,30, AP1 List of tourist attractions in Macau Satellite image of Portas do Cerco and the vicinity by Google Maps
26.
Macau Protestant Chapel
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Macau Protestant Chapel, commonly known as Morrison Chapel is a small Anglican chapel situated off Camões Square in Santo António, Macau, China. The present structure was built in 1922, traders of the East India Company were engaged in trade with China from the late eighteenth century until 1834. Their charter included stipulations that employees regularly attend services. Before 1821, when the land for a chapel and burial ground was purchased, the purchase of the burial ground was prompted by the death of Mary Morrison, wife of Robert Morrison, missionary and translator employed by the East India Company. Prior to this, the Portuguese authorities had only allowed Roman Catholic burials in the colony, nothing is known about the construction of the first chapel at the site. The first recorded ceremony at the chapel was a marriage in 1833, in 1834, when the East India Company lost its trade monopoly, responsibility for the Chapel and cemetery was taken by the British government. In 1870 this responsibility was transferred by Deed of Transfer to Trustees consisting of three high ranking representatives of at least two nations having Protestant members living in Macau, in 1921, the Chapel required complete rebuilding, except for the original foundation. Two conditions were placed on works, it had to be hidden from the street behind a high wall. The chapel has remained unaltered since the completion of these works in 1922. When men priests could no longer reach Macao, she was licensed by the Assistant Bishop of Canton to preside at Holy Communion services, the Bishop of Hong Kong and South China regularised her position by ordaining her a Priest of God in Shui Hing on 25 January 1944. She thus became the first woman priest in the worldwide Anglican Communion, reverend Stephen R. Durie has been the Pastor & Priest-in-Charge since Dec 2008. Religion in Macau Lofland, B. J, the Morrison Chapel, chapel guide, read in 2008 Official website
27.
Religion in Macau
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Religion in Macau is represented predominantly by Chinese folk religions and Buddhism. During the period in which the city was under Portuguese rule the Catholic Church became one of the dominant faiths, but nowadays it has greatly declined. According to the 1991 census, the latest to collect data,16. 8% of the people of Macau identified as Buddhists,6. 7% as Catholics. According to another survey released in 1999, 49% of the population followed folk worship, 11% were Buddhists, meanwhile, more than two-thirds of the population went to temples occasionally. The Pew Research Center has reported the following statistics for the year 2011,58. 9% folk religions,17. 3% Buddhism,15. 4% non religious,7. 2% Christianity,0. 2% Islam and 1% other beliefs. The Macau Basic Law guarantees freedom of religion and the residents of Macau have the right to practice a religion of their choice, based on Article 3,34 the people in Macau are free to participate in religious activities and to preach as they wish. Religious organizations can found religious colleges or other schools, hospitals, schools operated by religious institutions can teach their religion. Religious organizations have the right to use, handle, inherit and their right to wealth is protected by the law. The Chinese folk religion, also named Shenism, is the religion of the Han Chinese. In Macau, one of the most beloved deities is Mazu, the name Macau itself derives from a Portuguese version of the local name of Mazu, Maa Gok 媽閣. The culture of Macau is influenced by Confucian values and morality, in 1909, the Macau Confucian Association was created. The organization was at first an offshoot of the Beijing Confucian Association, the purpose of the Macau Confucian Association is to respect the principles of Confucianism, to spread the holy virtue, provide education for those with aptitude and promote the culture. To this end, in 1913 the organization started a school in Macau. In 1960, the organization printed a selection of the sayings of Confucius for use in secondary schools and it has collected about 74 sayings from the Analects of Confucius, Mencius and other Confucian classics, in order to help students to memorize and recite them. Taoism was first introduced to Macau in the third century, elements of it have since largely been practiced alongside Buddhism. The Government Information Bureau reports that nearly 80% of the population practices Buddhism, Catholicism is a lasting legacy of the Portuguese colonial control of Macau. The Catholic Church in Macau is organized through the Diocese of Macau, since 2003, Bishop José Lai Hung-Seng has been at the head of this diocese. Macau became a diocese of the Catholic Church in the sixteenth century, at its foundation, the Diocese of Macau was given a wide jurisdiction over various ecclesiastical territories in the Far East, such as China, Japan, Vietnam and Malaysia
28.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
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A-Ma Temple
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The A-Ma Temple is a temple to the Chinese sea-goddess Mazu located in São Lourenço, Macau, China. Built in 1488, the temple is one of the oldest in Macau, the name Macau is thought to be derived from the name of the temple. It is said that when the Portuguese sailors landed at the coast just outside the temple and asked the name of the place, the Portuguese then named the peninsula Macau. The temple was described in ancient Chinese texts, as well as represented in paintings. It is also one of the first scenes photographed in Macao, in 2005, the temple became one of the designated sites of the Historic Centre of Macau, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Temple consists of six parts, Gate Pavilion, the Memorial Arch, the Prayer Hall, the Hall of Benevolence. Religion in Macau List of historic buildings and structures in Macau
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Casa Garden
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The Casa Garden is a small parkette located in Santo António, Macau, China. The area is the headquarters of the Macau delegation of the Orient Foundation, built in 1770, the park was originally the residence of a wealthy Portuguese merchant Manuel Pereira. At a later period, it was rented out to the English East India Company and was used to house the directors of the Macau branch of the company, in 2005, it was officially enlisted as part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Historic Centre of Macau. Nowadays it is a centre, which promotes a cross between Portuguese and Macau/Chinese art. In 2014 Sofia Areal had an exhibition in Casa Garden after a residence in Macau. Coupled with an exhibition in Lisbon in 2015 in Museum of the Orient, the park contains the old residence, Old Protestant Cemetery and an art gallery. List of tourist attractions in Macau
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Cathedral of the Nativity of Our Lady, Macau
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The Cathedral of the Nativity of Our Lady also Sé Catedral da Natividade de Nossa Senhora and Igreja da Sé is a cathedral in Sé, Macau. It is the current cathedral of the Diocese of Macau, the cathedral is also called the Church of the Nativity of Our Lady. The cathedral is included in the list of monuments of the Historic Centre of Macau. 1623 In the early seventeenth century it was a wooden chapel. Before 1623, the Diocese was headquartered in the St. Lazarus Church,1937 The cathedral was completely rebuilt in concrete in 1937, costing approximately 100,900 patacas
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Dom Pedro V Theatre
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The Dom Pedro V Theatre, is a historical theatre situated at Largo de Santo Agostinho in São Lourenço, Macau, China. It is one of the first western-style theatres in East Asia, the theater is an important landmark in the region and remains a venue for important public events and celebrations today. The Dom Pedro V Theatre was built in 1860 by local Portuguese to commemorate their reigning king, the theater is neo-classical in design, incorporating a portico front on a rectilinear plan. Its current façade was added in 1873. The building is 41.5 metres long and 22 metres wide and it used to be a regular meeting place for the Portuguese and Macanese people living in Macau. Apart from being a theatre, it features a balllrom, a study room, hosted the Italian opera Madama Butterflys premiere in Asia. Was used as a shelter in the second world war. In 2005, the theater one of the designated sites of the Historic Centre of Macau enlisted on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Dom Pedro List of oldest buildings and structures in Macau
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Fortaleza do Monte
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Fortaleza do Monte is a fort in Santo António in Macau SAR, China. It is the military centre of Macau. The Fortaleza forms part of the Historic Centre of Macau and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the fort was built between 1617 and 1626 on the 52 metres tall Mount Hill, located directly east of the Ruins of St. Pauls. It was constructed to protect the properties of the Jesuits in Macau, later, the Fortaleza was taken over by the Portuguese colonial governor and the relevant authorities for the defence of Macau. The Fortaleza occupies an area of roughly 8,000 square metres,32 muzzle-loading cannons were placed around the forts walls and the two corners of the southeastern fort wall have small watchtowers. The fort proved crucial in successfully holding off the attempted Dutch invasion of Macau in 1622, the fort remained a restricted military area until 1965 when the barracks in the fort were converted into a weather observatory and was opened to the public. The observatory ceased its function and was relocated to Taipa in 1996 before it was demolished to make way for the Museum of Macau, the tree-covered park at the top of the fort has a panoramic view of the mainland area of Macau. Apart from being a fortress, it has served various functions, the base for two companies of the Portuguese Prince Regent Battalion to act as a police force from 1810 to 1841. A weather observatory of the Meteorological Department of Portuguese Macau, Fortaleza do Monte, Macau List of oldest buildings and structures in Macau List of tourist attractions in Macau
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Guia Fortress
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The Guia Fortress is a 17th-century colonial military fort, chapel, and lighthouse complex in São Lázaro, Macau, China. The complex is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Historic Centre of Macau, the fort and chapel were constructed between the 1622 and 1638. The lighthouse was constructed between 1864 and 1865, the first western style lighthouse in east Asia or on the China coast. The lighthouse stands at Guia Hill, which stands at 91.4 metres tall, the complex was built upon the highest point on Macau, Guia Hill, and named after the same location. Today, the site is a tourist destination, the chapel was built around 1622 inside the Guia Fortress. In 1998, frescoes were uncovered in the chapel during routine conservation work, List of lighthouses in Macau List of oldest buildings and structures in Macau English site for Macau Heritage
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Holy House of Mercy
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The Holy House of Mercy of Macau, is a historic building in Senado Square, Macau, China. Established as a branch of the Santa Casa da Misericórdia, it was first built in 1569 on the orders of the Bishop of Macau and it was a medical clinic and several other social welfare structures in early Macau. It later served as an orphanage and refuge for widows of sailors lost at sea and it is part of the Historic Centre of Macau, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Leal Senado Macau General Post Office Holy House of Mercy, Information from Macau Government Tourist Office
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Leal Senado Building
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The Leal Senado Building was the seat of Portuguese Macaus government. It is located at one end of the Senado Square in São Lourenço, Macau, the title was bestowed on Macaus government in 1810 by Portugals Prince Regent João, who later became King John VI of Portugal. This was a reward for Macaus loyalty to Portugal, which refused to recognise Spain’s sovereignty during the Philippine Dynasty that it occupied Portugal, a plaque ordered by the king commemorating this can still be seen inside the entrance hall. A Chinese-style Pavilion used to stand on the site of Leal Senado building and that building was then a meeting place for the Portuguese and the Chinese officials, and where the Ming dynasty government would announce regulations to Macau. The Portuguese planned to buy in the pavilion as early as 1583, however, it wasnt until 1784 that the Portuguese government finally purchased it at a price of 80,000 taels. The Leal Senado building itself was built after the purchase, Portuguese rallies and celebrations were also held here. Although built in 1784, it was in a similar to plain style from 14th- to 15th-century Portugal than the Pombaline style that was popular at the time when the Leal Senado was built. A number of institutions were affiliated to the building, including a museum of Luís Vaz de Camões, a post office, a court and it was completely refurbished in 1904. In 1936 the building was damaged again by another typhoon, after the handover of Macau to China in 1999 it became the headquarters of the Institute of Civic and Municipal Affairs. It became part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Historic Centre of Macau in 2005, the right part of the first floor of the building features an exhibition hall, hosting art exhibitions on a regular basis. The convention hall is on the floor, where the public meetings and press conferences of the former Macau Municipal Council. A public library, opened in 1929, is located at the Northwestern part of the first floor and it is blueprinted after the library of Mafra Convent in Portugal, decorated in classical style. It contains around 18,500 books and specialises in collecting foreign language books in dating from 17th century to the 1950s, in particular those of Portuguese history in Africa and the Far East. The building has retained all its original walls and primary layout
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Na Tcha Temple
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The Na Tcha Temple, built in 1888, is a Chinese folk religion temple in Santo António, Macau, China dedicated to the worship of the deity Na Tcha. The Na Tcha Temple was built in homage to the god of war. It is believed that it was built to put an end to the plague ravaging the region during that time, the small traditional Chinese temple is a simple, single chamber building measuring 8.4 meters long and 4.51 meters wide. The entrance porch opens to the building measuring 5 meters in depth. The building is painted gray, with few ornamentations, except for paintings on walls under the entrance porch, the temples roof, rising five meters, is of the traditional yingshan style. True to traditional Chinese architecture, the Na Tcha has protective ceramic animal figures on its ridge. Na Tcha Temple is located behind the Ruins of St. Pauls, remains of a principal Jesuit cathedral in the region, in 2005, the temple became one of the designated sites of the Historic Centre of Macau enlisted on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Religion in Macau List of oldest buildings and structures in Macau
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Ruins of St. Paul's
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The Ruins of St. Pauls are the ruins of a 17th-century complex in Santo António, Macau, China. It includes what was originally St. Pauls College and the Church of St. Paul also known as Mater Dei, today, the ruins are one of Macaus best known landmarks. They are often, but incorrectly, mentioned as a former cathedral, in 2005, they were officially listed as part of the Historic Centre of Macau, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Fortaleza do Monte overlooks the ruin and this could have been due to Francesco Melzi showing the codex to Carlo Spinola s. j. in Milan or by the architect Giacomo della Porta who designed the façade of the Chiesa del Gesu in Rome. The façade sits on a hill, with 68 stone steps leading up to it. A few of the carvings are of the founders of the Jesuit Order, the conquest of Death by Jesus, and at the very top. Resisting calls for the dangerously leaning structure to be demolished, from 1990 to 1995, the crypt and the foundations were uncovered, revealing the architectural plan of the building. The ruins were restored by the Macanese government into a museum, a steel stairway allows tourists to climb up to the top of the façade from the rear. It is customary to throw coins into the top window of the ruins from the stairs, religion in Macau Media related to Ruins of St. Pauls at Wikimedia Commons
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Sir Robert Ho Tung Library
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The Sir Robert Ho Tung Library is a public library in São Lourenço, Macau, China. It is located in St. Augustine’s Square in the Historic Centre of Macau, the library is housed in a mansion that has good historical, cultural and architectural value. The building was constructed before 1894 and was owned by Dona Carolina Cunha, later the mansion was purchased by Hong Kong businessman Sir Robert Ho Tung in 1918 as a retreat and he lived there between 1941 and 1945. He died in 1955 and the building was presented to the Government for conversion to a library in accordance with his will. Sir Robert Ho Tung Library was officially opened in 1958 to the general public, in 2005, a new building was constructed near the back garden of the mansion, making the library the biggest public library in Macau. List of oldest buildings and structures in Macau
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St. Dominic's Church, Macau
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St. Dominics Church is a late 16th century Baroque-style church that serves within the Cathedral Parish of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Macau. It is located in the part of the city at the Largo de São Domingos. The construction of the church was finished in 1587 and was overseen by three Spanish Dominican priests, due to renovations and reconstruction, the current structure dates back to the early 17th century. The church is listed as one of the 29 sites that form the Historic Centre of Macau, the church was established in 1587 by three Spanish Dominican priests who arrived from Acapulco, Mexico. He was promptly murdered at the foot of the altar while mass was being celebrated, sixty-three years later, in 1707, the Dominicans supported the Popes stance with regards to the Chinese Rites controversy. This was in opposition and defiance to the view of the Bishop of Macau, when soldiers were sent to the church in order to uphold this ruling, the friars responded by closing the church for three days and throwing rocks to repel them. The first Portuguese-language newspaper in China—A Abelha da China —was published at St. Dominics on September 12,1822. The church closed down in 1834 when monastic orders were dissolved and expropriated to the government, who converted it into barracks, a stable. However, it reopened and was given many works of sacred art from other religious orders dissolved back in Portugal. The church underwent renovation in 1997 and a museum was added alongside the church, the church of St. Dominic was built in a Baroque style and is noted for its mixture of European and local Macanese features in its design. This is demonstrated in the use of Chinese-style roof tiles. The churchs high altar features a statue of the Madonna and Child as the centrepiece and is flanked by wood, the Treasure of Sacred Art Museum was established as part of the 1997 renovation and is located inside the churchs bell tower. It contains approximately 300 religious works of art and artifacts, list of oldest buildings and structures in Macau Religion in Macau St. Dominics Church Museum – Treasure of Sacred Art
