1.
Old South Church
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Old South Church in Boston, Massachusetts, is a historic United Church of Christ congregation first organized in 1669. Its present building was designed in the Gothic Revival style by Charles Amos Cummings and Willard T. Sears, completed in 1873, the church, which was built on newly filled land in the Back Bay section of Boston, is located at 645 Boylston Street on Copley Square. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1970 for its significance as one of the finest High Victorian Gothic churches in New England. It is home to one of the religious communities in the United States. Established in 1669, Old South Church is one of the religious communities in the United States. It was organized by Congregationalist dissenters from Bostons First Church and was known as the Third Church, the Third Churchs congregation met first in their Cedar Meeting House, then at the Old South Meeting House at the corner of Washington and Milk Streets in Boston. Members of the congregation have included Samuel Adams, William Dawes, Benjamin Franklin, Samuel Sewall, in 1773, Samuel Adams gave the signals from the Old South Meeting House for the war whoops that started the Boston Tea Party. During the Unitarian Movement of the early 19th century, Old South was the sole Congregational Church in Boston to adhere to the doctrine of Trinitarianism. In 1816 Old South Church joined with Park Street Church to form the City Mission Society, during the American Civil War, Old South became a recruiting center for the Union Army under minister Jacob Manning. Though the congregation was not entirely abolitionist, it supported the Union cause. The conclusion of the Civil War was followed by a time of increased inclusion for the congregation. Under minister George Angier Gordon the congregation moved from its house at Washington Street to its Back Bay location in 1875. Old Souths commitment to ministry and care continued on into the 20th century becoming a segue for the inclusion of new members increasingly diverse by race, class. The congregation has formally adopted a platform of equality, social justice, the church building was designed between 1870 and 1872 by the Boston architectural firm of Cummings and Sears in the Venetian Gothic style. The style follows the precepts of the British cultural theorist and architectural critic John Ruskin as outlined in his treatise The Stones of Venice, Old South Church in Boston remains one of the most significant examples of Ruskins influence on American architecture. The architects, Charles Amos Cummings and Willard T. Sears, the exterior of the church is primarily built of Roxbury Conglomerate commonly called puddingstone. Many arches, and several walls of stone are striped with alternating courses of yellow-beige, the porticos and large open arches in the campanile are decorated with simple plate tracery. The upper arches of the porticos are decorated with screens of wrought iron
2.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
3.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Washington Street (Boston)
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Washington Street is a street originating in downtown Boston, Massachusetts that extends southwestward to the Massachusetts–Rhode Island state line. The majority of it was built as the Norfolk and Bristol Turnpike in the early 19th century and it is the longest street in Boston, and it remains one of the longest streets in the state of Massachusetts. Washington Street, as the first street that connected peninsular Boston to the mainland, the name was extended north to Adams Square on July 6,1824, and north on a new road to Haymarket Square on November 6,1872. The part north of Roxbury Street in Dudley Square, Roxbury was laid out as a way on January 19,1662. Additionally, the Washington Street name went west on Roxbury Street, Tremont Street and it ran from Dudley Square to the Rhode Island line and beyond to downtown Pawtucket. Coincidentally the only not built as a new road was the part through North Attleborough that US1 now bypasses. The southern half of the turnpike got little use as it avoided all the towns, where travelers wanted to stop, in fact, until the 1930s, when the current highway was built between Boston and Providence, the southern half remained a dirt road. The part of the turnpike in Roxbury was laid out as a road in June 1857. It was named Shawmut Avenue, as an extension of that road from Dudley Square, the portion in West Roxbury was named Shawmut Avenue February 3,1858. On July 2,1860, Tremont Street was extended west from its south end along former Washington Street to Brookline. South from downtown Dedham, the turnpike went not via the current Washington Street, the part of Washington Street north of Haymarket Square was known as Charlestown Street until around 1900. The first state highway in Boston was the part of Washington Street from Dedham to West Roxbury Parkway and it was taken over by the Massachusetts Department of Public Works in 1908. The short piece in West Roxbury Parkway, to just north of the road through the parkway, was taken over in 1921, Washington Street begins at Keany Square, the intersection with Causeway Street and Commercial Street, at the south end of the Charlestown Bridge. This section of the street is known as North Washington Street or Joe Tecces Way, Washington Street begins once again at State and Court Streets as a one-way thoroughfare. Through Downtown Crossing, from Milk Street south to Temple Place, South of Temple Place, Washington is, once again, one-way northbound, becoming two-way at Stuart Street and Kneeland Street. At Dudley Square in Roxbury, Washington Street is southbound-only for several blocks, northbound traffic bypasses this section to the east using those two streets. Southbound traffic must use short sections of South Street and Poplar Street at Roslindale Square, South of there, near the border between Roslindale and West Roxbury, Washington Street crosses West Roxbury Parkway and acquires a median strip. This median lasts until just before the Dedham city line, where the road continues as an undivided road, Washington Street continues southwestward, through the center of Dedham, the outskirts of Westwood, the centers of Norwood, and East Walpole and South Walpole
6.
Downtown Crossing
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Downtown Crossing is a shopping district that is a small part of downtown Boston, Massachusetts, located due east of Boston Common and west of the Financial District. It features large department stores as well as restaurants, souvenir sellers, general retail establishments, the section of Washington Street between Temple and Bromfield streets are closed to most vehicular traffic, pedestrians may walk freely in the street. Since the early 1900s, the area along Washington and Tremont Streets, the side streets between the two main thoroughfares look like the rungs of a ladder when viewed on a map, hence the name. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Summer Street was a neighborhood, with townhouses designed by Charles Bulfinch. The Great Boston Fire of 1872 destroyed much of the neighborhood, following the success of the Faneuil Hall Marketplace, Boston decided to redevelop the Washington Street area into a pedestrian-only mall, which was unveiled in 1979. At first, foot traffic and business in the area declined, between 1895 and 1917, Downtown Crossing became the hub of department store shopping in Boston. In 1841, Eben Jordan and Benjamin L. Marsh opened the first Jordan Marsh store as wholesalers, another major store, Filenes, was founded in 1881. Originally known as William Filenes Sons Co. the store expanded, gilchrist and Kennedys also opened in the neighborhood, though both are now defunct. These stores attracted more visitors, including those from the suburbs. Nationwide, downtown department stores faced challenges after World War II due to suburbanization and competition from big box stores, Filenes Basement would go on to become a major department store independent of Filenes. The flagship store of Filenes Basement was located underground, in the basement of the former Filenes department store, the two stores, formerly under the same ownership, were disassociated in 1988. The building housing the two stores was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1986, during the Winter Season Filenes would hold a Christmas tree lighting and Jordan Marsh would present a series festive Christmas window displays known as the Enchanted Village. The window display has since relocated to Bostons Hynes Convention Center, the area is experiencing more growth due to new luxury hotel and condominium additions. In 2001, Millennium Place was completed, the luxury towers rise to 38 stories and 36 stories. In 1996, the former Jordan Marsh store became Macys, in 2006, Vornado Realty Trust announced the purchase of the former Filenes site for $100m. The project is expected to cost around $620 million and the project would be filled with upscale shopping destinations, high-dollar business space, the plan calls for a 38-story tower that will rise to 495 feet. However, the left by Filenes has left the building to be redeveloped. Filenes Basement has been closed for the duration of construction, but has vowed to return upon the completion of construction, as of September 2011, Filenes Basement is still closed
7.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
8.
Boston Tea Party
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The Boston Tea Party was a political protest by the Sons of Liberty in Boston, on December 16,1773. The demonstrators, some disguised as Native Americans, in defiance of the Tea Act of May 10,1773 and they boarded the ships and threw the chests of tea into Boston Harbor. The British government responded harshly and the episode escalated into the American Revolution, the Tea Party was the culmination of a resistance movement throughout British America against the Tea Act, which had been passed by the British Parliament in 1773. Protesters had successfully prevented the unloading of taxed tea in three colonies, but in Boston, embattled Royal Governor Thomas Hutchinson refused to allow the tea to be returned to Britain. The Boston Tea Party was a significant event in the growth of the American Revolution, Parliament responded in 1774 with the Coercive Acts, or Intolerable Acts, which, among other provisions, ended local self-government in Massachusetts and closed Bostons commerce. The crisis escalated, and the American Revolutionary War began near Boston in 1775, the North Ministrys attempt to resolve these issues produced a showdown that would eventually result in revolution. As Europeans developed a taste for tea in the 17th century, in England, Parliament gave the East India Company a monopoly on the importation of tea in 1698. When tea became popular in the British colonies, Parliament sought to eliminate competition by passing an act in 1721 that required colonists to import their tea only from Great Britain. The East India Company did not export tea to the colonies, by law, British firms bought this tea and exported it to the colonies, where they resold it to merchants in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. Until 1767, the East India Company paid an ad valorem tax of about 25% on tea that it imported into Great Britain, Parliament laid additional taxes on tea sold for consumption in Britain. To help offset this loss of government revenue, Parliament also passed the Townshend Revenue Act of 1767, instead of solving the smuggling problem, however, the Townshend duties renewed a controversy about Parliaments right to tax the colonies. Controversy between Great Britain and the colonies arose in the 1760s when Parliament sought, for the first time, some colonists, known in the colonies as Whigs, objected to the new tax program, arguing that it was a violation of the British Constitution. Britons and British Americans agreed that, according to the constitution, in Great Britain, this meant that taxes could only be levied by Parliament. Colonists, however, did not elect members of Parliament, according to Whigs, colonists could only be taxed by their own colonial assemblies. When new taxes were levied in the Townshend Revenue Act of 1767, merchants organized a non-importation agreement, and many colonists pledged to abstain from drinking British tea, with activists in New England promoting alternatives, such as domestic Labrador tea. Smuggling continued apace, especially in New York and Philadelphia, where tea smuggling had always been more extensive than in Boston. Parliament finally responded to the protests by repealing the Townshend taxes in 1770, except for the tea duty and this partial repeal of the taxes was enough to bring an end to the non-importation movement by October 1770. From 1771 to 1773, British tea was once imported into the colonies in significant amounts
9.
First Church in Boston
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First Church in Boston is a Unitarian Universalist Church founded in 1630 by John Winthrops original Puritan settlement in Boston, Massachusetts. The current building is on 66 Marlborough Street in Boston, the church has long been associated with Harvard University. The church was created in 1630 when the settlers on the Arbella arrived in what is now Charlestown, John Wilson was the first minister, and the only minister while the church was in Charlestown. Two years later constructed a meeting house across the Charles River near what is now State Street in Boston. In 1633 John Cotton arrived from England, and was an elder at the church, helping to establish the foundation of the Congregationalist Church. Massachusetts state churches including First Church were officially disaffiliated with the government in 1833, in the 19th century, the First Church moved to Back Bay in Boston. The building at 66 Marlborough Street in Boston dated from 1867 and was designed by Boston architects William Robert Ware, after a fire in 1968, First Church and Second Church merged and built a new building at the same location. This building, by architect Paul Rudolph, incorporates part of the facade of the 1867 building, Second Churchs Back Bay location in the Fenway was sold just before the merger. This is our church, the seven societies of the First Church in Boston 1630-2005, Boston, Society of the First Church in Boston,2005. Google books Paul Rudolph & his architecture, a page from a website devoted to Rudolphs work, featuring photos of the church building. Paul Rudolph & his architecture First Church in Boston website 1630 Christian Covenant of First Church in Boston
10.
John Winthrop
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John Winthrop was an English Puritan lawyer and one of the leading figures in founding the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the second major settlement in New England, following Plymouth Colony. Winthrop led the first large wave of immigrants from England in 1630 and his writings and vision of the colony as a Puritan city upon a hill dominated New England colonial development, influencing the governments and religions of neighboring colonies. Winthrop was born into a wealthy landowning and merchant family and he trained in the law and became Lord of the Manor at Groton in Suffolk. He was not involved in founding the Massachusetts Bay Company in 1628, Winthrop was a respected political figure, and his attitude toward governance seems authoritarian to modern sensibilities. Winthrops son John was one of the founders of the Connecticut Colony and his long list of descendants includes famous Americans, and his writings continue to influence politicians today. John Winthrop was born on 12 January 1587/8 to Adam and Anne Winthrop in Edwardstone, Suffolk and his birth was recorded in the parish register at Groton. His fathers family had been successful in the business, and his father was a lawyer. His mothers family was also well-to-do, with properties in Suffolk, when Winthrop was young, his father became a director at Trinity College, Cambridge. Winthrops uncle John emigrated to Ireland, and the Winthrop family took up residence at Groton Manor, Winthrop was first tutored at home by John Chaplin and was assumed to have attended grammar school at Bury St. Edmunds. He was also exposed to religious discussions between his father and clergymen, and thus came to a deep understanding of theology at an early age. He was admitted to Trinity College in December 1602, matriculating at the university a few months later, among the students with whom he would have interacted were John Cotton and John Wheelwright, two men who also had important roles in New England. He was a childhood and university friend of William Spring. The teenage Winthrop admitted in his diary of the time to lusts, so masterly as no good could fasten upon me. Biographer Francis Bremer suggests that Winthrops need to control his baser impulses may have prompted him to leave school early, in 1604, Winthrop journeyed to Great Stambridge in Essex with a friend. They stayed at the home of a friend, and Winthrop was favorably impressed with their daughter Mary Forth. He left Trinity College to marry her on 16 April 1605 at Great Stambridge, Mary bore him five children, of whom only three survived to adulthood. The oldest of their children was John Winthrop, the Younger and their last two children, two girls, died not long after birth, and Mary died in 1615 from complications of the last birth. The couple spent most of their time at Great Stambridge, living on the Forth estate, in 1613, Adam Winthrop transferred the family holdings in Groton to Winthrop, who then became Lord of the Manor at Groton
11.
Salisbury
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Salisbury is a cathedral city in Wiltshire, England, and the only city within the county. It is the third-largest settlement in the county, after Swindon and Chippenham, with a population of 40,302, the city is located in the southeast of Wiltshire, near the edge of Salisbury Plain. Its cathedral was located to the north at Old Sarum, following its relocation. The new town received its city charter in 1227 under the name New Sarum, which continued to be its name until 2009. It sits at the confluence of five rivers, the Nadder, Ebble, Wylye, and Bourne are tributary to the Hampshire Avon, which flows to the south coast and into the sea at Christchurch in Dorset. Salisbury railway station serves the city and is a regional interchange, Stonehenge, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is about 8 miles northwest of Salisbury and greatly aids the local economy. The city itself, Old Sarum, the present cathedral and the ruins of the one also attract visitors. The first part of the name is of obscure origin, the form Sarum is a Latinization of Sar, a medieval abbreviation for Sarisberie. Salisbury appeared in the Welsh Chronicle of the Britons as Caer-Caradog, Caer-Gradawc, cair-Caratauc, one of the 28 British cities listed in the History of the Britons, has also been identified with Salisbury. The hilltop at Old Sarum lies near the Neolithic sites of Stonehenge and Avebury and it commanded a salient between the River Bourne and the Hampshire Avon near a crossroads of several early trade routes. During the Iron Age, a hillfort was constructed around it sometime between 600 and 300 BC, the Romans may have occupied the site or left it in the hands of an allied tribe. Amid the Saxon invasions, Old Sarum fell to King Cynric of Wessex in 552, preferring settlements in bottomland like nearby Wilton, the Saxons largely ignored Old Sarum until the Viking invasions led King Alfred to restore its fortifications. Along with Wilton, however, it was abandoned by its residents to be sacked and burned by the Dano-Norwegian king Sweyn Forkbeard in 1003 and it subsequently became the site of Wiltons mint. Following the Norman invasion, a castle was constructed by 1070. The castle was directly by the Norman kings, its castellan was generally also the sheriff of Wiltshire. Hermann and his successor Saint Osmund began the construction of the first Salisbury cathedral, the cathedral was consecrated on 5 April 1092 but suffered extensive damage in a storm, traditionally said to have occurred only five days later. Bishop Roger was an ally of Henry I who served as his viceroy during the kings absence to Normandy and directed the royal administration. He refurbished and expanded Old Sarums cathedral in the 1110s and began work on a palace during the 1130s
12.
Boston Massacre
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The Boston Massacre, known as the Incident on King Street by the British, was an incident on March 5,1770, in which British Army soldiers shot and killed people while under attack by a mob. The incident was publicized by leading Patriots, such as Paul Revere and Samuel Adams. Amid ongoing tense relations between the population and the soldiers, a mob formed around a British sentry, who was subjected to verbal abuse and he was eventually supported by eight additional soldiers, who were subjected to verbal threats and snowballs. Spontaneously they fired into the crowd, instantly killing three demonstrators, two died later. The crowd eventually dispersed after Acting Governor Thomas Hutchinson promised an inquiry, eight soldiers, one officer, and four civilians were arrested and charged with murder. Defended by lawyer and future American president John Adams, six of the soldiers were acquitted, Boston, the capital of the Province of Massachusetts Bay and an important shipping town, was a major center of resistance to unpopular acts of taxation by the British Parliament in the 1760s. In 1768, the Townshend Acts were placed upon the colonists, by which a variety of items that were manufactured in Britain. Colonists objected that the Townshend Acts were a violation of the natural, charter, the Massachusetts House of Representatives began a campaign against the Townshend Acts by sending a petition to King George III asking for the repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act. In Great Britain, Lord Hillsborough, who had recently appointed to the newly created office of Colonial Secretary, was alarmed by the actions of the Massachusetts House. In April 1768 he sent a letter to the governors in America. He also ordered Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard to direct the Massachusetts House to rescind the letter. Bostons chief customs officer, Charles Paxton, wrote to Hillsborough, commodore Samuel Hood responded by sending the fifty-gun warship HMS Romney, which arrived in Boston Harbor in May 1768. On June 10,1768, customs officials seized Liberty, a sloop owned by leading Boston merchant John Hancock, Bostonians, already angry because the captain of Romney had been impressing local sailors, began to riot. Customs officials fled to Castle William for protection, given the unstable state of affairs in Massachusetts, Hillsborough instructed General Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief, North America, to send such Force as You shall think necessary to Boston. On October 1,1768, the first of four British Army regiments began disembarking in Boston, two regiments were removed from Boston in 1769, but the 14th and the 29th Regiments of Foot remained. Tensions rose markedly after Christopher Seider, a lad about eleven Years of Age, was killed by a customs employee on February 22,1770. Seiders death was glorified in the Boston Gazette, and his funeral was described as one of the largest of the time in Boston, the killing and subsequent propaganda inflamed tensions, with gangs of colonists looking for soldiers to harass, and soldiers also on occasion looking for confrontation. On the evening of March 5, Private Hugh White, a British soldier, stood on duty outside the Custom house on King Street
13.
John Hancock
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John Hancock was an American merchant, statesman, and prominent Patriot of the American Revolution. He served as president of the Second Continental Congress and was the first, before the American Revolution, Hancock was one of the wealthiest men in the Thirteen Colonies, having inherited a profitable mercantile business from his uncle. Hancock began his career in Boston as a protégé of Samuel Adams. As tensions between colonists and Great Britain increased in the 1760s, Hancock used his wealth to support the colonial cause and he became very popular in Massachusetts, especially after British officials seized his sloop Liberty in 1768 and charged him with smuggling. Although the charges against Hancock were eventually dropped, he has often described as a smuggler in historical accounts. Hancock was one of Bostons leaders during the crisis led to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775. He served more than two years in the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, and as president of Congress, was the first to sign the Declaration of Independence, Hancock returned to Massachusetts and was elected governor of the Commonwealth, serving in that role for most of his remaining years. He used his influence to ensure that Massachusetts ratified the United States Constitution in 1788, according to the Gregorian calendar, John Hancock was born on January 23,1737, according to the Julian calendar then in use, the date was January 12,1736. He was born in Braintree, Massachusetts, in a part of town eventually became the separate city of Quincy. He was the son of the Reverend John Hancock of Braintree and Mary Hawke Thaxter, as a child, Hancock became a casual acquaintance of young John Adams, whom the Reverend Hancock had baptized in 1735. The Hancocks lived a life, and owned one slave to help with household work. After Hancocks father died in 1744, John was sent to live with his uncle and aunt, Thomas Hancock, Thomas Hancock was the proprietor of a firm known as the House of Hancock, which imported manufactured goods from Britain and exported rum, whale oil, and fish. Thomas Hancocks highly successful business made him one of Bostons richest and he and Lydia, along with several servants and slaves, lived in Hancock Manor on Beacon Hill. The couple, who did not have any children of their own, after graduating from the Boston Latin School in 1750, Hancock enrolled in Harvard College and received a bachelors degree in 1754. Upon graduation, he began to work for his uncle, just as the French, Thomas Hancock had close relations with the royal governors of Massachusetts and secured profitable government contracts during the war. John Hancock learned much about his uncles business during these years and was trained for eventual partnership in the firm, Hancock worked hard, but he also enjoyed playing the role of a wealthy aristocrat and developed a fondness for expensive clothes. From 1760 to 1761, Hancock lived in England while building relationships with customers and suppliers, upon returning to Boston, Hancock gradually took over the House of Hancock as his uncles health failed, becoming a full partner in January 1763. He became a member of the Masonic Lodge of St. Andrew in October 1762, which connected him with many of Bostons most influential citizens
14.
Joseph Warren
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Dr. Warren participated in the next days Battles of Lexington and Concord, which are commonly considered to be the opening engagements of the American Revolutionary War. Warren had been commissioned a Major General in the colonys militia shortly before the June 17,1775 Battle of Bunker Hill. Rather than exercising his rank, Warren served in the battle as a private soldier and his death, immortalized in John Trumbulls painting, The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunkers Hill, June 17,1775, galvanized the rebel forces. He has been memorialized in the naming of towns, counties and other locations in the United States, by statues. Joseph Warren was born in Roxbury, Province of Massachusetts Bay, to Joseph Warren, genealogists can trace his more distant ancestry back to a Norman baron who was an uncle of William the Conqueror. His father was a farmer who died in October 1755 when he fell off a ladder while gathering fruit in his orchard. After attending the Roxbury Latin School, Joseph enrolled in Harvard College, graduating in 1759 and he studied medicine and married 18-year-old heiress Elizabeth Hooten on September 6,1764. She died in 1772, leaving him four children, Elizabeth, Joseph, Mary. While practicing medicine and surgery in Boston, he joined the Masonic Lodge of St. Andrew and he was Master of the Lodge in 1769 at the same time that Paul Revere was its Secretary. Warren was appointed Grand Master of the newly established Provincial Grand Lodge of Massachusetts in that same year and he also became involved in politics, associating with John Hancock, Samuel Adams, and other leaders of the broad movement labeled Sons of Liberty. Warren conducted an autopsy on the body of young Christopher Seider in February 1770, in 1774, he authored a song, Free America, which was published in colonial newspapers. The poem was set to a traditional British tune, The British Grenadiers, as Bostons conflict with the royal government came to a head in 1773–75, Warren was appointed to the Boston Committee of Correspondence. He twice delivered orations in commemoration of the Massacre, the time in March 1775 while the town was occupied by army troops. Warren drafted the Suffolk Resolves, which were endorsed by the Continental Congress, to advocate resistance to Parliaments Coercive Acts and he was appointed President of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, the highest position in the revolutionary government. In mid-April 1775, Warren and Dr. Benjamin Church were the two top members of the Committee of Correspondence left in Boston. It had been known for weeks that General Gage in Boston had plans to destroy munitions stored in Concord by the colonials, Warren received the additional information from a highly placed informant that the troops also had orders to arrest Samuel Adams and John Hancock. Warren sent William Dawes and Paul Revere on their famous midnight rides to warn Hancock, when the enemy were returning from Concord, he was among the foremost in hanging upon their rear and assailing their flanks. During this fighting Warren was nearly killed, a ball striking part of his wig
15.
William Bradford (Plymouth Colony governor)
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William Bradford was an English Separatist originally from the West Riding of Yorkshire, who later moved to Leiden in Holland, and then in 1620 migrated to the Plymouth Colony on the Mayflower. He was a signatory to the Mayflower Compact and went on to serve as Governor of the Plymouth Colony intermittently for thirty years between 1621 and 1657. His journal Of Plimoth Plantation covered the years from 1620 to 1657 in Plymouth, William Bradford was born to Alice and William Bradford in Austerfield, West Riding of Yorkshire, being baptized on March 19, 1589/90. In a time when most of their countrymen were farmers of modest means, Bradfords childhood was marked by numerous deaths in the family. He was just over a year old when his father died, when he was four years old, his mother remarried, and Bradford was sent to live with his grandfather. Two years later, his grandfather died, and he returned to live with his mother and stepfather, a year later, in 1597, his mother died. Bradford thus became an orphan at the age of seven and was sent to live with two uncles. His uncles wanted young Bradford to help on the farm, and he became familiar with the Bible and classic works of literature. This, too, is seen by some as a key factor in his intellectual curiosity, when Bradford was twelve years old a young friend invited him to hear the Rev Richard Clyfton preach ten miles away in All Saints Church that is located in Babworth. Clyfton was a minister who believed that the Church of England ought to institute reforms to eliminate all vestiges of Roman Catholic practices. Proponents believed that this would result in a purer Christian church, Bradford was inspired by Clyfton’s preachings and continued to attend his sermons, even though he was forbidden by his uncles. During one meeting, Bradford met William Brewster, who was a bailiff and his residence was at Scrooby manor, four miles from Austerfield. During frequent visits, Bradford borrowed books from Brewster, and Brewster regaled the young man with stories of the efforts toward church reform taking place across England. When King James I came to the English throne in 1603, he declared that he would put an end to church reform movements and deal harshly with radical critics of the Church of England. By 1607, secret meetings were being held at Scrooby Manor and about 50 reform-minded individuals began to celebrate the Sabbath led by Richard Clyfton and this group decided that reform of the Church of England was hopeless and they would sever all ties, and they became known as Separatists. The weekly meetings of the Separatists attracted the attention of the Archbishop of York, Brewster was found guilty of being disobedient in matters of religion and was fined. Some members were imprisoned and others were watched night and day, according to Bradford, adding to their concerns, the Scrooby congregation learned that other Separatists in London had been imprisoned and left to starve. The Scrooby congregation decided in 1607 to leave England unlawfully for the Dutch Republic, most of the congregation were imprisoned for a short time after this failed attempt, including Bradford
16.
Of Plymouth Plantation
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The book ends with a list, written in 1651, of Mayflower passengers and what happened to them. The document has carried many names, at the top of the original text is Of Plim̃oth Plantation, but newer prints of the text utilize the modern spelling, Plymouth. The text of Bradfords journal is called the History of Plymouth Plantation. In Wilberforces text it is cited as History of the Plantation of Plymouth and it is also sometimes called William Bradfords Journal. A version published by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts is titled Bradfords History Of Plimoth Plantation while labeled The Bradford History on the spine and it has also been called The Mayflower, although it is not a ships log and was written after the events. Bradford’s history is a blend of fact and interpretation, the Bradford journal records not only the events of the first 30 years but also the reactions of the colonists. The Bradford journal is regarded by historians as the preeminent work of 17th century America and it is Bradford’s simple yet vivid story, as told in his journal, that has made the Pilgrims the much-loved spiritual ancestors of all Americans. Bradford apparently never made an effort to publish the manuscript during his lifetime, as also that some use may be made hereof in after times by others in such like weighty employments, and herewith I will end this chapter. Bradford, like all writers of his time, uses a variety of spelling, a rule code for spelling was unknown then and dictionaries were uncommon. Consistency in spelling was not a virtue, and even important state papers might reflect regional speech, in addition, there were a number of particular customs used, as for example the long s, which was used when the letter s was doubled or used initially. Bradford also uses common abbreviations such as wt for with, and it should also be noted that the y was not the y as used in present English, but instead was a thorn or thet, pronounced as th is today. The word ye was not pronounced as yee, but rather was pronounced as the is today, after the death of Thomas Prence, who succeeded Bradford as Governor of Plymouth Colony, the manuscript was left in the tower of the Old South Meeting House in Boston. During the Revolutionary War, British troops occupied the church and the manuscript was lost for another century, when Bishop of London Frederick Temple learned of the importance of the book, he thought it should be returned. Because the book was being held by the Church of England, by the time the formal request from Hoars group reached England, the Archbishop was Frederick Temple. The bishops court ordered that a copy of the document be made for the court. The Bradford journal was presented to the Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts during a joint session of the legislature on May 26,1897 and it is on deposit in the State Library of Massachusetts in the State House in Boston. In June 1897 the state legislature ordered publication of the history with copies of the associated with the return. In 1912, the Massachusetts Historical Society published an authorized version of the text
17.
Thomas Dawes
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Thomas Dawes was a Patriot who served as a Massachusetts militia colonel during the American Revolution and afterward assumed prominent positions in Massachusettss government. His positions included membership and chairmanship of the Massachusetts Governors Council, prior to the Revolution, he attended a regular school and worked as a mechanic. He ardently supported the Whigs, gaining infamy among Royalists, his house was plundered by the British when they withdrew from Boston in 1776 and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1784. He attended Old South Church from 1786 until his death in 1809, Dawes, a member of the prominent Dawes family of Massachusetts Bay, was a cousin of the April 1775 Whig patriot William Dawes. He married Hannah Blake on July 1,1752 and their son Thomas Dawes was a jurist and an alumnus of Harvard University, graduating in 1777, and served in the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court from 1792 to 1802, he married Margaret Greenleaf. Thomas Dawes at Eliot Family Genealogy Frederic C
18.
Great Boston fire of 1872
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The Great Boston fire of 1872 was Bostons largest urban fire, and still ranks as one of the most costly fire-related property losses in American history. The conflagration began at 7,20 p. m. on November 9,1872, in the basement of a commercial warehouse at 83-87 Summer Street. The fire was finally contained 12 hours later, after it had consumed about 65 acres of Bostons downtown,776 buildings and much of the financial district, despite these devastations, only thirteen people died in the inferno. Many factors contributed to Bostons Great Fire, Bostons building regulations were not enforced, there was no authority to stop faulty construction practices. Buildings were often insured at full value or above value, over-insurance meant owners had no incentive to build fire-safe buildings. Flammable wooden French Mansard roofs were common on most buildings, the fire was able to spread quickly from roof to roof, and flames even leapt across the narrow streets onto other buildings. Flying embers and cinders started fires on even more roofs, Fire alarm boxes in Boston were locked to prevent false alarms, therefore delaying the Boston Fire Department by twenty minutes. Merchants were not taxed for inventory in their attics, therefore offering incentive to stuff their wood attics with flammable goods such as wool, textiles, most of the downtown area had old water pipes with low water pressure. Fire hydrant couplings were not standardized, the number of fire hydrants and cisterns was insufficient for a commercial district. A horse flu epizootic had immobilized Bostons fire department horses, as a result, all of the fire equipment had to be pulled to the fire by teams of volunteers on foot. Looters and bystanders interfered with fire fighting efforts, steam engine pumpers were not able to draw enough water to reach the wooden roofs of tall downtown buildings. Gas supply lines connected to street lamps and used for lighting in buildings could not be shut off promptly, gas lines exploded and fed the flames. Notable events of the fire, Author Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. watched the fire from his home on Beacon Hill and he wrote a poem about the event called After the Fire. Alexander Graham Bell wrote his own account of the fire in a letter to the newspaper The Boston Globe. Unimpressed by Bells prose, the paper did not publish his letter, the Great Chicago Fire had occurred just one year earlier, in October 1871. A committee of concerned citizens and property owners who were deputized to demolish buildings in the path of the fire with gunpowder kegs, the explosions did more harm than good by most accounts. The glow in the sky over the fire was noted in ships logs off the coast of Maine, Fire departments from every state in New England, except Vermont, arrived on trains carrying pumpers, fire fighters, and more spectators. Of these were two Amoskeag Steamers from Manchester, New Hampshire, one was the first Amoskeag ever constructed, owned by the Manchester Fire Department, the other was the first self-propelled Amoskeag that the manufacturer sent down
19.
Copley Square
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Copley Square, named for painter John Singleton Copley, is a public square in Bostons Back Bay neighborhood, bounded by Boylston Street, Clarendon Street, St. James Avenue, and Dartmouth Street. It is a pending Boston Landmark, the Square has a number and variety of important architectural works that have been built there, many of them official landmarks. Prominent structures still standing include, Old South Church, by Charles Amos Cummings, sears in the Venetian Gothic Revival style. Trinity Church, considered H. H. Richardsons tour de force, Boston Public Library, by Charles Follen McKim in a revival of Italian Renaissance style, incorporates artworks by John Singer Sargent, Edwin Austin Abbey, Daniel Chester French, and others. The Fairmont Copley Plaza Hotel by Henry Janeway Hardenbergh in the Beaux-Arts style, the John Hancock Tower by Henry N. Cobb, at 790 feet New Englands tallest building. The Bostix Kiosk, at the corner of Dartmouth and Boylston streets, S. S. Pierce Building, by S. Edwin Tobey, no masterpiece of architecture, great urban design. A heap of dark Romanesque masonry, Hotel Westminster, Trinity Place, by Henry E. Cregier of Chicago in 1897. Now the northeast corner of the new John Hancock Building, in 1991, after further changes including a new fountain, the new Copley Square Park was dedicated. The nonprofit Friends of Copley Square raises funds for care of the plantings, fountain. The Boston Marathon has finished at Copley Square since 1986, a memorial celebrating the races 100th running is located in the park, near the corner of Boylston and Dartmouth streets. On April 15,2013, around 2,50 p. m. two bombs exploded—one near the line near the Boston Public Library, the other some seconds later. Three people were killed and at least 183 injured, at least 14 of whom lost limbs
20.
Thanksgiving
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Thanksgiving Day is a national holiday celebrated in Canada, in the United States, in some of the Caribbean islands and in Liberia. It was originally celebrated as a day of giving thanks for the blessing of the harvest, similarly named festival holidays occur in Germany and Japan. Thanksgiving is celebrated on the second Monday of October in Canada and on the fourth Thursday of November in the United States, although Thanksgiving has historical roots in religious and cultural traditions, it has long been celebrated as a secular holiday as well. Prayers of thanks and special thanksgiving ceremonies are common among almost all religions after harvests, the Thanksgiving holidays history in North America is rooted in English traditions dating from the Protestant Reformation. It also has aspects of a harvest festival, even though the harvest in New England occurs well before the date on which the modern Thanksgiving holiday is celebrated. Before 1536 there were 95 Church holidays, plus 52 Sundays, the 1536 reforms reduced the number of Church holidays to 27, but some Puritans wished to completely eliminate all Church holidays, including Christmas and Easter. The holidays were to be replaced by specially called Days of Fasting or Days of Thanksgiving, unexpected disasters or threats of judgement from on high called for Days of Fasting. Special blessings, viewed as coming from God, called for Days of Thanksgiving, for example, Days of Fasting were called on account of drought in 1611, floods in 1613, and plagues in 1604 and 1622. Days of Thanksgiving were called following the victory over the Spanish Armada in 1588, an unusual annual Day of Thanksgiving began in 1606 following the failure of the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and developed into Guy Fawkes Day on November 5. Some researchers state that there is no compelling narrative of the origins of the Canadian Thanksgiving day, the origins of Canadian Thanksgiving are also sometimes traced to the French settlers who came to New France in the 17th century, who celebrated their successful harvests. The French settlers in the area typically had feasts at the end of the harvest season and continued throughout the winter season, as settlers arrived in Nova Scotia from New England after 1700, late autumn Thanksgiving celebrations became commonplace. New immigrants into the country—such as the Irish, Scottish, most of the US aspects of Thanksgiving, were incorporated when United Empire Loyalists began to flee from the United States during the American Revolution and settled in Canada. The 1621 Plymouth feast and thanksgiving was prompted by a good harvest, Pilgrims and Puritans who began emigrating from England in the 1620s and 1630s carried the tradition of Days of Fasting and Days of Thanksgiving with them to New England. In the land of Virginia shall be yearly and perpetually kept holy as a day of thanksgiving to Almighty God, now called Oktober Feesten, Leidens autumn thanksgiving celebration in 1617 was the occasion for sectarian disturbance that appears to have accelerated the pilgrims plans to emigrate to America. Later in Massachusetts, religious thanksgiving services were declared by civil leaders such as Governor Bradford, the practice of holding an annual harvest festival did not become a regular affair in New England until the late 1660s. Thanksgiving proclamations were made mostly by church leaders in New England up until 1682, during the revolutionary period, political influences affected the issuance of Thanksgiving proclamations. Various proclamations were made by governors, John Hancock, General George Washington. James Baker maintains, The American holidays true origin was the New England Calvinist Thanksgiving, never coupled with a Sabbath meeting, the Puritan observances were special days set aside during the week for thanksgiving and praise in response to Gods providence
21.
Samuel Willard
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Reverend Samuel Willard was a colonial clergyman. He was born in Concord, Massachusetts, graduated Harvard in 1659, Willard was pastor of the Third Church, Boston from 1678 until his death. He strenuously opposed the witchcraft trials, and served as acting president of Harvard from 1701 and he published many sermons, the folio volume A Compleat Body of Divinity was published posthumously in 1726. Willards parents were Major Simon Willard and Mary Sharpe, who had emigrated from England to New England in 1634, settling first in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 1635, with Rev. Peter Bulkley, they established the town of Concord, after the death of his mother, his father remarried twice, and Samuel was one of seventeen children born to the family. At the age of fifteen, Willard entered Harvard College in 1655, graduating in 1659, in 1663, Willard began preaching in Groton, then at the very frontier of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The towns first minister John Miller had become ill and, when he died, the congregation asked Willard to stay, on August 8,1664, Willard married Abigail Sherman of Watertown. In 1670, he became a freeman, with full privileges of citizenship, in 1671, 16-year-old Elizabeth Knapp fell ill and appeared to be possessed. Willard wrote about the strange behavior, Groton was destroyed on March 10,1676 during King Philips War, and the 300 residents abandoned the town. Willard and his family removed to Charlestown, Massachusetts, Willard preached at Bostons Third Church during the illness of Rev. Thomas Thacher and gave an election-day sermon on June 5. The Third Church called Willard to be its Teacher, an associate pastor, when Thacher died on October 15, Willard became their only pastor. Members of the congregation included a variety of members of the colony, John Hull, Samuel Sewall, Edward Rawson, Thomas Brattle, Joshua Scottow, Hezekiah Usher. His wife Abigail died sometime in the first half of 1679, in July of that year he married Eunice Tyng, Willard was the acting president of Harvard College, although having the nominal title of vice-president, from 1701 until his death in 1707. Some Miscellany Observations On our present Debates respecting Witchcrafts, in a Dialogue Between S. & B, thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. Samuel Willard, pp. 13–36 of Biographical Sketches of Graduates of Harvard University, in Cambridge Massachusetts, Vol. II, profile, pragmatism. org, accessed September 7,2015. A collection of Samuel Willards sermons are in the Andover-Harvard Theological Library at Harvard Divinity School in Cambridge, Massachusetts
22.
Thomas Prince
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Thomas Prince was an American clergyman, scholar and historian noted for his historical text A Chronological History of New England, in the Form of Annals. He was the child of Samuel Prince Esq. and Mercy Hinkley. While at Harvard his interest in books was sparked after he chanced in my leisure Hours to read Mr, after graduation he began teaching at Sandwich while working on his M. A, which was granted in absentia in 1710 a year after he had begun travelling. He spent 2 years travelling to such as the West Indies and Madeira before travelling to England in 1711. He returned to Boston in 1717, homesick, and traveled with Deborah and her brother Samuel Denny and he married Deborah on October 30,1719, they had four daughters and a son. He was ordained as a minister on October 1,1718 by Dr. Joseph Sewell, and became the pastor for Old South Church, a position he retained until his death. In 1728 Prince began work on a A Chronological History of New England, in the Form of Annals, a history of New England beginning with the 6th day of creation. The volume had poor sales, which is attributed to the lack of need for a text of such detail at that time and the lack of interest in a text written for a higher purpose than to amuse its reader. Despite the lack of interest in the text Prince continued to work as a second volume, due to lack of further interest in the text this format was discontinued. I have laboured after accuracy, and yet I dare not say that I am without mistake, nor do I desire the reader to conceal any he may possibly find. ”Prince, a noted preacher presented a sermon at his own ordination which was said to be a wonderful production. He was given offers from various churches in New England upon his return. In the 1740s he was a supporter of the First Great Awakening, inviting George Whitefield to preach in Boston in September 1740. The publication is notable as the first such Christian periodical to be created, in 1743 he wrote An Account of the Revival of Religion in Boston in the Years 1740-1-2-3, an account of the revival of Christianity in Boston linked in part to his support of the Great Awakening. As well as the collection of books, Thomas Prince also left an intellectual legacy. Dr. Charles Chauncy, a frequent ideological opponent of Prince and he may be justly characterized as one of our great men. Deserves to be remembered with honour and his reliance on primary sources and meticulous checks of factual accuracy also makes his Annals a key historical work, one which is still in print today. A printing company named after him was also formed in 1858, the Prince Society, described in The Cambridge History of English and American Literature as one of the most honoured of American historical organizations is also named after him. Thomas Prince, and was by him bequeathed to the Old South Church,1870 http, //www. americanantiquarian. org/Inventories/Portraits/97. htm Princes library now resides in the Boston Public Library
23.
Samuel Blair (chaplain)
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Samuel Blair, a Presbyterian minister, was the second Chaplain of the United States House of Representatives. Blair was born in 1741 in Faggs Manor, near Cochranville, Chester County, Pennsylvania and his primary education was at his fathers theology school, the Faggs Manor Classical School. He went on to earned a B. A. in 1760 and he was licensed to preach in by the Presbytery of Newcastle in 1764. He earned a M. A. from Harvard College in 1767, a conscientious and eloquent minister, he became pastor of the Old South Church in Boston in 1766. While traveling to Boston, he survived a shipwreck but became ill, in the spring of 1769, he traveled to Philadelphia and became severely ill, believing he wouldnt recover. Because of his health, and conflict with his church members regarding the Half-Way Covenant. He then moved to Germantown, Pennsylvania, during the revolutionary war, he was a chaplain of the Continental Army from 1775 until June 20,1780. His rank as an officer made him eligible for membership in the Society of the Cincinnati and he was appointed the second Chaplain of Congress on December 10,1790, a position he held for two years until he was replaced by Ashbel Green on November 5,1792. Blair was a member of the American Philosophical Society and died in Germantown in September 1818, upon return to Pennsylvania in 1769, he married Susan Shippen, the daughter of William Shippen, a Philadelphia physician and delegate to the Continental Congress. They had two sons and three daughters, one was a eulogy to Reverend John Blair Smith who died in 1799
24.
Samuel Adams
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Samuel Adams was an American statesman, political philosopher, and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He was a cousin to fellow Founding Father, President John Adams. Adams was born in Boston, brought up in a religious, a graduate of Harvard College, he was an unsuccessful businessman and tax collector before concentrating on politics. His 1768 Massachusetts Circular Letter calling for colonial non-cooperation prompted the occupation of Boston by British soldiers, continued resistance to British policy resulted in the 1773 Boston Tea Party and the coming of the American Revolution. Parliament passed the Coercive Acts in 1774, at which time Adams attended the Continental Congress in Philadelphia which was convened to coordinate a colonial response, Adams returned to Massachusetts after the American Revolution, where he served in the state senate and was eventually elected governor. Samuel Adams later became a figure in American history. Accounts written in the 19th century praised him as someone who had been steering his fellow colonists towards independence long before the outbreak of the Revolutionary War. This view gave way to negative assessments of Adams in the first half of the 20th century, both of these interpretations have been challenged by some modern scholars, who argue that these traditional depictions of Adams are myths contradicted by the historical record. Samuel Adams was born in Boston in the British colony of Massachusetts on September 16,1722, an Old Style date that is sometimes converted to the New Style date of September 27. Adams was one of children born to Samuel Adams, Sr. and Mary Adams in an age of high infant mortality. Adamss parents were devout Puritans and members of the Old South Congregational Church, the family lived on Purchase Street in Boston. Adams was proud of his Puritan heritage, and emphasized Puritan values in his political career, Samuel Adams, Sr. was a prosperous merchant and church deacon. Deacon Adams became a figure in Boston politics through an organization that became known as the Boston Caucus. The Boston Caucus helped shape the agenda of the Boston Town Meeting, Deacon Adams rose through the political ranks, becoming a justice of the peace, a selectman, and a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives. In the coming years, members of the party became known as Whigs or Patriots. The younger Samuel Adams attended Boston Latin School and then entered Harvard College in 1736 and his parents hoped that his schooling would prepare him for the ministry, but Adams gradually shifted his interest to politics. After graduating in 1740, Adams continued his studies, earning a degree in 1743. Adamss life was affected by his fathers involvement in a banking controversy
25.
William Dawes
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Dawes was born in Boston, Massachusetts on April 6,1745, to William and Lydia Dawes, and baptized at Bostons Old South Church. He became a tanner and was active in Bostons militia, on May 3,1768, Dawes married Mehitable May, the daughter of Samuel and Catherine May. On April 8,1768 Dawes was elected as a member of the Ancient and he was appointed as the Companys second sergeant in 1770. When the Company was revived in 1786, after becoming dormant during the American Revolution and his father, William Dawes, Sr. was also a member of the Company. It is likely that in September 1774, Dawes was instrumental in helping Bostons militia artillery company secure its four small cannons from British army control. The Massachusetts Provincial Congress certainly sent word to him in February 1775 that it was time to two of those weapons out of Boston. Dawess mission was to warn John Hancock and Samuel Adams that they were in danger of arrest, Dawes took the land route out of Boston through the Boston Neck, leaving just before the military sealed off the town. Also acting under Dr. Warren, Paul Revere arranged for another rider waiting across the Charles River in Charlestown to be told of the route with lanterns hung in Old North Church. To be certain the message would get through, Revere rowed across the river, later, Henry Wadsworth Longfellows historically inaccurate poem Paul Reveres Ride would focus entirely on Revere, making him a composite of many alarm riders that night. Dawes and Revere arrived at the Hancock-Clarke House in Lexington about the same time, in fact, Revere arrived slightly earlier, despite having stopped to speak to militia officers in towns along the way, as his route was shorter and his horse faster. After warning Adams and Hancock to leave, Revere and Dawes chose to proceed to Concord in case that was the British columns goal, Revere no doubt knew that the Provincial Congress had stored munitions there, including the cannon Dawes had helped to secure. Along the way, the two men met Samuel Prescott, a young physician, who joined them. A squad of mounted British officers awaited on the road between Lexington and Concord and they had already arrested some riders heading west with news of the troops, and they called for Dawes, Revere, and Prescott to halt. The three men rode in different directions, hoping one would escape, Dawes, according to the story he told his children, rode into the yard of a house shouting that he had lured two officers there. Fearing an ambush, the officers stopped chasing him, Dawess horse bucked him off, however, and he had to walk back to Lexington. He later said that in the morning he returned to the same yard, otherwise, Dawess activity during the Battle of Lexington and Concord remains unknown. Dawes and his companions warnings allowed the town militias to muster a sufficient force for the first open battle of the American Revolutionary War and the first colonial victory. The British troops did not find most of the weapons they had marched to destroy, on September 9,1776 Dawes was commissioned second major of the Boston militia regiment
26.
Benjamin Franklin
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Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Franklin was a polymath and a leading author, printer, political theorist, politician, freemason, postmaster, scientist, inventor, civic activist, statesman. As a scientist, he was a figure in the American Enlightenment. As an inventor, he is known for the rod, bifocals. He facilitated many civic organizations, including Philadelphias fire department and the University of Pennsylvania, Franklin earned the title of The First American for his early and indefatigable campaigning for colonial unity, initially as an author and spokesman in London for several colonies. As the first United States Ambassador to France, he exemplified the emerging American nation, in the words of historian Henry Steele Commager, In a Franklin could be merged the virtues of Puritanism without its defects, the illumination of the Enlightenment without its heat. To Walter Isaacson, this makes Franklin the most accomplished American of his age, Franklin became a successful newspaper editor and printer in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies, publishing the Pennsylvania Gazette at the age of 23. He became wealthy publishing this and Poor Richards Almanack, which he authored under the pseudonym Richard Saunders, after 1767, he was associated with the Pennsylvania Chronicle, a newspaper that was known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the British policies. He pioneered and was first president of The Academy and College of Philadelphia which opened in 1751 and he organized and was the first secretary of the American Philosophical Society and was elected president in 1769. Franklin became a hero in America as an agent for several colonies when he spearheaded an effort in London to have the Parliament of Great Britain repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a figure in the development of positive Franco-American relations. His efforts proved vital for the American Revolution in securing shipments of crucial munitions from France, during the Revolution, he became the first US Postmaster General. He was active in community affairs and colonial and state politics, from 1785 to 1788, he served as governor of Pennsylvania. He initially owned and dealt in slaves but, by the 1750s, he argued against slavery from an economic perspective, Franklins father, Josiah Franklin, was a tallow chandler, a soap-maker and a candle-maker. Josiah was born at Ecton, Northamptonshire, England on December 23,1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith-farmer, and Jane White. His mother, Abiah Folger, was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts, on August 15,1667, to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife, Mary Morrill, Josiah Franklin had seventeen children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to Boston in 1683, after her death, Josiah was married to Abiah Folger on July 9,1689 in the Old South Meeting House by Samuel Willard. Benjamin, their child, was Josiah Franklins fifteenth child and tenth
27.
Samuel Sewall
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He served for many years as the chief justice of the Massachusetts Superior Court of Judicature, the provinces high court. Sewall was born in Bishopstoke, Hampshire, England, on March 28,1652, the son of Henry and Jane Sewall. His father, son of the mayor of Coventry, had come to the English North American Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1635, where he married Sewalls mother, and returned to England in the 1640s. Following the restoration of Charles II to the English throne, the Sewalls again crossed the Atlantic in 1661, settling in Newbury and it is there the young Samuel Sam grew up along the Parker River and Plum Island Sound. Like other local boys he attended school at the home of James Noyes, whose cousin, from Parker Sewall acquired a lifelong love of verse, which he wrote in both English and Latin. In 1667 Sewall entered Harvard College, where his classmates included Edward Taylor and Daniel Gookin, Sewall received his first degree, a BA, in 1671, and his MA in 1674. In 1674 he began keeping a journal, which he maintained for most of his life, in 1679 he became a member of the Military Company of Massachusetts. Sewalls involvement in the affairs of the colony began when he became a freeman of the colony. In 1681 he was appointed the official printer of the colony, after John Hull died in 1683, Sewall was elected to replace him on the colonys council of assistants, a body that functioned both as the upper house of the legislature and as a court of appeals. He also became a member of Harvards Board of Overseers, Sewalls oral examination for the MA was a public affair, and was witnessed by Hannah Hull, daughter of colonial merchant and mintmaster John Hull. She was apparently taken by the young mans charms, and pursued him and her father, whose work as mintmaster had made him quite wealthy, gave the couple £500 in colonial currency as a wedding gift. Sewall moved into his in-laws mansion in Boston, and was involved in that familys business. He and Hannah would have fourteen children before her death in 1717 and he also entered local politics, and was elevated to the position of assistant magistrate in the judiciary. In 1692 he was one of the nine judges appointed to the court of Oyer and Terminer in Salem, charged with trying those from Salem Town and elsewhere who were accused of witchcraft. Sewall was perhaps most remarkable among the involved in the trials in that he later regretted his role, going so far as to call for a public day of prayer, fasting. Following the dissolution of the court, the Sewall family was blighted by what Sewall thought to be punishments from God, in the five years after the Trials, two of Sewall’s daughters and Hannah’s mother died and Hannah gave birth to a stillborn child. He saw this as a not that witchcraft did not exist. He records in his diary that on 14 January 1697 he stood up in the house he attended while his minister read out his confession of guilt
28.
Phillis Wheatley
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Phillis Wheatley, also spelled Phyllis and Wheatly was the first published African-American female poet. Born in West Africa, she was sold into slavery at the age of seven or eight and she was purchased by the Wheatley family of Boston, who taught her to read and write and encouraged her poetry when they saw her talent. The publication of her Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral brought her both in England and the American colonies. Figures such as George Washington praised her work, during Wheatleys visit to England with her masters son, African-American poet Jupiter Hammon praised her work in his own poem. Wheatley was emancipated after the death of her master, John Wheatley, two of her children died as infants. After her husband was imprisoned for debt in 1784, Wheatley fell into poverty and died of illness, although the date and place of her birth are not documented, scholars believe that Phillis Wheatley was born in 1753 in West Africa, most likely in present-day Gambia or Senegal. Wheatley was forced to go to British-ruled Boston, Massachusetts, on July 11,1761 and it was owned by Timothy Fitch and captained by Peter Gwinn. At the age of eight, she was sold to the wealthy Boston merchant and tailor John Wheatley, John and Susanna Wheatley named the young girl Phillis, after the ship that had brought her to America. She was given their last name of Wheatley, as was a common custom if any surname was used for slaves, the Wheatleys 18-year-old daughter, Mary, first tutored Phillis in reading and writing. Their son Nathaniel also helped her, John Wheatley was known as a progressive throughout New England, his family gave Phillis an unprecedented education for an enslaved person, and for a female of any race. By the age of 12, Phillis was reading Greek and Latin classics, at the age of 14, she wrote her first poem, To the University of Cambridge, in New England. Recognizing her literary ability, the Wheatley family supported Philliss education, the Wheatleys often showed off her abilities to friends and family. Strongly influenced by her studies of the works of Alexander Pope, John Milton, Homer, Horace and Virgil, Phillis Wheatley began to write poetry. In 1773, at the age of 20, Phillis accompanied Nathaniel Wheatley to London in part for her health, but also because Susanna believed she would have a better chance publishing her poetry there. In 1774, Phillis Wheatley wrote a letter to Reverend Samson Occom, commending him on his ideas, Wheatley also exchanged letters with the British philanthropist John Thornton, who in turn discussed Wheatley and her poetry in his correspondence with John Newton. Along with her poetry, she was able to express her thoughts, comments, in 1775, Phillis Wheatley sent a copy of a poem entitled, “To His Excellency, George Washington” to him. In 1776, Washington invited Wheatley to visit him at his headquarters in Cambridge, Massachusetts, thomas Paine republished the poem in the Pennsylvania Gazette in April 1776. In 1778, Wheatley was legally freed from slavery after her masters death and his daughter Mary Wheatley died soon afterward
29.
State (MBTA station)
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State, well known as State Street, is a subway station of the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority. Located in downtown Boston, Massachusetts, USA, State is the point between the Orange Line and the Blue Line, as one of the quartet of hub stations on the MBTA subway system. What later became the Blue Line platforms of State station were opened in 1904, after an extensive renovation which was completed in 2011, State is fully handicapped accessible. An unusual aspect of State Street station is the entrance built directly into one of Bostons best-known historic sites and this entrance often confuses first-time tourists and visitors with its unconventional location. The East Boston Tunnel station was known as Devonshire after the street which the Old State House is located on. The station is the remaining station on the tunnel opened in 1904. Effective April 18,1924, the East Boston Tunnel was converted to heavy rolling stock. High platforms were installed, and trolley wire was replaced with third rail power, the Washington Street Tunnel opened on November 30,1908 to Main Line elevated trains running between Forest Hills and Sullivan Square. As with the stations in the tunnel, the two platforms were treated as completely separate stations. After taking over operations in 1964, the MBTA began rebranding efforts, the East Boston Tunnel/Revere Extension and Main Line El/Washington Street Tunnel routes were renamed as the Blue Line and Orange Line on August 25,1965. On January 25,1967, the station names of Devonshire. Platform extensions on both Orange Line platforms were completed just prior to the introduction of 6-car trains on August 18,1987 and this change was prompted by the opening of new stations on the Southwest Corridor earlier that year, replacing the 4-car-long stations on the Washington Street Elevated. The sponsorship failed and the reverted to State. During the renovation of Aquarium station, during which station was closed. An extensive renovation of State began in 2005, new CharlieCard fare machines were installed in 2006, which involved closing the Blue Line level of the station from June 24 to July 1. In April 2011, the 6-year-long reconstruction of the station was declared substantially complete, the Blue Line platforms were connected to the already-accessible Orange Line platforms by ramps, thus making the entire station handicapped accessible. All Orange Line stations are accessible, including State, as are all Blue Line stations, State is unique among Orange Line stations as it was built on two levels to fit under the narrow section of Washington Street while crossing the East Boston Tunnel. The southbound platform is above the track and furthermore staggered considerably south of the northbound platform
30.
Downtown Crossing (MBTA station)
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Downtown Crossing is a rapid transit station located in the Downtown Crossing retail district in downtown Boston, Massachusetts. Downtown Crossing station is two levels deep, the upper level, opened in 1908, stretches from Temple Place to Franklin Street under Washington Street. The lower level, opened in 1915, reaches from Washington Street to Chauncey Street under Winter Street, Downtown Crossing is the second busiest subway station in the MBTA network, with an average of 23,478 entries per weekday in 2013. The Winter Street Concourse allows access to the Green Line at Park Street without leaving their common paid area, the Washington Street Tunnel carrying the Main Line Elevated opened on November 30,1908. Stations on the tunnel were built in pairs with different names and separate entrances, stations were located at Summer northbound with entrances at Summer Street and Franklin Street, and Winter southbound with entrances at Winter Street and Temple Place. The Dorchester Extension of the Cambridge Tunnel was built one level below the Washington Street Tunnel, Washington station opened on April 4,1915, with additional entrances on Summer Street at Hawley Street and Chauncey Street. As part of a rebranding by the newly formed MBTA. On May 3,1987, the name was changed again to Downtown Crossing after the retail district. Both levels of the station were renovated and accessibility was improved in the mid-1980s. Silver Line service from Downtown Crossing to Dudley Square began on July 24,2002, a ticket counter was formerly located on the mezzanine level of the station under Winter Street east of Washington Street. On August 13,2012, the MBTA combined customer services into the Downtown Crossing location as the CharlieCard Store. The store provides services including obtaining special passes for blind, senior, disabled, due to unreliable computer systems and high demand, the store experiences long wait times. A number of MBTA bus routes have Downtown Crossing station as their downtown terminus and these include local routes to Charlestown, South Boston, and the North Shore, express buses which run via the Massachusetts Turnpike, and the bus rapid transit Silver Line to Dorchester. Like all Orange Line and most Red Line stations, Downtown Crossing is fully handicapped accessible, surface elevators are located at the Winter Street, Franklin Street, and Hawley Street entrances. An additional elevator - open business hours only - leads to the Roche Brothers store which connects to the Summer Street concourse, because Downtown Crossing is an older station built at two different times in a dense urban area, transfers between the two lines are convoluted. A $13.57 million project is under way to add two elevators connecting the southbound Orange Line platform to the Alewife-bound Red Line platform, notice to proceed was given on February 18,2016, and completion is expected by early 2018. Two future phases are expected to be needed to complete elevator connections for all transfers
31.
Park Street (MBTA station)
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Park Street is a station on the MBTA subway system, located at the intersection of Park Street and Tremont Street under Boston Common in downtown Boston. One of the two oldest stations on the T, Park Street is the point between the Green and Red Lines, as one of the quartet of hub stations on the MBTA subway system. Park Street is the fourth-busiest station in the MBTA network, with an average of 19,836 entries each weekday in 2010, on September 3,1898, the tunnel was extended to Scollay Square, Adams Square, Haymarket Square, and the Canal Street Incline. Some cars ran all the way through the tunnel on the outer tracks, on June 10,1901, the Main Line Elevated began running through the Tremont Street Subway. This arrangement lasted until Main Line service was moved to a tunnel under parallel Washington Street. Elevated trains last ran through the tunnel on November 28,1908, they moved to the Washington Street Tunnel on November 30, on March 23,1912, the Cambridge Tunnel opened from Harvard Square to Park Street Under. Park Street Under was built with two tracks with one platform each and a center island platform, intended as a Spanish solution setup to speed boarding. Stairwells were added to the platform level to connect to the lower level platforms. Unlike most other stations on the system, Park Street Under featured a spacious double-vaulted ceiling. It was the first transfer station on the system to receive the Under postfix and this represented a change in naming policy, and the first step towards easing wayfinding difficulty in the complex system. Overcrowding had been a problem at Park Street since the Main Line was routed through it, the problem worsened with the influx of passengers transferring at Park Street Under, as the only entrances to those platforms were narrow staircases through the streetcar level. In preparation for the extension of the Cambridge Tunnel, the Boston Transit Commission ordered a major renovation, the streetcar platforms were substantially lengthened to the south, and the kiosk on the southbound platform was moved. The construction work began on August 7,1914, and was completed on March 8,1915, the stairways to the side platforms on the lower level were widened by 1922 to support increased passenger flow. A new staircase from the streetcar platform to the lower island platform was also installed. These reduced the amount of room available on the ends of the streetcar platforms. The Park Street Information Booth on the level, which soon became a Boston landmark, opened on September 15,1923. In 1936, in response to still-persistent overcrowding, a platform was built adjacent to the outer northbound streetcar track. A new entrance connected to this platform was built on the east side of Park Street at Temple Place, a second passage connected the new platform with the Cambridge Tunnel fare lobby opposite Park Street
32.
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority
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The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority is the public agency responsible for operating most public transportation services in Greater Boston, Massachusetts. Earlier modes of transportation in Boston were independently owned and operated. In 2008, the system averaged 1.3 million passenger trips each weekday, of which the subway averaged 598,200, making it the fourth-busiest subway system in the United States. Further, the Green Line and Ashmont–Mattapan High Speed Line comprise the busiest light-rail system in the U. S. with a ridership of 255,100. The MBTA is the largest consumer of electricity in Massachusetts, in 2007, its CNG bus fleet was the largest consumer of alternative fuels in the state. The MBTA operates an independent law enforcement agency, the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority Police, development of mass transportation both followed and shaped economic and population patterns. This marked the beginning of the development of American intercity railroads, which in Massachusetts would later become the MBTA Commuter Rail system, starting with the opening of the Cambridge Railroad on March 26,1856, a profusion of streetcar lines appeared in Boston under chartered companies. Despite the change of companies, Boston is the city with the oldest continuously working streetcar system in the world, many of these companies consolidated, and animal-drawn vehicles were converted to electric propulsion. Streetcar congestion in downtown Boston led to the subways in 1897, the Tremont Street Subway was the first rapid transit tunnel in the United States. Grade-separation added capacity and avoided delays caused by cross streets, various extensions and branches were added at both ends, bypassing more surface tracks. As grade-separated lines were extended, street-running lines were cut back for faster downtown service, however, the Green Lines Causeway Street Elevated remained in service until 2004, when it was relocated into a tunnel with an incline to reconnect to the Lechmere Viaduct. The Boston Elevated Railway started replacing trains with buses in 1922, in 1936, it started replacing rail with trackless trolleys. The last Middlesex & Boston Street Railway streetcar ran in 1930, by the beginning of 1953, the only remaining streetcar lines fed two tunnels—the main Tremont Street Subway network downtown and the short tunnel in Harvard Square. The old elevated railways proved to be an eyesore and required several sharp curves in Bostons twisty streets, the Atlantic Avenue Elevated was closed in 1938 amidst declining ridership and was demolished in 1942. As rail passenger service became unprofitable, largely due to rising automobile ownership. The MTA purchased and took over subway, elevated, streetcar, in the 1950s, the MTA ran new subway extensions, while the last two streetcar lines running into the Pleasant Street Portal of the Tremont Street Subway were substituted with buses in 1953 and 1962. While the operations of the MTA were relatively stable by the early 1960s, the 1945 Coolidge Commission plan assumed that most of the commuter rail lines would be replaced by shorter rapid transit extensions, or simply feed into them at reduced service levels. Passenger service on the entire Old Colony Railroad system serving the part of the state was abandoned by the New Haven Railroad in 1959
33.
Joseph Badger
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Joseph Badger was a portrait artist in Boston, Massachusetts, in the 18th century. He was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, to tailor Stephen Badger and he began his career as a house-painter and glazier, and. Throughout his life continued this work, besides painting signs, hatchments and other heraldic devices, in 1731 he married Katharine Felch, they moved to Boston around 1733. He was a member of the Brattle Street Church and he died in Boston in May,1765, when taken with an apoplectic fit as he was walking in his garden, and expired in a few minutes after. Works by Badger are in the collections of the Worcester Art Museum, the Museum of Fine Arts Boston, portrait of Jeremiah Belknap by Joseph Badger. Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art, Vol.6, the Orne Portraits by Joseph Badger. Worcester Art Museum Bulletin v.1, no, Joseph Badger at American Art Gallery WorldCat. Badger, Joseph 1708-1765 Worcester Art Museum, Worcester, Massachusetts, butler Institute of American Art, Youngstown, Ohio. John Singleton Copley in America, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Joseph Badger
34.
American Antiquarian Society
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The American Antiquarian Society, located in Worcester, Massachusetts, is both a learned society and national research library of pre-twentieth century American history and culture. Founded in 1812, it is the oldest historical society in the United States with a national focus and its main building, known as Antiquarian Hall, is a U. S. National Historic Landmark in recognition of this legacy. The mission of the AAS is to collect, preserve and make available for all printed records of what is now known as the United States of America. This includes materials from the first European settlement through the year 1876, the AAS offers programs for professional scholars, pre-collegiate, undergraduate and graduate students, educators, professional artists, writers, genealogists, and the general public. AAS has many collections available, including A New Nation Votes. The collections of the AAS contain over three million books, pamphlets, newspapers, periodicals, graphic arts materials and manuscripts, Historic materials from all fifty U. S. states, most of Canada and the British West Indies are included in the AAS repository. One of the more famous volumes held by the Society is a copy of the very first book printed in America, AAS also has one of the largest collections of newspapers printed in America through 1876, with more than two million issues in its collection. On the initiative of Isaiah Thomas, the AAS was founded on October 24,1812 through an act of the Massachusetts General Court and it was the third historical society established in America, and the first to be national in its scope. Isaiah Thomas started the collection with approximately 8,000 books from his personal library, the first library building was erected in 1820 in downtown Worcester, Massachusetts. In 1853, the Society moved its collections to a building at the corner of Highland Street. This building was abandoned and another new building was constructed. Designed by Winslow, Bigelow & Wadsworth, the Georgian Revival building was completed in 1910 and stands on the corner of Park Avenue, there have been several additions to this building to accommodate the growing collection, the most recent of which was completed in 2003. AAS was presented with the 2013 National Humanities Medal by President Obama in a ceremony at the White House, as part of AASs mission as a learned society, it offers a variety of public lectures and seminars. One topic to which AAS dedicates significant academic energies is printing technology, since Isaiah Thomas was a newspaper man himself, he collected a large number of printed materials. With regard to printing, paper making, edition setting, and reprinting and it was not until the late eighteenth century that paper-making material began to evolve from a hand-woven cloth to an industrial pulp. The American Antiquarian Societys membership includes scholars, writers, journalists, filmmakers, collectors, worcesters best kept secret, The American Antiquarian Society belongs to everyone. The American Antiquarian Society, 1812–2012, A Bicentennial History 454 pp. Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Mass. the Society, 1843– American Antiquarian Society Homepage Common-Place free online scholarly history journal focused on early US Republic
35.
Congress Street (Boston)
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Congress Street in Boston, Massachusetts, is located in the Financial District and South Boston. It was first named in 1800 and it was extended in 1854 as far as Atlantic Avenue, and in 1874 across Fort Point Channel into South Boston. Todays Congress Street consists of segments of streets, previously named Atkinsons Street, Dalton Street, Grays Alley, Leveretts Lane, Quaker Lane. Bostonian Society has materials related to the street, Congress Street Bascule Bridge, Spanning Fort Point Channel at Congress Street, Boston, Suffolk County, MA. Plan of the estates nos.246 to 252 Congress corner of Purchase Street
36.
James Wallace Black
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James Wallace Black, known professionally as J. W. Black, was an early American photographer whose career was marked by experimentation and innovation. He was born on February 10,1825 in Francestown, New Hampshire, after trying his luck as a painter in Boston, he turned to photography, beginning as a daguerreotype plate polisher. He soon partnered with John Adams Whipple, a prolific Boston photographer, blacks photograph of abolitionist John Brown in 1859, the year of his insurrection at Harpers Ferry, is now in the National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution. In March 1860, Black took a photograph of poet Walt Whitman when Whitman was in Boston to oversee the typesetting of his 1860 edition of Leaves of Grass. Blacks studio at 173 Washington Street was less than a block from the firm of Thayer and Eldridge. He photographed Boston from a balloon at 1,200 feet. One good print resulted, which the photographer entitled Boston, as the Eagle and this was the first clear aerial image of a city anywhere. Almost immediately, aerial photography would be put to use by the Union Army in the American Civil War, Black later became the authority on the use of the magic lantern, a candlelight-powered projector that was a predecessor of todays slide projectors. He died on January 5,1896 and was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Boston Athenaeum Boston Public Library George Eastman House Historic New England Massachusetts Historical Society Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City In Memoriam, JW Black. Wilsons Photographic Magazine, March 1896 Encyclopedia of nineteenth-century photography, Volume 1, james Wallace Black at Find a Grave Boston Public Library on Flickr. James Wallace Black Photographs Cambridge Historical Society on Flickr
37.
National Park Service
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It was created on August 25,1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, the National Park Service celebrated its centennial in 2016. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior, the movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior and they wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service, Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3,1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933, the act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It wasnt until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service, the demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery, Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States national parks, Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no government to manage it. Yosemite National Park began as a park, the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership, at first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the staff was replaced by the U. S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, the National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service
38.
Old Corner Bookstore
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The Old Corner Bookstore is a historic commercial building in the center of Boston, Massachusetts. It is at the corner of Washington and School Streets, along the Freedom Trail of revolutionary, the site was formerly the home of Anne Hutchinson, who was expelled from Massachusetts in 1638 for heresy. Thomas Crease purchased the home in 1708, though it burned down in the Great Boston Fire on October 2,1711, Crease constructed a new building on the site in 1712 as a residence and apothecary shop. For generations, various pharmacists used the site for the purpose, the first floor was for commercial use. In 1817, Dr. Samuel Clarke, father of future minister James Freeman Clarke, the buildings first use as a bookstore dates to 1828, when Timothy Harrington Carter leased the space from a man named George Brimmer. Carter spent $7,000 renovating the buildings space, including the addition of projecting. From 1832 to 1865, it was home to Ticknor and Fields, Ticknor and Fields rented out the whole building, using only the corner for a retail space. Other section of the building, particularly upstairs rooms and storefronts facing School Street, were in turn sublet to other businesses, after the death of Ticknor, Fields wanted to focus on publishing rather than the retail store. On November 12,1864, he sold the Old Corner Bookstore to E. P. Dutton, Ticknor, a succession of other publishing houses and booksellers followed Ticknor and Fields in the building. Nicholas Magazine, Town Talk, Truth, Vogue, What to Eat, Yale Review, the building was threatened with demolition in 1960 and was rescued through a purchase by Historic Boston, Inc. for the sum of $100,000. The building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a Boston Landmark under the auspices of the Boston Landmarks Commission, a Boston Globe company store operated in the building from 1998 through 2002, selling Boston Globe products and tourist memorabilia. The building is now recognized as a site on Bostons Freedom Trail, Literary Trail, a national discount jewelry chain, Ultra Diamonds, occupied the retail space from 2005 until the companys bankruptcy in 2009. Then the space was used as a showroom for crafts created by North Bennet Street School students. The space now houses a Chipotle Mexican Grill restaurant,1830, Gray and Bowen 1833, Allen & Ticknor 1838, Samuel H. Parker 1840, Parker & Ditson 1841, William D. Ticknor 1844, Oliver Ditson 1847, William D. Ticknor & Co. 1853, Ticknor, Reed, and Fields 1854, Ticknor and Fields 1868, Dutton & Co. and H. O. Houghton & Co. National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Boston, Massachusetts Nathaniel Bradstreet Shurtleff, a topographical and historical description of Boston, Part 1, 2nd ed. Boston, Printed by request of the City Council,1871 Old Corner Bookstore. Listing at City of Boston official site Official listing on Freedom Trail Boston Public Library, images related to the bookstore, various dates Bostonian Society. Photos, Old Corner Bookstore, corner of Washington and School Streets, 1870-85 Old Corner Bookstore, corner of School and Washington Streets, c
39.
Freedom Trail
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The Freedom Trail is a 2. 5-mile-long path through downtown Boston, Massachusetts that passes by 16 locations significant to the history of the United States. Marked largely with brick, it winds between Boston Common to the Bunker Hill Monument in Charlestown, stops along the trail include simple explanatory ground markers, graveyards, notable churches and buildings, and a historic naval frigate. While most of the sites are free or suggest donations, the Old South Meeting House, the Old State House, the Freedom Trail was originally conceived by local journalist William Schofield, who in 1951 suggested building a pedestrian trail to link together important local landmarks. Boston mayor John Hynes decided to put Schofields idea into action, by 1953,40,000 people were walking the trail annually. Some observers have noted the tendency of the Freedom Trails narrative frame to omit certain historical locations, such as the sites of the Boston Tea Party, members of the Boy Scouts of America who hike or camp along the Freedom Trail may be eligible for the Historic Trails Award
40.
Old State House (Boston)
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The Old State House is an historic building in Boston, Massachusetts, at the intersection of Washington and State Streets. Built in 1713, it was the seat of the Massachusetts General Court until 1798, one of the landmarks on Bostons Freedom Trail, it is the oldest surviving public building in Boston, and now serves as a history museum operated by the Bostonian Society. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960 and a Boston Landmark by the Boston Landmarks Commission in 1994. Todays brick Old State House was built in 1712–13, possibly designed by Robert Twelves, the previous building, a notable feature was the pair of seven-foot tall wooden figures depicting a lion and unicorn, symbols of the British monarchy. The building housed a Merchants Exchange on the first floor and warehouses in the basement, the central portion contained the chambers for the elected Massachusetts Assembly. This chamber is notable for including public galleries, the first known example of such a feature being included in a chamber for elected officials in the English-speaking world, the interior was rebuilt in 1748, after a fire in 1747. In 1761, James Otis argued against the Writs of Assistance in the Royal Council Chamber, though he lost the case, Otis influenced public opinion in a way that contributed to the American Revolution, John Adams later wrote of that speech, Then and there. On March 5,1770, The Boston Massacre occurred in front of the building on Devonshire Street, lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson stood on the buildings balcony to speak to the people, ordering the crowd to return to their homes. On July 18,1776, the Declaration of Independence was proclaimed from the east side balcony to jubilant crowds by Col. Thomas Crafts, at one oclock Col. Crafts rose in the Council Chamber and read it to the members. Then, fellow patriot Sheriff William Greenleaf attempted to read it from the balcony, Col. Crafts then stood next to the sheriff and read it from the balcony in a stentorian tone. For most people, it was an occasion, as about two-thirds of Boston residents supported the revolution. The lion and the unicorn on top of the building were removed and burned in a bonfire in King street, after the American Revolution, the building served as the seat of the Massachusetts state government before its move to the present Massachusetts State House in 1798. From 1830 to 1841, the building was Bostons city hall, previously, the citys offices had been in the County Court House. In 1830, Isaiah Rogers altered the interior in a Greek Revival style. The building was damaged by fire in 1832, during this period of time, City Hall shared the building with the Boston Post Office and several private businesses. On October 21,1835, Mayor Theodore Lyman, Jr. gave temporary refuge to William Lloyd Garrison, the editor of the abolitionist paper The Liberator, who was being chased by a violent mob. Garrison was kept safe in the Old State House until being driven to the Leverett Street Jail, in 1841, City Hall moved to the former Suffolk County Courthouse, on School Street. After Bostons city hall left, the building was rented out for commercial use
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Contributing property
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Government agencies, at the state, national, and local level in the United States, have differing definitions of what constitutes a contributing property but there are common characteristics. Local laws often regulate the changes that can be made to contributing structures within designated historic districts, the first local ordinances dealing with the alteration of buildings within historic districts was in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931. Properties within a district fall into one of two types of property, contributing and non-contributing. A contributing property, such as a 19th Century mansion, helps make a historic district historic, while a non-contributing property, such as a medical clinic. The contributing properties are key to a districts historic associations, historic architectural qualities. A property can change from contributing to non-contributing and vice versa if significant alterations take place, the ordinance declared that buildings in the district could not have changes made to their architectural features visible from the street. By the mid-1930s, other U. S. cities followed Charlestons lead, an amendment to the Louisiana Constitution led to the 1937 creation of the Vieux Carre Commission, which was charged with protecting and preserving the French Quarter in the city of New Orleans. The city then passed an ordinance that set standards regulating changes within the quarter. Other sources, such as the Columbia Law Review in 1963, the Columbia Law Review gave dates of 1925 for the New Orleans laws and 1924 for Charleston. The same publication claimed that two cities were the only cities with historic district zoning until Alexandria, Virginia adopted an ordinance in 1946. The National Park Service appears to refute this, in 1939, the city of San Antonio, Texas, enacted an ordinance that protected the area of La Villita, which was the citys original Mexican village marketplace. In 1941 the authority of local controls on buildings within historic districts was being challenged in court. In City of New Orleans vs Pergament Louisiana state appellate courts ruled that the design, beginning in the mid-1950s, controls that once applied to only historic districts were extended to individual landmark structures. The United States Congress adopted legislation that declared the Georgetown neighborhood in Washington, by 1965,51 American communities had adopted preservation ordinances. By 1998, more than 2,300 U. S. towns, contributing properties are defined through historic district or historic preservation zoning laws, usually at the local level. Zoning ordinances pertaining to historic districts are designed to maintain a historic character by controlling demolition and alteration to existing properties. It can be any property, structure or object that adds to the integrity or architectural qualities that make the historic district, either local or federal. Definitions vary but, in general, they maintain the same characteristics, another key aspect of a contributing property is historic integrity
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Historic districts in the United States
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Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some have hundreds of structures, the U. S. federal government designates historic districts through the United States Department of Interior under the auspices of the National Park Service. Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, state-level historic districts may follow similar criteria or may require adherence to certain historic rehabilitation standards. Local historic district designation offers, by far, the most legal protection for historic properties because most land use decisions are made at the local level, local districts are generally administered by the county or municipal government. The first U. S. historic district was established in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931, Charleston city government designated an Old and Historic District by local ordinance and created a board of architectural review to oversee it. New Orleans followed in 1937, establishing the Vieux Carré Commission, other localities picked up on the concept, with the city of Philadelphia enacting its historic preservation ordinance in 1955. The Supreme Court case validated the protection of resources as an entirely permissible governmental goal. In 1966 the federal government created the National Register of Historic Places, conference of Mayors had stated Americans suffered from rootlessness. By the 1980s there were thousands of federally designated historic districts, Historic districts are generally two types of properties, contributing and non-contributing. In general, contributing properties are integral parts of the historic context, in addition to the two types of classification within historic districts, properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places are classified into five broad categories. They are, building, structure, site, district and object, all but the eponymous district category are also applied to historic districts listed on the National Register. A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district, however, the Register is an honorary status with some federal financial incentives. The National Register of Historic Places defines a historic district per U. S. federal law, a district may also comprise individual elements separated geographically but linked by association or history. Districts established under U. S. federal guidelines generally begin the process of designation through a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, the National Register is the official recognition by the U. S. government of cultural resources worthy of preservation. While designation through the National Register does offer a district or property some protections, if the federal government is not involved, then the listing on the National Register provides the site, property or district no protections. If, however, company A was under federal contract the Smith House would be protected, a federal designation is little more than recognition by the government that the resource is worthy of preservation. Usually, the National Register does not list religious structures, moved structures, reconstructed structures, however, if a property falls into one of those categories and are integral parts of districts that do meet the criteria then an exception allowing their listing will be made. Historic district listings, like all National Register nominations, can be rejected on the basis of owner disapproval, in the case of historic districts, a majority of owners must object in order to nullify a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places
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