1.
Albuquerque, New Mexico
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Albuquerque is the most populous city in the U. S. state of New Mexico. The high-altitude city serves as the county seat of Bernalillo County, the city population is 557,169 as of the July 1,2014 population estimate from the United States Census Bureau, and ranks as the 32nd-largest city in the U. S. The Albuquerque metropolitan statistical area has a population of 907,301 according to the United States Census Bureaus most recently available estimate for 2015, Albuquerque is the 60th-largest United States metropolitan area. The Sandia Mountains run along the side of Albuquerque. Albuquerque is also the home of the International Balloon Fiesta, the worlds largest such gathering of hot-air balloons from around the globe, the event takes place during the first week of October. Albuquerque was named in honor of Francisco, Duke of Alburquerque, the growing village soon to become Albuquerque was named by provincial governor Francisco Cuervo y Valdés. Franciscos title referred to the Spanish town of Alburquerque, in the Spanish province of Badajoz, the name has two theories of origin which denote either Latin or Arabic roots. The first of which derived from the Latin albus quercus meaning white oak and this name was probably in reference to the prevalence of cork oaks in the region, which have a white wood when the bark is removed. Alburquerque is still a center of the Spanish cork industry, another theory suggests that it may come from the Arabic Abu al-Qurq, which means father of the cork. The change was also in due to the fact that citizens found the original name difficult to pronounce. Western folklore offers a different explanation, tracing the name Albuquerque to the Galician word albaricoque, the apricot was brought to New Mexico by Spanish settlers, possibly as early as 1743. As the story goes, the settlement was established near an apricot tree, as frontiersmen were unable to correctly pronounce the Galician word, it became corrupted to Albuquerque. The Tanoan and Keres peoples had lived along the Rio Grande for centuries before European settlers arrived in what is now Albuquerque, Albuquerque was founded in 1706 as the Spanish colonial outpost of Villa de Alburquerque. Present-day Albuquerque retains much of its historical Spanish cultural heritage, Albuquerque was a farming community and strategically located military outpost along the Camino Real. The town was also the center of the West. Spain established a presidio in Albuquerque in 1706, after 1821, Mexico also had a military garrison there. The town of Alburquerque was built in the traditional Spanish village pattern, a plaza surrounded by government buildings, homes. This central plaza area has preserved and is open to the public as a museum, cultural area
2.
New Mexico
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New Mexico is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. It was admitted to the Union as the 47th state on January 6,1912 and it is usually considered one of the Mountain States. New Mexico is fifth by area, the 36th-most populous, inhabited by Native Americans for thousands of years before European exploration, New Mexico was colonized by the Spanish in 1598 Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain. Later, it was part of independent Mexico before becoming a U. S. territory and eventually a U. S. state as a result of the Mexican–American War. Among U. S. states, New Mexico has the highest percentage of Hispanics, the major Native American nations in the state are Navajo, Pueblo, and Apache peoples. The demography and culture of the state are shaped by these strong Hispanic and Native American influences and its scarlet and gold colors are taken from the royal standards of Spain, along with the ancient sun symbol of the Zia, a Pueblo-related tribe. New Mexico, or Nuevo México in Spanish, is incorrectly believed to have taken its name from the nation of Mexico. The name simply stuck, even though the area had no connection to Mexico or the Mexica Indian tribes, Mexico, formerly a part of New Spain, adopted its name centuries later in 1821, after winning independence from Spanish rule. New Mexico was a part of the independent Mexican Empire and Federal Republic of Mexico for 27 years,1821 through 1848, New Mexico and Mexico developed as neighboring Spanish-speaking communities under Spanish rule, with relatively independent histories. The states total area is 121,412 square miles, the eastern border of New Mexico lies along 103° W longitude with the state of Oklahoma, and 2.2 miles west of 103° W longitude with Texas. On the southern border, Texas makes up the eastern two-thirds, while the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora make up the western third, the western border with Arizona runs along the 109°03 W longitude. The southwestern corner of the state is known as the Bootheel, the 37° N latitude parallel forms the northern boundary with Colorado. The states New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah come together at the Four Corners in the corner of New Mexico. New Mexico, although a state, has very little water. Its surface water area is about 250 square miles, the New Mexican landscape ranges from wide, rose-colored deserts to broken mesas to high, snow-capped peaks. Despite New Mexicos arid image, heavily forested mountain wildernesses cover a significant portion of the state, the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, the southernmost part of the Rocky Mountains, run roughly north-south along the east side of the Rio Grande in the rugged, pastoral north. The most important of New Mexicos rivers are the Rio Grande, Pecos, Canadian, San Juan, the Rio Grande is tied for the fourth-longest river in the United States. Tourists visiting these sites bring significant money to the state, other areas of geographical and scenic interest include Kasha-Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument and the Gila Wilderness in the southwest of the state
3.
Adobe
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Adobe is a building material made from earth and often organic material. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world, modern methods of construction allow the pouring of whole adobe walls that are reinforced with steel. In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass, cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the 1976 Guatemala earthquake, the 2003 Bam earthquake and the 2010 Chile earthquake. Puebloan peoples built their structures with handfuls or basketfuls of adobe. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages and its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics. A distinction is made between the smaller adobes, which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger adobines. The word adobe /əˈdoʊbiː/ has existed for around 4000 years with little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the Middle Egyptian word ɟbt mudbrick, Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian, Demotic or pre-Coptic, and finally to Coptic, where it appeared as τωωβε tōʾpə. This was borrowed into Arabic as الطوب aṭ-ṭawbu or aṭ-ṭūbu, with the definite article al- attached, tuba, English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century. In more modern English usage, the adobe has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America. An adobe brick is a material made of earth mixed with water. The soil composition typically contains sand, silt and clay, straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles 50 to 250 mm with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight, no more than half the clay content should be expansive clays with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the resulting in cracking. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where construction is in use, are an adequate composition. Adobe walls are bearing, i. e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure
4.
San Felipe de Neri Church
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San Felipe de Neri Church is a historic Catholic church located on the north side of Old Town Plaza in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Built in 1793, it is one of the oldest surviving buildings in the city, originally, Don Francisco Cuervo y Valdez named the church San Francisco Xavier, after the Viceroy of New Spain. Shortly afterward, The Duke of Albuquerque changed the name to San Felipe, San Felipe de Neri was established in 1706 under the direction of Fray Manuel Moreno and initially stood to the northwest of the Plaza. The original building was completed in 1719, the original church building collapsed in 1792 after a heavy rain and was replaced by the current structure the following year. The towers were added in 1861, a school was constructed in 1878. Today the church complex is undergoing extensive renovations inside and out, official website American Southwest, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary
5.
Albuquerque Museum of Art and History
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The Albuquerque Museum, formerly known as the The Albuquerque Museum of Art and History, is located in Albuquerque, New Mexico in Old Town Albuquerque. The Albuquerque Museum is dedicated to preserving the art of the American Southwest and the history of Albuquerque, the museum also contributes significantly to the cultural and educational programs in the city of Albuquerque. The museum was first opened as the Museum of Albuquerque in 1967, the collection outgrew the available space in the terminal, and the current location was built in 1979. The building was designed by Antoine Predock and was expanded in 2005. The museums permanent exhibits are dedicated to art in New Mexico, and the history of Albuquerque include early maps, conquistador armor, weavings, the museum also hosts changing exhibits, a massive photo archive, art galleries, and maintains an outdoor sculpture garden on the grounds. The house features a recreation of a 19th-century rancho, including a chapel, a central plazuela. New Mexico Office of Cultural Affairs, enchanted Lifeways, The History, Museums, Arts & Festivals of New Mexico. Official website Information about The Albuquerque Museum A Virtual Tour of the Albuquerque Museum of Art and History, Albuquerque, NM
6.
New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science
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The New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science is a natural history and science museum in Albuquerque, New Mexico near Old Town Albuquerque. The Museum was founded in 1986, the Museums permanent exhibit halls illustrate a journey through time, covering the birth of the Universe to the Ice Age. The Jurassic Super Giants exhibit features the skeletons of Seismosaurus, Saurophaganax, Stegosaurus. In the museums atrium is the skeleton of Stan, a Tyrannosaurus rex measuring forty feet in length and twelve feet in height, bronze statues of two dinosaurs, a Pentaceratops named Spike and an Albertosaurus named Alberta, stand at the entrance. Many dinosaur fossils have found in New Mexico, and a few of the ones on display in the museum are only known from New Mexico. The Museum also houses changing exhibits, a cafe, a store, and the Lockheed Martin DynaTheater
7.
Explora (Albuquerque, New Mexico)
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Explora is a science center in Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States, located near Old Town Albuquerque. Its name is the form of the Spanish language verb explorar. The museum employs a hands-on, inquiry-based learning approach to science, math, the museum has 20,000 square feet of exhibit space on two floors, which contain over 250 interactive exhibits that cover a broad range of science, technology and art. Notable exhibits include a laminar flow fountain, an experiment bar, an arts and crafts area, in addition to the exhibits, the building houses a performance theater, gift store, educational program areas, the in-house exhibit workshop and staff offices. Explora is a member of the Association of Science-Technology Centers, Explora, along with the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science and the National Museum of Nuclear Science & History, hosted the ASTC2013 Conference in Albuquerque. Creating opportunities for discovery and the joy of lifelong learning through interactive experiences in science, technology. Says, In 1986, Explora and the New Mexico Academy of Sciences were joined by HealthQuest, the tax was approved in 1987, and construction plans were drawn up by Mahlman Studio Architecture. Explora Science Center opened in Downtown Albuquerque’s First Plaza Galleria in 1993, the museum moved to the Sheraton Old Town, and then to Winrock Center. In 1995, Explora merged with the Albuquerque Children’s Museum and became Explora Science Center, Explora opened its current location in December 2003. Financial support comes from sources, including earned income, public dollars from the city and the state. The Alibi named Explora Best Recreational Program for Kids, the magazine called Explora an awesomely fun hands-on science center that gets kids excited about things like electricity, refracted light and systems in motion. In conjunction with the Pacific Science Center, Explora received the 2010 Shafer Leading Edge Award for Visitor Experiences from ASTC, the award recognized the National Science Foundation-funded program, Portal to the Public. ASTC describes PoP as bringing local scientists onto the science center floor to communicate their research through conversations, in November 2010, Explora was named a recipient of the National Medal for Museum and Library Service by the Institute of Museum and Library Services. The medal recognizes museums and libraries that excel in community involvement, exploras Executive Director, Patrick Lopez, received the award in a ceremony at the White House on December 17,2010
8.
Science museum
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A science museum is a museum devoted primarily to science. Older science museums tended to concentrate on static displays of objects related to history, paleontology, geology, industry and industrial machinery. Modern trends in museology have broadened the range of subject matter, many if not most modern science museums — which increasingly refer to themselves as science centers or discovery centers — also emphasize technology, and are therefore also technology museums. The mission statements of science centers and modern museums vary, but they are united in being places that make science accessible and they are an integral and dynamic part of the learning environment, promoting exploration from the first Eureka. As early as the Renaissance, many aristocrats collected curiosities for display to their family, universities and particularly medical schools also maintained study collections of specimens for their students. Scientists and collectors displayed their finds in private cabinets of curiosities, such collections were the predecessors of modern natural history museums. The first purpose-built museum covering natural philosophy and open to the public from 1683 was the original Ashmolean museum in Oxford, the first dedicated science museum was the Museo de Ciencias Naturales, in Madrid, Spain. Opened in 1752, it almost disappeared during the Franco regime, the Utrecht University Museum, among others, still displays an extensive collection of 18th-century animal and human rarities in its original setting. Another line in the genealogy of science museums came during the Industrial Revolution, for example, the Great Exhibition in The Crystal Palace eventually gave rise to Londons Science Museum. In America, various Natural History Societies established collections in the early 19th century, notable was the early New England Museum of Natural History, which opened in Boston in 1864. The Academy of Science of Saint Louis was founded in 1856 as the first scientific organization west of the Mississippi, the modern interactive science museum appears to have been pioneered by Munich’s Deutsches Museum in the early 20th century. This museum had moving exhibits where visitors were encouraged to push buttons, the concept was taken to the US by Julius Rosenwald, chairman of Sears, Roebuck and Company, who visited the Deutsches Museum with his young son in 1911. He was so-captivated by the experience that he decided to build a museum in his home town. Chicagos Museum of Science and Industry opened in phases between 1933 and 1940, in 1959 the Museum of Science and Natural History was formally created by the Academy of Science of Saint Louis, featuring many interactive science and history exhibits. In August 1969, Frank Oppenheimer dedicated his new Exploratorium in San Francisco almost completely to interactive science exhibits, the Exploratorium published the details of their own exhibits in Cookbooks that served as an inspiration to many other museums around the world. Opened in September 1969, the Ontario Science Centre continued the trend of featuring interactive exhibits rather than static displays, in 1973, the first Omnimax theater opened as the Reuben H. Fleet Space Theater and Science Center in San Diegos Balboa Park, the tilted-dome Space Theater doubled as a planetarium. The Science Center was an Exploratorium-style museum included as a part of the complex
9.
Luminaria
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A luminaria or farolito is a small paper lantern which is of significance in the US state of New Mexico in southwest United States at Christmas time, especially on Christmas Eve. These paper lanterns have to some extent replaced the older tradition of the vigil fire luminaria with which they became confused. Yet another form of luminaria, a torch or large candle, is carried by the leader of the procession of Las Posadas. Traditional Christmas Eve luminarias are said to originate from Spaniard merchants and they were impressed with the Paper lanterns from the Chinese culture and decided to make their own version when they returned to New Spain, particularly during the Christmas season. They decided to use more hearty materials, traditionally, luminarias are made from brown paper bags weighted down with sand and illuminated from within by a lit candle. These are typically arranged in rows to create large and elaborate displays, the hope among Roman Catholics is that the lights will guide the spirit of the Christ child to ones home. In recent times they are seen more as a secular decoration and these are beginning to gain popularity in other parts of the United States. Santa Fe and Old Town Albuquerque, New Mexico, are known for their impressive Christmas Eve farolito displays. Farolito displays are common throughout New Mexico, and most communities in New Mexico have farolitos in prominent areas such as streets or parks. Residents often line their yards, fences, sidewalks, and roofs with farolitos, similar traditions can now also be found in many other parts of the nation. In West Valley City, Utah, luminarias are used to light the path during the Walk with Santa held the first Monday of December every year, the display features over 300 luminarias. The American Cancer Societys Relay for Life fundraising events which are all over the US feature luminaria ceremonies. Luminarias are placed around the track and some relay events spell out HOPE in stadium stands with luminarias, after the 2008 city hall shooting in Kirkwood, Missouri, residents lined the streets with luminarias to honor the victims of the shooting. The American Foundation for Suicide Preventions Out of the Darkness Overnight uses luminarias at the end of the walk to memorialize those lost to suicide for survivors. San Juan College in Farmington, New Mexico, organizes a large annual farolito display, luminarias have also become popular in California in some cities. The Boy Scout Troops and Albuquerque Youth Symphony sell them around Christmas time as another form of fundraising, in Galena, Ill. luminarias line the streets of the town one night in December for their annual Night of Luminaria. Each year for the past 22 years community members have placed luminaria along the path beside Lake Washington north of Seward Park and they place as many as 1800 along a three-mile stretch of the path. The placement of the luminaria are timed to coincide with the annual Christmas Ships festival organized by Argosy Cruises, in Midlothian, Ill. luminaria sets are sold to raise money for the local food pantries
10.
Christmas Eve
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Christmas Eve is the day before Christmas Day, the festival commemorating the birth of Jesus of Nazareth. Christmas Day is observed around the world, and Christmas Eve is widely observed as a full or partial holiday in anticipation of Christmas Day, together, both days are considered one of the most culturally significant celebrations in Christendom and Western society. Many churches still ring their bells and hold prayers in the evening, for example. Since tradition holds that Jesus was born at night, Midnight Mass is celebrated on Christmas Eve, traditionally at midnight, roman Catholics and high church Anglicans traditionally celebrate Midnight Mass, which begins either at or sometime before midnight on Christmas Eve. This ceremony, which is held in churches throughout the world, celebrates the birth of Christ, Midnight Mass is popular in Poland. In recent years churches have scheduled their Midnight Mass as early as 7 pm. In Spanish-speaking areas, the Midnight Mass is sometimes referred to as Misa de Gallo, in the Philippines, the custom has expanded into the nine-day Simbang Gabi, when Filipinos attend dawn Masses from 16 December, continuing daily until Christmas Eve. In 2009 Vatican officials scheduled the Midnight Mass to start at 10 pm so that the 82-year-old Pope Benedict XVI would not have too late a night. Whilst it does not include any kind of Mass, the Church of Scotland has a service beginning just before midnight, the Church of Scotland no longer holds Hogmanay services on New Years Eve, however. The Christmas Eve Services are still very popular, on Christmas Eve, the Christ Candle in the center of the Advent wreath is traditionally lit in many church services. In candlelight services, while singing Silent Night, each member of the congregation receives a candle, lutherans traditionally practice Christmas Eve Eucharistic traditions typical of Germany and Scandinavia. Krippenspiele, special music for organ, vocal and brass choirs. A nativity scene may be erected indoors or outdoors, and is composed of figurines depicting the infant Jesus resting in a manger, Mary, other figures in the scene may include angels, shepherds, and various animals. The figures may be made of any material, and arranged in a stable or grotto, the Magi may also appear, and are sometimes not placed in the scene until the week following Christmas to account for their travel time to Bethlehem. While most home nativity scenes are packed away at Christmas or shortly thereafter, Christmas Vespers are popular in the early evening, and midnight services are also widespread in regions which are predominantly Lutheran. The old Lutheran tradition of a Christmas Vigil in the morning hours of Christmas Day can still be found in some regions. Methodists celebrate the evening in different ways, some, in the early evening, come to their church to celebrate Holy Communion with their families. The mood is very solemn, and the visible light is the Advent Wreath
11.
Central Avenue (Albuquerque, New Mexico)
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Central Avenue is a major east-west street in Albuquerque, New Mexico, which historically served as the citys main thoroughfare and principal axis of development. It runs through many of Albuquerques oldest neighborhoods, including Downtown, Old Town, Nob Hill, Central Avenue was part of U. S. Route 66 from 1937 until the highways decommissioning in 1985 and also forms one axis of Albuquerques house numbering system. It was also signed as Business Loop 40 until the early 1990s when ownership of Central Avenue was transferred from the New Mexico State Highway Department to the City of Albuquerque. Central follows a primarily east-west alignment from Paseo del Volcán on the outskirts of the city to Tramway Boulevard near the mouth of Tijeras Canyon. Both ends terminate at Interstate 40, which replaced Route 66 as the primary east-west route through Albuquerque, along the way Central passes through the historic Old Town, Downtown, EDo, Huning Highlands, Silver Hill, University, Nob Hill, and Highland neighborhoods. The street crosses the Rio Grande just southwest of Old Town, Central then passes through the heart of Albuquerques west side before climbing Nine Mile Hill on the citys western limits. The route that is now Central Avenue has existed in form since prehistoric times, linking Tijeras Canyon. Originally a Native American trading route, the trail later connected Albuquerque with the settlement of Carnuel. It was upgraded to a road by the U. S. Army in 1858. The Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railway reached Albuquerque in 1880 and this led to the establishment of a separate New Town around the railroad depot, which was built on the preexisting Carnuel road. When the original street grid was laid out that same year. A mule-drawn streetcar line was soon established, as reported in the Albuquerque Journal, The name of Central Avenue it is believed, will at once convey the idea that it is the citys main business street and the center of town. A new electric line was installed in 1904. Meanwhile, the city grew eastward along Central, driven in part by the establishment of the University of New Mexico on the East Mesa in 1889, one of these survived to the present day as Presbyterian Hospital. With the increasing popularity of the automobile in the 1920s, Central became a hub for car dealerships, service stations, the road was extended west across the Rio Grande and paved along its entire length, while the grade crossing downtown was eliminated with a new underpass. Dozens of new motels, diners, and filling stations sprang up along East and West Central to cater to the stream of travelers passing through the city. By 1955, there were 98 motels along Central Avenue, Central entered an economic decline in the 1960s as Albuquerque became increasingly decentralized. The streets fortunes began to turn around in the early 1980s with the renovation of the KiMo Theater
12.
Santa Fe, New Mexico
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Santa Fe is the capital of the state of New Mexico. It is the fourth-largest city in the state and is the seat of Santa Fe County and this area was occupied for at least several hundred years by indigenous peoples who built villages. The city of Santa Fe, founded by Spanish colonists in 1610, is known as the oldest state capital city in the United States, Santa Fe had a population of 69,204 in 2012. It is the city of a Metropolitan Statistical Area which encompasses all of Santa Fe County and is part of the larger Albuquerque–Santa Fe–Las Vegas combined statistical area. The citys full name when founded was La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco de Asís, the area of Santa Fe was originally occupied by indigenous Tanoan peoples, who lived in numerous Pueblo villages along the Rio Grande. One of the earliest known settlements in what today is downtown Santa Fe came sometime after 900, the river had a year-round flow until the 1700s. By the 20th century the Santa Fe River was a seasonal waterway, as of 2007, the river was recognized as the most endangered river in the United States, according to the conservation group American Rivers. Don Juan de Oñate led the first European effort to colonize the region in 1598, under Juan de Oñate and his son, the capital of the province was the settlement of San Juan de los Caballeros north of Santa Fe near modern Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo. In 1610, he designated it as the capital of the province, Santa Fe remained Spains provincial seat until the outbreak of the Mexican War of Independence in 1810. It was considered important to fur traders based in present-day Saint Louis, when the area was still under Spanish rule, the Chouteau brothers of Saint Louis gained a monopoly on the fur trade, before the United States acquired Missouri under the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. The fur trade contributed to the wealth of St. Louis, the citys status as the capital of the Mexican territory of Santa Fe de Nuevo México was formalized in the 1824 Constitution after Mexico achieved independence from Spain. When the Republic of Texas seceded from Mexico in 1836, it claimed Santa Fe as part of the portion of Texas along the Rio Grande. In 1841, a military and trading expedition set out from Austin. Known as the Texan Santa Fe Expedition, the force was prepared and was easily captured by the Mexican army. In 1846, the United States declared war on Mexico, brigadier General Stephen W. Kearny led the main body of his Army of the West of some 1,700 soldiers into Santa Fe to claim it and the whole New Mexico Territory for the United States. By 1848 the U. S. officially gained New Mexico through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, colonel Alexander William Doniphan, under the command of Kearny, recovered ammunition from Santa Fe labeled Spain 1776. This showed that New Mexico had received munitions and other support under Mexican rule, some American visitors at first saw little promise in the remote town. One traveller in 1849 wrote, I can hardly imagine how Santa Fe is supported, the country around it is barren
13.
Taos, New Mexico
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Taos /ˈtaʊs/ is a town in Taos County in the north-central region of New Mexico in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, incorporated in 1934. As of the 2010 census, its population was 5,716, Other nearby communities include Ranchos de Taos, Cañon, Taos Canyon, Ranchitos, El Prado, and Arroyo Seco. The town is close to Taos Pueblo, the Native American village, Taos is the county seat of Taos County. The English name Taos derives from the native Taos language meaning place of red willows, Taos is the principal city of the Taos, NM Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Taos County. The Taos Pueblo, which borders the town of Taos on its side, has been occupied for nearly a millennium. Located in a valley off the Rio Grande, it is the most northern of the New Mexico pueblos. The pueblo, at some five stories high, is a combination of many individual homes with common walls. There are over 1,900 Taos Indians living within the greater pueblo-area community, many of them have modern homes near their fields and live there in summer months, only staying at their homes within the main North or South pueblo buildings during cooler weather. About 150 people live within the main pueblo buildings year-round, the Taos Pueblo was added as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992. Taos was established c.1615 as Don Fernando de Taos, in 1680, Taos Pueblo joined the widespread Pueblo Revolt. After the Spanish Reconquest of 1692, Taos Pueblo continued armed resistance to the Spanish until 1696, during the 1770s, Taos was repeatedly raided by Comanches who lived on the plains of what is now eastern Colorado. Juan Bautista de Anza, governor of the Province of New Mexico, between 1780 and 1800, Don Fernando de Taos was established. Between 1796 and 1797 the Don Fernando de Taos Land Grant gave land to 63 Spanish families in the Taos valley and it was built as a fortified plaza with adobe buildings and is now a central plaza surrounded by residential areas. Mountain men who trapped for beaver nearby made Taos their home in the early 1800s, Mexico ceded the region to the U. S. in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 after the Mexican–American War. New Mexico was a territory of the United States beginning 1850, for historical reasons, the American flag is displayed continuously at Taos Plaza. This derives from the time of the American Civil War, when Confederate sympathizers in the area attempted to remove the flag, the Union officer Kit Carson sought to discourage this activity by having guards surround the area and fly the flag 24 hours a day. The Padre of Isleta, Anton Docher first served as a priest in Taos before leaving for Isleta in 1891, beginning in 1899, artists began to settle in Taos, six formed the Taos Society of Artists in 1915. In time, the Taos art colony developed, many paintings were made of local scenes, especially of Taos Pueblo and activities there, as the artists often modelled Native Americans from the pueblo in their paintings
14.
Las Vegas, New Mexico
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Las Vegas is a city in and the county seat of San Miguel County, New Mexico, United States. Once two separate municipalities both named Las Vegas, west Las Vegas and east Las Vegas, separated by the Gallinas River, retain distinct characters and separate, the population was 14,565 at the 2000 census. Las Vegas was established in 1835 after a group of settlers received a grant from the Mexican government. The town was out in the traditional Spanish Colonial style. Las Vegas soon prospered as a stop on the Santa Fe Trail, during the Mexican-American War in 1846, Stephen W. Kearny delivered an address at the Plaza of Las Vegas claiming New Mexico for the United States. In 1877 Las Vegas College, the precursor to Regis University, was founded in Las Vegas by a group of exiled Italian Jesuits, in 1887, Las Vegas College moved to Denver whereupon the name was changed. A railroad was constructed to the town in 1880, to maintain control of development rights, it established a station and related development one mile east of the Plaza, creating a separate, rival New Town, as occurred elsewhere in the Old West. The same competing development occurred in Albuquerque, for instance, during the railroad era Las Vegas boomed, quickly becoming one of the largest cities in the American Southwest. Since the decline and restructuring of the industry began in the 1950s. Although the two towns have been combined, separate school districts have been maintained, the anti-colonist organization Las Gorras Blancas was active in the area in the 1890s. The first billed Cowboy Reunions were held once a year within 1915 until 1931 and these reunions were meant to celebrate the ranching life that took place in northern New Mexico in the late 1800s. These reunions consisted of fair activities, including pie eating contests, barbecues. They brought the working cowhand and celebrities of Rodeos together in the town of Las Vegas, the Cowboy Reunions reflected the occupations of the area. The arrival of the railroad on July 4,1879 brought with it businesses, development and new residents, murderers, robbers, thieves, gamblers, gunmen, swindlers, vagrants, and tramps poured in, transforming the eastern side of the settlement into a virtually lawless brawl. Historian Ralph Emerson Twitchell once claimed regarding the Old West, Without exception there was no town which harbored a more disreputable gang of desperadoes, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 7.5 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2000, there were 14,565 people,5,588 households, the population density was 1,938.2 people per square mile. There were 6,366 housing units at a density of 847.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 54. 21% White,0. 99% African American,1. 96% Native American,0. 61% Asian,0. 10% Pacific Islander,37. 19% from other races, and 4. 95% from two or more races
15.
Mesilla, New Mexico
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Mesilla is a town in Doña Ana County, New Mexico, United States. The population was 2,196 at the 2010 census and it is part of the Las Cruces Metropolitan Statistical Area. During the American Civil War, Mesilla briefly served as capital of the Confederate Territory of Arizona, the Mesilla Plaza is a National Historic Landmark. The village of Mesilla was incorporated in 1848, after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo moved the U. S. –Mexico border south of the village of Doña Ana, placing it in the United States. A small group of citizens, unhappy at being part of the United States and they settled in Mesilla at this time. By 1850, Mesilla was an established colony, by this time, its people were under constant threat of attack from the Apache. By 1851, the attacks caused the United States to take action to protect its people just to the north of the border and they did this by creating Fort Fillmore. As a result of the fort, the United States declared the Mesilla Valley region part of the United States, Mexico also claimed this strip of land, causing it to become known as No Mans Land. This boundary dispute, which was caused by a map error, was resolved in 1853 with the Gadsden Purchase. Mesilla became a part of the United States, as well as the part of New Mexico. Two battles were fought at or in the town during the Civil War, Mesilla served as the capital of the Confederate Territory of Arizona in 1861-1862 and was known as the hub, or main city for the entire region. Recaptured by the Volunteers of the California Column, it became the headquarters of the Military District of Arizona until 1864. During the Wild West era, Mesilla was known for its cantinas, the area attracted such figures as Billy the Kid, Pat Garrett and Pancho Villa. The village was also the crossroads of two stagecoach lines, Butterfield Stagecoach and the Santa Fe Trail. The village of Mesilla was the most important city of the region until 1881, in 1881, the Santa Fe Railway was ready to build through the Gadsden Purchase region of the country. Mesilla was naturally seen as the city the railroad would run through, however, the people of Mesilla asked for too much money for the land rights, and a landowner in nearby Las Cruces, a much smaller village than Mesilla, stepped in and offered free land. The city of Mesilla has not grown much since, and Las Cruces has grown to a population of an estimated 101,000 people and is currently the second largest city in New Mexico. La Mesilla Historic District, which includes Mesilla Plaza, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1961, the Fountain Theatre, except for 12 years, has been in operation since the early 1900s
16.
Laws of the Indies
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The Laws of the Indies are the entire body of laws issued by the Spanish Crown for the American and Philippine possessions of its empire. They regulated social, political and economic life in these areas and this became considered the classic collection of the laws, although later laws superseded parts of it, and other compilations were issued. The Spanish Viceroyalties in the Americas sometimes generated conflicts between peoples and the Spanish colonists. The Spanish attempted to control the Natives to force their labor, at the same time, conflicts on policy and implementation occurred between the encomenderos and the Crown. The Laws of Burgos, signed by King Ferdinand II of Aragon, the issue was revisited after Bartolomé de las Casas brought attention to abuses being carried out by encomenderos. The Laws of Burgos were revised by the New Laws of 1542 issued by Charles I and quickly revised again in 1552 and these were followed by the Ordinances Concerning Discoveries in 1573, which forbade any unauthorized operations against independent Native Americans. The Valladolid debate was the first moral debate in European history to discuss the rights and it consisted of a number of opposing views about the way natives were to be integrated into colonial life, their conversion to Christianity and their rights and obligations. According to the French historian Jean Dumont The Valladolid debate was a turning point in world history “In that moment in Spain appeared the dawn of the human rights”. To guide and regularize the establishment of presidios, missions, and pueblos and this comprehensive guide was composed of 148 ordinances to aid colonists in locating, building, and populating settlements. They codified the city planning process and represented some of the first attempts at a general plan, signed in 1573, the Laws of the Indies are considered the first wide-ranging guidelines towards design and development of communities. These laws were influenced by Vitruvius Ten Books of Architecture. In Book IV of the 1680 compilation of The Laws of the Indies, plans were set forth in detail on every facet of creating a community, including town planning. They shall try as far as possible to have the all of one type for the sake of the beauty of the town. The site and building lots for houses, fisheries, tanneries. These rules are part of a body of 148 regulations configuring any settlement according to the rule of Spain and this continued as a precedent in all towns under Spanish control until the relinquishing of the land to others, as in the case of the American colonies and their growth. The Laws of the Indies are still used as an example to design guidelines for communities today, the Laws specify many details of towns. A plan is centered on a Plaza Mayor of size within specified limits. The directions of the streets are chosen according to the prevailing winds, the guidelines recommend a hospital for non-contagious cases near the church, and one for contagious diseases further away
17.
Rio Grande
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The Rio Grande is one of the principal rivers in the southwest United States and northern Mexico. The Rio Grande begins in south-central Colorado in the United States, along the way, it forms part of the Mexico–United States border. According to the International Boundary and Water Commission, its length was 1,896 miles in the late 1980s. Depending on how it is measured, the Rio Grande is the fourth- or fifth-longest river system in North America. The river serves as part of the border between the U. S. state of Texas and the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León. A very short stretch of the river serves as part of the boundary between the U. S. states of Texas and New Mexico. Since the mid–20th century, heavy consumption of farms and cities along with many large diversion dams on the river has left only 20% of its natural discharge to flow to the Gulf. Near the rivers mouth, the heavily irrigated lower Rio Grande Valley is an important agricultural region, the Rio Grande is one of 19 Great Waters recognized by Americas Great Waters Coalition. The Rio Grandes watershed covers 182,200 square miles, many endorheic basins are situated within, or adjacent to, the Rio Grandes basin, and these are sometimes included in the river basins total area, increasing its size to about 336,000 square miles. The Rio Grande rises in the part of the Rio Grande National Forest in the U. S. state of Colorado. The river is formed by the joining of several streams at the base of Canby Mountain in the San Juan Mountains and it then continues on a southerly route through the desert cities of Albuquerque, and Las Cruces to El Paso, Texas and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua. In the Albuquerque area, the river flows past a number of historic Pueblo villages, including Sandia Pueblo, below El Paso, it serves as part of the border between the United States and Mexico. The official river border measurement ranges from 889 miles to 1,248 miles, a major tributary, the Rio Conchos, enters at Ojinaga, Chihuahua, below El Paso, and supplies most of the water in the border segment. Other well-known tributaries include the Pecos and the smaller Devils, which join the Rio Grande on the site of Amistad Dam. Despite its name and length, the Rio Grande is not navigable by ocean-going ships, in New Mexico, the river flows through the Rio Grande rift from one sediment-filled basin to another, cutting canyons between the basins and supporting a fragile bosque ecosystem on its flood plain. From El Paso eastward, the flows through desert. Although irrigated agriculture exists throughout most of its stretch, it is extensive in the subtropical Lower Rio Grande Valley. The river ends in a small, sandy delta at the Gulf of Mexico, during portions of 2001 and 2002, the mouth of the Rio Grande was blocked by a sandbar
18.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
19.
Mexican War of Independence
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The Mexican War of Independence was an armed conflict, and the culmination of a political and social process which ended the rule of Spain in 1821 in the territory of New Spain. September 16 is celebrated as Mexican Independence Day, the movement for independence was inspired by the Age of Enlightenment and the liberal revolutions of the last part of the 18th century. By that time the elite of New Spain had begun to reflect on the relations between Spain and its colonial kingdoms. Changes in the social and political structure occasioned by Bourbon Reforms, political events in Europe had a decisive effect on events in most of Spanish America. In 1808, King Charles IV and Ferdinand VII abdicated in favor of French leader Napoleon Bonaparte, the same year, the ayuntamiento of Mexico City, supported by viceroy José de Iturrigaray, claimed sovereignty in the absence of the legitimate king. That led to a coup against the viceroy, when it was suppressed, despite the defeat in Mexico City, small groups of conspirators met in other cities of New Spain to raise movements against colonial rule. From 1810 the independence movement went through stages, as leaders were imprisoned or executed by forces loyal to Spain. Secular priest José María Morelos called the separatist provinces to form the Congress of Chilpancingo, after the defeat of Morelos, the movement survived as a guerrilla war under the leadership of Vicente Guerrero. By 1820, the few rebel groups survived most notably in the Sierra Madre del Sur, the reinstatement of the liberal Constitution of Cadiz in 1820 caused a change of mind among the elite groups who had supported Spanish rule. Monarchist Creoles affected by the constitution decided to support the independence of New Spain, agustín de Iturbide led the military arm of the conspirators and in early 1821 he met Vicente Guerrero. Both proclaimed the Plan of Iguala, which called for the union of all insurgent factions and was supported by both the aristocracy and clergy of New Spain and it called for monarchy in an independent Mexico. Finally, the independence of Mexico was achieved on September 27,1821, after that, the mainland of New Spain was organized as the Mexican Empire. This ephemeral Catholic monarchy changed to a republic in 1823, due to internal conflicts. After some Spanish reconquest attempts, including the expedition of Isidro Barradas in 1829, after the suppression of that mid-16th-century conspiracy, elites raised no substantial challenge to royal rule until the Hidalgo revolt of 1810. Elites in Mexico City in the century did force the removal of a reformist viceroy. The crowd was reported to shout, Long live the King, the attack was against Gelves as a bad representative of the crown and not against the monarchy or colonial rule itself. There was also a conspiracy in the mid-seventeenth century to unite creole elites, blacks. The man pushing this notion called himself Don Guillén Lampart y Guzmán, lamports conspiracy was discovered, and he was arrested by the Inquisition in 1642, and executed fifteen years later for sedition
20.
Stephen W. Kearny
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Stephen Watts Kearny, was one of the foremost antebellum frontier officers of the United States Army. He is remembered for his significant contributions in the Mexican–American War, the Kearny code, which was proclaimed on September 22,1846 in Santa Fe, established the law and government of the newly acquired territory of New Mexico, was named after him. Kearny was born in Newark, New Jersey, the son of Philip Kearny, Sr. stephen Watts Kearny went to public schools. After high school, he attended Columbia University in New York City for two years and he joined the New York Militia soon after he left school in 1812, beginning his military career. In the late 1820s after his career was established, Kearny met, courted and married Mary Radford, the couple had eleven children, of whom six died in childhood. In 1812 Kearny was commissioned as a First Lieutenant in the War of 1812 in the 13th Infantry Regiment, after the war, he chose to remain in the US Army. Kearny was promoted to captain on April 1,1813, brevet major in 1823, major,1829, and lieutenant colonel,1833. He was assigned to the frontier under command of Gen. Henry Atkinson. The Yellowstone Expedition of 1819 journeyed only as far as present-day Nebraska, Kearny was also on the 1825 expedition that reached the mouth of the Yellowstone River. During his travels, he kept journals, including his interactions with Native Americans. In 1826, Kearny was appointed as the first commander of the new Jefferson Barracks in Missouri south of St. Louis, while stationed there, he was often invited to the nearby city, the center of fur trade, economics and politics of the region. By way of Meriwether Lewis Clark, Sr. he was invited as a guest of William Clark of the Lewis, in 1833, Kearny was appointed second in command of the newly organized 1st Dragoon Regiment. The U. S. Cavalry eventually grew out of this regiment, the regiment was stationed at Fort Leavenworth in present-day Kansas, and Kearny was promoted to the rank of colonel in command of the regiment in 1836. He was also commander of the Armys Third Military Department, charged with protecting the frontier. By the early 1840s, when emigrants began traveling along the Oregon Trail, the practice of the militarys escorting settlers wagon trains would become official government policy in succeeding decades. To protect the travelers, Kearny established a new post along Table Creek near present-day Nebraska City, the outpost was named Fort Kearny. However, the Army realized the site was not well-chosen, at the outset of the Mexican–American War, Kearny was promoted to brigadier general on June 30,1846 and took a force of about 2,500 men to Santa Fe, New Mexico. S. Dragoons and about 500 members of the Mormon Battalion, the Mexican military forces in New Mexico retreated to Mexico without fighting and Kearnys forces easily took control of New Mexico
21.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
22.
Henry Hopkins Sibley
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Henry Hopkins Sibley was a career officer in the United States Army, who commanded a Confederate cavalry brigade in the Civil War. After capturing Albuquerque and Santa Fe, he was forced to retreat after the Battle of Glorieta Pass and he was then given minor commands in the Southern Louisiana operations, but was accused of serious blunders, apparently caused by drunkenness. Sibley designed a new 12-man bell tent and stove, easy to pack, Henry Hopkins Sibleys grandfather, Dr. John Sibley, served as a medic in Massachusetts in the American Revolutionary War. His wife was Elizabeth Hopkins, whose name was given as a middle name to their son Samuel. After her death in 1803, Dr. Sibley was part of an expedition to the Red River country of western Louisiana for the US government after the Louisiana Purchase and chose to settle in Natchitoches, in 1811 his son Samuel Hopkins Sibley and his wife followed to Natchitoches. Samuel Sibley served as a clerk from 1815 until his death in 1823. Henry Hopkins Sibley was born in Natchitoches in 1816, Union general and first Governor of Minnesota, Henry Hastings Sibley, was a distant cousin. His family had migrated west in the Northern Tier, which historians have called Greater New England, at the age of 17, Henry was admitted to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. He graduated in 1838 and was commissioned as lieutenant in the 2nd U. S. Dragoons. He fought Seminole Indians in Florida, 1840–1841, participated in the Military Occupation of Texas, 1845–1846, Sibley was on frontier duty in Texas from 1850–1855. Sibley was a military man. In the 1850s, he invented the Sibley tent, which was used by the Union Army during the American Civil War. The United Kingdom also adopted the design of the Sibley tent and he also invented the Sibley stove, to heat the tent. The Army used tent stoves of this design into the years of World War II. He took part in the Utah War, 1857–1860, and was in service in New Mexico 1860–1861. After the outbreak of the American Civil War, Sibley resigned on May 13,1861, native to Louisiana, he had southern sympathies and joined the Confederate States Army. Sibley resigned from the US Army as he sided with the Confederacy and he then intended to continue north to Colorado to capture the numerous gold and silver mines in the area as a means of replenishing the badly depleted Confederate treasury. From there Sibley planned to join forces with Confederate Lieut, John R. Baylor, already in control of much of Southern New Mexico and Arizona territories and headquartered in Tucson, AZ
23.
Battle of Glorieta Pass
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The Battle of Glorieta Pass, fought from March 26 to 28,1862, in the northern New Mexico Territory, was the decisive battle of the New Mexico Campaign during the American Civil War. Dubbed the Gettysburg of the West by some authors, it was intended as the blow by Confederate forces to break the Union possession of the West along the base of the Rocky Mountains. It was fought at Glorieta Pass in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in what is now New Mexico, there was a skirmish on March 26 between advance elements from each army, with the main battle occurring on March 28. Although the Confederates were able to push the Union force back through the pass, they had to retreat when their train was destroyed. Eventually, the Confederates had to withdraw entirely from the back into Confederate Arizona. Glorieta Pass thus represented the climax of the campaign, the lower portion of the New Mexico Territory had been largely neglected by both the Federal government and the territorial government in Santa Fe. As a result, Confederate sympathy was strong, in hopes of receiving treatment by the new government. Following secession moves by residents, the Confederate troops seized Mesilla, in early 1862 the Confederacy established the Confederate Arizona Territory, which included the southern halves of both modern Arizona and New Mexico. The territial capital was at Mesilla, some 45 miles from El Paso, the strategic goals were to gain access to the gold and silver mines of California and the Colorado Territory, and the seaport ports in Southern California and thus evade the Union naval blockade. The commanders of the New Mexico Campaign were Confederate brigadier general Henry Hopkins Sibley, Sibley attempted to capture Fort Craig, completely outmaneuvering Canby at the Battle of Valverde in February and driving him back into his fort, but failing to force Canbys surrender. Sibley then bypassed the fort, and advanced north through the Rio Grande Valley, Canby remained at Fort Craig, hoping to cut Sibleys logistical support from Texas and awaiting reinforcements before he dared to take the offensive. Sibley made his headquarters at the abandoned Union storehouse at Albuquerque, control of the pass would allow the Confederates to advance onto the High Plains and make an assault on Fort Union, a Union stronghold on the route northward over Raton Pass. Sibley sent six companies under the command of Colonel Tom Green to block the eastern end of Glorieta Pass, the Confederates were led by Charles L. Pyron and William Read Scurry. During the battle on March 26, Pyron had his battalion of the 2nd Texas Mounted Rifles, four companies of the 5th Texas Mounted Rifles under Major John Shropshire, and two cannons. The Union forces were led by Colonel John P. Slough of the 1st Colorado Infantry, in the action on March 26, Chivington had three infantry companies and one mounted company of the 1st Colorado and a detachment of the 1st and 3rd U. S. Cavalry regiments. During the main battle on the 28th, Slough commanded, in person, nine companies of the 1st Colorado, a detachment from the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd U. S. Cavalry regiments, and two artillery batteries. Chivington commanded five companies of the 5th U. S. Infantry, one company from the 1st Colorado, James Hobart Fords independent company from the 2nd Colorado, and some New Mexico militiamen. Prior to the battle, Union forces performed a march from Denver, over Raton Pass, to Fort Union
24.
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway
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The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, often abbreviated as Santa Fe or AT&SF, was one of the larger railroads in the United States. Chartered in February 1859, the reached the Kansas-Colorado border in 1873 and Pueblo, Colorado. To create a demand for its services, the set up real estate offices. Despite the name, its main line never served Santa Fe, New Mexico, as the terrain was too difficult, the Santa Fe was a pioneer in intermodal freight transport, an enterprise that included a tugboat fleet and an airline. Its bus line extended passenger transportation to areas not accessible by rail, the AT&SF was the subject of a popular song, Harry Warren & Johnny Mercers On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe, written for the film, The Harvey Girls. The railroad officially ceased operations on December 31,1996, when it merged with the Burlington Northern Railroad to form the Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway was chartered on February 11,1859, to join Atchison and Topeka, Kansas, with Santa Fe, in its early years, the railroad opened Kansas to settlement. Much of its revenue came from wheat grown there and from cattle driven north from Texas to Wichita, rather than turn its survey southward at Dodge City, AT&SF headed southwest over Raton Pass because of coal deposits near Trinidad, Colorado and Raton, New Mexico. D&RG paid an estimated $1.4 million to Santa Fe for its work within the Gorge and agreed not to extend its line to Santa Fe, while Santa Fe agreed to forego its planned routes to Denver and Leadville. Building across Kansas and eastern Colorado was simple, with few natural obstacles and it set up real estate offices in the area and promoted settlement across Kansas on the land that was granted to it by Congress in 1863. It offered discounted fares to anyone who traveled west to land, if the land was purchased. AT&SF reached Albuquerque in 1880, Santa Fe, the destination of the railroad, found itself on a short branch from Lamy. In March 1881 AT&SF connected with the Southern Pacific at Deming, New Mexico, the railroad then built southwest from Benson, Arizona, to Nogales on the Mexican border where it connected with the Sonora Railway, which the AT&SF had built north from the Mexican port of Guaymas. The Atlantic & Pacific Railroad was chartered in 1866 to build west from Springfield, Missouri, the infant A&P had no rail connections. The line that was to become the St. Louis–San Francisco Railway would not reach Springfield for another four years, A&P started construction in 1868, built southwest into what would become Oklahoma, and promptly entered receivership. In 1879 A&P struck a deal with the Santa Fe and Frisco railroads to construct a line for each. The railroads would jointly build and own the A&P railroad west of Albuquerque, in 1883 A&P reached Needles, California, where it connected with an SP line. A&P also built a line between Tulsa, Oklahoma and St. Louis, Missouri for the Frisco, but the Tulsa-Albuquerque portion remained unbuilt, by January 1890, the entire system consisted of some 7,500 miles of track
25.
Downtown Albuquerque
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Downtown Albuquerque is the central business district of Albuquerque, New Mexico. It is where a number of the citys highrise buildings are located, as well as being the center of government. Downtown is roughly defined as the area between Marble Avenue, Coal Avenue, Sixth Street, and the Burlington Northern Santa Fe railroad tracks, the area on the east side of the railroad tracks is known as East Downtown or EDo. Downtown Albuquerque is laid out in a grid pattern, with numbered north-south streets. Central Avenue is the main east-west thoroughfare through the center of Downtown, the streets start with First Street just west of the railroad tracks and increase in number moving westward. Fourth Street was originally the main thoroughfare through Downtown but today it is discontinuous, interrupted by Civic Plaza. Since these developments took place Second Street has been the main street through downtown. Fourth Street through downtown Albuquerque was part of U. S. Route 66 prior to the routes 1937 realignment, afterwards, Route 66 ran along Central Avenue until its decommissioning. Downtown Albuquerque is divided into six districts, which are identified by a unified system of signage. Located on the side of downtown, this district is bounded by Marble Avenue, Roma Avenue, Second Street. On the north side of downtown along the tracks, the Warehouse District includes the area between Second and the railroad tracks, north of the Convention Center to Slate Avenue. As its name implies, this area contains mostly warehouses from the railroad era, the Plaza District is the central area of downtown, bounded by Roma, Copper, Seventh, and the railroad tracks. The Main Library of the Albuquerque/Bernalillo County Library System is also located in this district and this district is centered along Central Avenue and Gold Avenue east of First Street. It contains most of downtown Albuquerques historic buildings as well as most of its shopping, dining, notable landmarks in this district include the KiMo Theater, Occidental Life Building, First National Bank Building, and Sunshine Building. There is a concentration of government and office buildings on Gold Avenue which includes the Dennis Chavez Federal Building, Gold Building. Amy Biehl High School is also located in this district and this is the smallest district, encompassing the area south of Central Avenue and east of First Street. Most of the district is occupied by Alvarado Transportation Center, the southernmost part of downtown, the Casa District includes the area between Gold and Coal Avenue, extending all the way west to Tenth Street. This is a residential district, with a large number of loft apartment buildings
26.
Picket fence
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Picket fences are a type of fence often used decoratively for domestic boundaries, distinguished by their evenly spaced vertical boards, the pickets, attached to horizontal rails. Picket fences are particularly popular in the United States, with the picket fence coming to symbolize the ideal middle-class suburban life. Until the introduction of advertising in the 1980s, cricket fields were surrounded by picket fences. Picket fences are particularly popular in the United States, where the style has been used since Americas earliest colonial era and they are a decorative way to contain pets and children without blocking views, and are used around both front and back yards. Traditionally picket fences were made out of wood and painted white, a picket fence is generally 36 to 48 inches tall. A horizontal top rail and bottom rail are attached to fence posts, evenly spaced boards are affixed vertically to the rails. What truly distinguishes a picket fence is the top, which is tapered or pointed and these boards with pointed tops are called pickets for their resemblance to the pointed stakes historically used by infantry to repel cavalry. Picket fences can be made of several types of materials, historically, wood has been the most popular material used for picket fences. This wood can be untreated, treated, or naturally insect, other non-wood options are available, including vinyl, aluminum, and PVC. The first step in installing a fence is to insert the posts into the ground. Traditionally this is done by digging deep holes either manually or with a power auger, the posts are then placed upright into the ground and concrete is poured to cement them into place. Once they are set, the rails are affixed to the posts using fasteners. By far the most time consuming part of installing a fence is setting the posts. There are some vinyl picket fence systems on the market that are installed without digging holes or pouring concrete and these are installed by driving pipe deep into the ground, which is how chain link fence has been installed for years. This is the most popular way to install vinyl fence in Western Canada, a picket fence, ideally white, has iconic status as Americana, symbolizing the ideal middle-class suburban life, with a family and children, large house, and peaceful living. This stems from the fact that houses in quiet, middle-class neighborhoods often have gardens enclosed by picket fences, in recent years, some people have associated picket fences with what they regard as the more negative aspects of this lifestyle. For example, the director David Lynch uses ironic images of the fence in his 1986 film Blue Velvet. The phrase picket fence also describes text without spaces between words, such texts are very common in Old Latin, with documents often lacking both spaces and punctuation
27.
Works Progress Administration
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In a much smaller but more famous project, Federal Project Number One, the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in large arts, drama, media, and literacy projects. Almost every community in the United States had a new park, the WPAs initial appropriation in 1935 was for $4.9 billion. Headed by Harry Hopkins, the WPA provided jobs and income to the unemployed during the Great Depression in the United States. At its peak in 1938, it provided jobs for three million unemployed men and women, as well as youth in a separate division, the National Youth Administration. Between 1935 and 1943, when the agency was disbanded, the WPA employed 8.5 million people, most people who needed a job were eligible for employment in some capacity. Hourly wages were set to the prevailing wages in each area. The stated goal of building programs was to end the depression or, at least, alleviate its worst effects. Millions of people needed subsistence incomes, Work relief was preferred over public assistance because it maintained self-respect, reinforced the work ethic, and kept skills sharp. The WPA was a program that operated its own projects in cooperation with state and local governments. Usually the local sponsor provided land and often trucks and supplies, WPA sometimes took over state and local relief programs that had originated in the Reconstruction Finance Corporation or Federal Emergency Relief Administration programs. It was liquidated on June 30,1943, as a result of low unemployment due to the shortage of World War II. The WPA had provided millions of Americans with jobs for eight years, on May 6,1935, FDR issued Executive Order 7034, establishing the Works Progress Administration. The WPA superseded the work of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, direct relief assistance was permanently replaced by a national work relief program—a major public works program directed by the WPA. The WPA was largely shaped by Harry Hopkins, supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, both Roosevelt and Hopkins believed that the route to economic recovery and the lessened importance of the dole would be in employment programs such as the WPA. The Division of Professional and Service Projects, which was responsible for projects including education programs, recreation programs. It was later named the Division of Community Service Programs and the Service Division, the Division of Investigation, which succeeded a comparable division at FERA and investigated fraud, misappropriation of funds and disloyalty. The Division of Statistics, also known as the Division of Social Research, the Project Control Division, which processed project applications. Other divisions including the Employment, Management, Safety, Supply, the goal of the WPA was to employ most of the unemployed people on relief until the economy recovered
28.
Chihuahua City
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The city of Chihuahua is the state capital of the Mexican state of Chihuahua. It has a population of about 925,970, the predominant activity is industry, including domestic heavy, light industries, consumer goods production, and to a smaller extent maquiladoras. It has been said that the name derives from the Nahuatl language, meaning between two waters, other accepted definitions are place of the holed-rock or from Tarahumara, dry, the name itself is older than the Spanish conquest of Mexico. The city was founded on October 12,1709, by Blas Cano de los Rios and Antonio Deza y Ulloa, don Ildefonso de Irigoyen donated the land for the city foundation. The town was erected a Villa in 1718 with the name of San Felipe el Real de Chihuahua, the location was chosen because it is the intersection of the rivers Chuviscar and Sacramento. It is also the midpoint between the Río Bravo del Norte and the then-important mining city of Hidalgo del Parral, during the War of Independence, the city saw little action. During the Mexican-American War, Chihuahua fell to U. S. forces in 1847, during the French invasion, President Benito Juárez made the city the seat of his government-in-exile from 1864 to 1867. During the presidency of Porfirio Díaz the city experienced explosive growth, the city became the seat for important banks and wealthy families. The city was involved during the Mexican Revolution, for it became at times the operations base for the División del Norte. Many sites and memories remain of the Revolutionary era, the most important of these is the Historical Museum of the Mexican Revolution at Villas former estate house near downtown Chihuahua, La Quinta Luz was turned into a museum by his widow, Sra. María Luz Corral de Villa, and is now managed by the federal government, during the 20th century, the city grew in population and learned to take advantage of its proximity with the U. S. border. Until the establishment of manufacturing plants in the 1970s, the city was largely a trade post for cattle. In 2002, Mayor Jorge Barousse Moreno from the Institutional Revolutionary Party died and was succeeded by Alejandro Cano Ricaud, during Canos administration, the city experienced dramatic growth in the security sector when the Police Department was certified by the ISO and surveillance aircraft bought. In 2004 Juan Blanco Zaldivar, of the National Action Party, the turnout of registered voters, at about 41%, was the lowest in years. In January,2010, Mayor Carlos Borruel submitted his resignation in order to campaign for election to the office of Governor of Chihuahua, alvaro Guillermo Madero Muñoz, assumed the office of mayor for the balance of his term. On July 4,2013, Javier Garfio of the PRI won election for a 3-year term as mayor, as of 2010, the city of Chihuahua had a population of 809,232. A substantial population is from the U. S, the literacy rate in the city is among the highest in the country at 98%, 35% of the population is aged 14 or below, 60% between 15 and 65 and 5% over 65. The life expectancy for males is 72 years and for women is 79 years, the city of Chihuahua has achieved great advances in human and social development
29.
Mountain gun
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Mountain guns are artillery pieces designed for use in mountain warfare and areas where usual wheeled transport is not possible. They are similar to infantry support guns, and are capable of being broken down into smaller loads. Due to their ability to be broken down into smaller packages, during the American Civil War these small portable guns were widely used and were called mountain howitzers. Mountain guns are largely outdated, their role being filled by mortars, multiple rocket launchers, recoilless rifles, most modern artillery is manufactured from light-weight materials and can be transported fully assembled by helicopters
30.
Flags of the Confederate States of America
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Three successive designs served as the official national flag of the Confederate States of America during its existence from 1861 to 1865. These include flags displayed in states, cities, towns and counties, schools, colleges and universities, private organizations and associations, and by individuals. The state flag of Mississippi features the Confederate armys battle flag in the canton, or upper left corner, the only current U. S. state flag to do so. The state flag of Georgia is very similar to the first national flag of the Confederacy, the Stars and Bars, the first official national flag of the Confederacy, often called the Stars and Bars, was flown from March 4,1861, to May 1,1863. It was designed by German/Prussian artist Nicola Marschall in Marion, Alabama, the Stars and Bars flag was adopted March 4,1861, in the first temporary national capital of Montgomery, Alabama, and raised over the dome of that first Confederate capitol. Marschall also designed the Confederate army uniform, one of the first acts of the Provisional Confederate Congress was to create the Committee on the Flag and Seal, chaired by William Porcher Miles, a congressman and Fire-Eater from South Carolina. The committee asked the public to submit thoughts and ideas on the topic and was, as historian John M. Coski puts it, overwhelmed by requests not to abandon the old flag of the United States. Miles had already designed a flag that became known as the Confederate Battle Flag. But given the support for a flag similar to the U. S. flag. The Stars and Bars was also criticized on grounds for its resemblance to the U. S. flag. Many Confederates disliked the Stars and Bars, seeing it as symbolic of a federal power the Confederate states were seceding from in order to preserve the institution of slavery. As early as April 1861, a month after the adoption, some were already criticizing the flag, calling it a servile imitation. In January 1862, George William Bagby, writing for the Southern Literary Messenger, every body wants a new Confederate flag, Bagby wrote, also stating that The present one is universally hated. It resembles the Yankee flag and that is enough to make it unutterably detestable, the editor of the Charleston Mercury expressed a similar view, stating that It seems to be generally agreed that the Stars and Bars will never do for us. They resemble too closely the dishonored Flag of Yankee Doodle … we imagine that the Battle Flag will become the Southern Flag by popular acclaim. Thompson stated in April 1863 that he disliked the flag on account of its resemblance to that of the abolition despotism against which we are fighting. Over the course of the use by the Confederacy, additional stars were added to the flags canton. This reflected the Confederacys claims of having admitted Kentucky and Missouri into the Confederacy, the first showing of the 13-star flag was outside the Ben Johnson House in Bardstown, Kentucky, the 13-star design was also in use as the Confederate navys battle ensign
31.
Territorial architecture
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A vernacular subgroup, from 1860-1935, of the Territorial Style is known as the Folk Territorial, Folk Carpenter, and Spanish Folk Territorial. When the Americans, under General Stephen Kearney, arrived in New Mexico in August,1846 they did not find the fabled, rather they found a built environment that was totally alien to what they were accustomed. James Bennett, a U. S. dragoon, describes Las Vegas, New Mexico as a pile of unbaked brick adding, Upon closer inspection everything about the town was dirty. The city of Santa Fe did not inspire any more admiration, soon increasing numbers of Anglo-Americans began to arrive with new materials and architectural ideas based on those of the communities from which they came. Millwork and brick were imported from St. Louis and Kansas City, the small grilled and glass-less windows began to give way to double hung glazed sashes often provided with slatted shutters on the outside. The Anglos were attempting to create a Greek Revival feel to the architecture that they found in New Mexico. The Anglos did three things to the adobe architecture, first they added Greek Revival trim to the windows and doors. In some cases shutters were placed by the windows, which were just tacked onto existing structures, because of the shortage of milled lumber, one of the first things that Kearney did was import the machinery to create a mill. The next step was to start adding brick coping to the tops of adobe walls, the cost of importing bricks along the Santa Fe Trail made building entire houses out of brick prohibitively expensive. It was not long before brickyards were established, frequently, bricklayers laid the bricks in such a way as to produce dentils in the courses. To further simulate a Greek Revival appearance the Anglos replaced the round tree trunk columns employed by the Hispanic builders with square ones, often they were embellished with trim to simulate capitals and bases. Finally the Anglos introduced the roof and the material to produce them. The ternplate roof was a one, made in strips and composed of an alloy of tin. Manufactured in the East, the strips were designed to be soldered together, producing a much longer lasting. The style remained in use until 1900 and it came back into use in 1930 in the form of Territorial Revival architecture
32.
Pueblo Revival architecture
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The Pueblo Revival style is a regional architectural style of the Southwestern United States, which draws its inspiration from the Pueblos and the Spanish missions in New Mexico. The style developed at the turn of the 20th century and reached its greatest popularity in the 1920s and 1930s, Pueblo style architecture is most prevalent in the state of New Mexico. Pueblo-style architecture imitates the appearance of traditional Pueblo adobe construction, though materials such as brick or concrete are often substituted. If adobe is not used, rounded corners, irregular parapets, walls are usually stuccoed and painted in earth tones. Multistory buildings usually employ stepped massing similar to that seen at Taos Pueblo, the regional architecture from which the Pueblo style draws its inspiration is primarily found in New Mexico and Arizona, but also Colorado. Although the revival movement is most closely associated with the state of New Mexico, in the 1890s, architect A. C. Schweinfurth incorporated Pueblo features into a number of his buildings in California, mary Elizabeth Jane Collters Hopi House in Grand Canyon National Park drew heavily on the Pueblo style. In 1908, architect Isaac Rapp used the San Estevan Del Rey Mission Church as a template for his Colorado Supply Company warehouse in Morley, the best known of these was his 1908 remodeling of Hodgin Hall, though a new heating plant and the Estufa were completed earlier. Nearly all subsequent university buildings have also employed the Pueblo style, the other stronghold of Pueblo-style architecture is Santa Fe, where it was popularized in the 1920s and 1930s by a group of artists and architects seeking to establish a unique regional identity. In 1957, a committee led by John Gaw Meem drafted Santa Fe H Historical District Regulations Ordinance No, 1957-18, commonly known as the Historical Zoning Ordinance. This ordinance mandated the use of the Old Santa Fe Style and this ordinance remains in effect, meaning the Pueblo style continues to predominate. Pueblo-style houses are frequently constructed in Albuquerque, Santa Fe. Updated versions of the style have also used for newer commercial and public buildings such as the Albuquerque International Sunport terminal. New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, only in New Mexico, An Architectural History of the University of New Mexico, the First Century 1889-1989. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press
33.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
34.
New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs
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The New Mexico Department of Cultural Affairs is an executive branch agency of the New Mexico state government. Created in 1978 by the New Mexico Legislature, the department oversees the state museum, monument, arts, library, heritage preservation, some 550 employees, spread throughout the state, are employed by the Departments fourteen divisions. The departments annual budget is approximately $35 million, the Department of Cultural Affairs is currently directed by Cabinet Secretary Veronica Gonzales, who was nominated by Governor Susana Martinez on December 29,2010. The information below is excerpted from the Departments official Web site, museums New Mexico Farm and Ranch Heritage Museum, Las Cruces. New Mexico History Museum, Santa Fe, Museum of Indian Arts and Culture, Santa Fe. Museum of International Folk Art, Santa Fe, New Mexico Museum of Art, Santa Fe. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science, Albuquerque, New Mexico Museum of Space History, Alamogordo. Palace of the Governors, Santa Fe
35.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
36.
Flickr
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Flickr is an image hosting and video hosting website and web services suite that was created by Ludicorp in 2004 and acquired by Yahoo on March 20,2005. The Verge reported in March 2013 that Flickr had a total of 87 million registered members, in August 2011 the site reported that it was hosting more than 6 billion images and this number continues to grow steadily according to reporting sources. Photos and videos can be accessed from Flickr without the need to register an account, registering an account also allows users to create a profile page containing photos and videos that the user has uploaded and also grants the ability to add another Flickr user as a contact. For mobile users, Flickr has official mobile apps for iOS, Android, and PlayStation Vita, operating systems, Flickr was launched in February 2004 by Ludicorp, a Vancouver-based company founded by Stewart Butterfield and Caterina Fake. The service emerged from tools originally created for Ludicorps Game Neverending, Flickr proved a more feasible project, and ultimately Game Neverending was shelved, Butterfield later launched a similar online game, Glitch, which closed down in November 2012. Early versions of Flickr focused on a room called FlickrLive with real-time photo exchange capabilities. The successive evolutions focused more on the uploading and filing backend for individual users and it was eventually dropped as Flickrs backend systems evolved away from Game Neverendings codebase. Key features of Flickr not initially present are tags, marking photos as favorites, group photo pools and interestingness, Yahoo acquired Ludicorp and Flickr in March 2005. The acquisition reportedly cost $22 to $25 million, during the week of 26 June –2 July 2005, all content was migrated from servers in Canada to servers in the United States, and all resulting data become subject to United States federal law. In May 2007, Yahoo announced that Yahoo Photos would close down on 20 September 2007, after which all photos would be deleted and this move was criticized by some users. Flickr upgraded its services from beta to gamma in May 2006, in December 2006, upload limits on free accounts were increased to 100 MB a month and were removed from Flickr Pro accounts, which originally had a 2 GB per month limit. On 9 April 2008, Flickr began allowing paid subscribers to upload videos, on 2 March 2009, Flickr added the facility to upload and view HD videos, and began allowing free users to upload normal-resolution video. At the same time, the set limit for free accounts was lifted, in 2009, Flickr announced a partnership with Getty Images in which selected users could submit photographs for stock photography usage and receive payment. In 2010, this was changed so that users could label images as suitable for stock use themselves, the Justified View is paginated between 72 and 360 photos per page but unpaginated in search result presentation. Tech Radar described the new style Flickr as representing a sea change in its purpose, many users criticized the changes, and the sites help forum received thousands of negative comments. In March 2014, Flickrs New Photo Experience, a user interface redesign, on May 7,2015, Yahoo overhauled the site, adding a revamped Camera Roll, a new way to upload photos and upgraded the sites apps. The new Uploadr application was available for Macs, Windows. In June 2008, Flickr co-founder Stewart Butterfield announced his resignation, which followed his wife and co-founder Caterina Fake, Butterfield wrote a humorous resignation letter to Brad Garlinghouse
37.
Spanish Colonial architecture
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These two visible aspects of the city are connected and complementary. The 16th century Laws of the Indies included provisions for the layout of new settlements in the Americas. The new churches and mission stations, for example, aimed for maximum effect in terms of their imposition and domination of the buildings or countryside. In order for that to be achievable, they had to be strategically located - at the center of a square or at a higher point in the landscape. The Spanish Colonial style of architecture dominated in the early Spanish colonies of North and South America and it is sometimes marked by the contrast between the simple, solid construction demanded by the new environment and the Baroque ornamentation exported from Spain. Mexico, as the center of New Spain - and the richest province of Spains colonial empire - has some of the most renowned buildings built in this style. With twenty-nine sites, Mexico has more sites on the UNESCO World Heritage list than any country in the Americas. Some of the most famous cities in Mexico built in the Colonial style are Puebla, Zacatecas, Querétaro, Guanajuato, the historic center of Mexico City is a mixture of architectural styles from the 16th century to the present. The Metropolitan Cathedral – built from 1563 to 1813 in a variety of including the Renaissance, Baroque. The rich interior is mostly Baroque, during the late 17th century to 1750, one of Mexicos most popular architectural styles was Mexican Churrigueresque. These buildings were built in an ultra-Baroque, fantastically extravagant and visually frenetic style, Antigua Guatemala in Guatemala is also known for its well preserved Spanish colonial style architecture. The city of Antigua is famous for its well-preserved Spanish Mudéjar-influenced Baroque architecture as well as a number of ruins of colonial churches dating from the 16th century. It has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Ciudad Colonial of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, founded in 1498, is the oldest city in the New World and a prime example of this architectural style. San Juan was founded by the Spaniards in 1521, where Spanish colonial architecture can be found like the Historic Hotel El Convento, also, Old San Juan with its walled city and buildings are very good examples, and in excellent condition. According to UNESCO, Quito, Ecuador has the largest, best-preserved and it was the first city that was inscribed onto the UNESCO World Heritage List, along with Kraków, Poland in 1978. The historic district of city is the sole largest and best preserved area of Spanish Colonial architecture in the world. The idea of laying out a city in a pattern is not unique to the Spanish. In fact, it never started out with the Spanish colonizers and it has been traced back to some ancient civilizations especially the ancient cities of the Aztec and Maya, and also Ancient Greeks
38.
Antigua Guatemala
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Antigua Guatemala is a city in the central highlands of Guatemala famous for its well-preserved Spanish Baroque-influenced architecture as well as a number of ruins of colonial churches. It served as the capital of the Kingdom of Guatemala and it has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Antigua Guatemala serves as the seat for the surrounding municipality of the same name. It also serves as the capital of Sacatepéquez Department. The city had a population of some 60,000 in the 1770s. Despite significant population growth in the late 20th century, the city had reached half that number by the 1990s. According to the 2007 census, the city has some 34,685 inhabitants, Antigua Guatemala means Ancient Guatemala and was the third capital of Guatemala. Naturally, St. James became the saint of the city. After several Kaqchikel uprisings, the capital was moved to a suitable site in the Valley of Almolonga on November 22,1527. This new city was located on the site of present-day San Miguel Escobar and this city was destroyed on September 11,1541 by a devastating lahar from the Volcán de Agua. As a result, the authorities decided to move the capital once more. So, on March 10,1543 the Spanish conquistadors founded present-day Antigua, during its development and splendor, it was known as one of the three most beautiful cities of the Spanish Indies. The city was out in a square pattern, with streets running north to south and from east to west. Both church and government buildings were designated important places around the central plaza, the original building was small and paneled with portal, tile roof and adobe walls. The city is surrounded by three enormous volcanoes and mountains, plains and hills and this territory was called Valley of Guatemala and had 73 villages, two towns and the city of Santiago de los Caballeros. Due to constant problems between the conquerors and the representatives of the crown sent by the king of Spain, the Audiencia de los Confines was abolished in 1565. In 1570 the hearing was restored, this time independent of the viceroy of Mexico and this primitive chapel was destroyed in 1575 by an earthquake and during the next ten years collections were made to build the new complex, two blocks from the previous one. Notable students included Cristóbal de Villalpando, Thomas Merlo and Alonso de Paz, the city was the final resting place of the great Spanish chronicler Bernal Díaz del Castillo, and his remains were interred in one of the churches that was eventually ruined by earthquakes
39.
Monserrat, Buenos Aires
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Monserrat or Montserrat is a neighbourhood in the east of the Buenos Aires CBD. Avenida de Mayo runs through the Monserrat district, connecting Plaza de Mayo, a block, or two, south of the Plaza de Mayo, the older section of Monserrat begins. The Monserrat area traces its origins to the foundation of Buenos Aires itself, the Fort of Juan Baltazar of Austria, the marginal settlements first, was built in 1594 and, in 1608, newly arrived Jesuits were granted a 2-hectare lot, nearby. The Jesuits began work on the Saint Ignatius Church in 1686, consecrated in 1734, it is the oldest existing church in Buenos Aires. Possessing the finest school and library at the time and offering colonial Buenos Aires only truly classical education there, land reclamation and the creation of docks parallel to the area led to the construction of Paseo Colón along Monserrats eastern edge. The areas two adjoining squares became the Plaza de Mayo in 1884, a joined by the completion of the presidential executive building. This was followed by the razing of colonial architecture to make way for the Avenida de Mayo, opened in 1894 and Congressional Plaza. The avenue became home to the Buenos Aires Metros first stations, map of Monserrat The Illuminated Block The Casa Rosada Official city web site Avenida de Mayo Unofficial Monserrat guide with pictures and sightseeings
40.
Campeche City
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The citys population at the 2010 census was 220,389, and the municipality for which it serves as municipal seat had a population of 259,005. The city was founded in 1540 by Spanish conquistadores as San Francisco de Campeche atop the pre-existing Maya city of Can Pech, the Pre-Columbian city was described as having 3,000 houses and various monuments, of which little trace remains. The city retains many of the old colonial Spanish city walls and fortifications protected the city from pirates. The state of preservation and quality of its architecture earned it the status of a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999, originally, the Spaniards lived inside the walled city, while the natives lived in the surrounding barrios of San Francisco, Guadalupe and San Román. These barrios still retain their original churches, the one in Guadalupe is almost 500 years old, founded in 1540 by Francisco Montejo, Campeche was terrorized by pirates and marauders until the city started fortification in 1686. San Francisco de Campeche was originally a village, Ah Kim Pech. The city of Campeche was founded in 1540 and fortified against pirates during the 17th century and it still has the appearance of a fortress. Historical monuments and buildings, such as the Franciscan cathedral, old Maya ruins, the state of preservation and quality of its architecture earned it the status of a World Heritage Site in 1999. More than one thousand buildings with a historic value have survived as witnesses of space, the French engineer Louis Bouchard de Becour was commissioned to unify all the defensive works that surrounded the city with a wall. At its completion, the surrounding the city of Campeche was 2,560 meters in length, forming an irregular hexagon around the main part of the city. These bulwarks now serve different functions, Santiago, Used as the Botanical Garden Xmuch´haltún, San Francisco, Protects the Land Gate. Houses the library of the INAH, San Juan, Protects the Land Gate. Nuestra Señora de la Soledad, Also protects the Sea Gate and it is the largest one and holds the Museum of City History. San Carlos, Holds the City Museum and this fort was the first one built. It also contained four gates to access to the main quarters. The main entrances are the Puerta de la tierra, built in 1732, the Land Gate is kept as a tourist attraction, having a light and sound show three nights each week and keeping original supplies and items from the 17th century. The other gates were Guadalupe and San Román, connecting to the outside neighborhoods, additionally, two main forts protected the city from two nearby hills on each side, the forts of San José el Alto and San Miguel. These forts gave long-range artillery coverage and served also as look-outs and they were built before the walls of the city
41.
Cartagena, Colombia
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It is the fifth-largest city in Colombia and the second largest in the region, after Barranquilla. The urban area of Cartagena is also the fifth-largest urban area in the country, economic activities include the maritime and petrochemicals industries, as well as tourism. The city was founded on June 1,1533, and named after Cartagena, Spain, settlement in the region around Cartagena Bay by various indigenous people dates back to 4000 BC. During the Spanish colonial period Cartagena served a key role in administration and expansion of the Spanish empire and it was a center of political and economic activity due to the presence of royalty and wealthy viceroys. In 1984, Cartagenas colonial walled city and fortress were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, archaeologists estimate that around 4000 BC, the formative culture was located near the boundary between the present-day departments of Bolívar and Sucre. In this area, archaeologists have found the most ancient ceramic objects of the Americas, archaeological investigations date the decline of the Puerto Hormiga culture and its related settlements to around 3000 BC. The Monsú culture appears to have inherited the Puerto Hormiga cultures use of the art of pottery and also to have developed an economy of agriculture. The Monsú peoples diet was based mostly on shellfish and fresh, the development of the Sinú society in what is today the departments of Córdoba and Sucre, eclipsed these first developments around the Cartagena Bay area. Until the Spanish colonization, many derived from the Karib, Malibu. In the late pre-Columbian era, the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta was home to the Tayrona people, around 1500 the area was inhabited by different tribes of the Carib language family, more precisely the Mocanae sub-family. Among these, according to the earliest documents available, the Kalamari had preeminence, rodrigo de Bastidas traveled to the Pearl Coast and the Gulf of Uraba in 1500-01. On 14 Feb.1504, Ferdinand V contracted Juan de la Cosas voyage to Uraba, However, Juan de la Cosa died in 1510, after an armed confrontation with indigenous people, before he could get possession of the Gulf of Urabá area. They preferred the better known Hispaniola and Cuba, De Nicuesa and De Ojeda noted the existence of a big bay on the way from Santo Domingo to Urabá and the Panama isthmus, and that encouraged Bastidas to investigate. Under contract to Queen Joanna of Castile, Pedro de Heredia invaded the Bay of Cartagena with three ships,150 men, and 22 horses, on 14 Jan.1533 and he soon found the village of Calamari abandoned. Proceeding onwards to Turbaco, where Juan de la Cosa had been mortally wounded 13 years earlier, using India Catalina as a guide, Heredia embarked on a three month exploration expedition. He returned to Calamari in April 1533 with gold pieces, including a gold porcupine weighing 132 pounds. In later expeditions, Heredia raided the Sinú tombs and temples of gold and his rule as governor of Cartagena lasted 22 years, before perishing on his return to Spain in 1544. Cartagena was founded on June 1,1533 by the Spanish commander, Pedro de Heredia, the town was named after Cartagena, Spain, where most of Heredias sailors had resided
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Cebu City
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Cebu City, officially the City of Cebu, is the capital city of the province of Cebu in Central Visayas and is the second city of the Philippines after Manila. In the 2016 electoral roll, it had 630,003 registered voters, Cebu City is a significant center of commerce, trade and education in the Visayas. The city is located on the side of Cebu island. It is the first Spanish settlement, the countrys oldest city, and it is considered as the Fount of Christianity in the Far East. Cebu is the Philippines main domestic shipping port and is home to about 80% of the countrys shipping companies. Across Mactan Strait to the east is Mactan Island, Metro Cebu has a total population of 2,849,213 as of 2015, making it the second most-populous metropolitan area of the nation after Metro Manila in Luzon. The name Cebu came from the old Cebuano word sibu or sibo and it was originally applied to the harbors of the town of Sugbu, the ancient name for Cebu City. Sugbu, in turn, was derived from the Old Cebuano term for scorched earth or great fire, before the arrival of the Spaniards, Cebu city was part of the island-rajahnate and trade center of Pulua Kang Dayang or Kangdaya, now better known as the Rajahnate of Cebu. It was founded by a prince of the Hindu Chola dynasty of Sumatra, the name Sugbu refers to Sri Lumays scorched earth tactics against Muslim Moro raiders. On 7 April 1521, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan landed in Cebu and he was welcomed by Rajah Humabon, the grandson of Sri Lumay, together with his wife and about 700 native islanders. Magellan, however, was killed in the Battle of Mactan, the last ruler of Sugbu, prior to Spanish colonization, was Rajah Humabons nephew, Rajah Tupas. They Christianized some natives and Spanish remnants in Cebu, the Spanish arrived in Cebu on 15 April 1565. They then attempted to parley with the ruler, Rajah Tupas, but found that he. Rajah Tupas presented himself at their camp on 8 May, feast of the Apparition of Saint Michael the Archangel, the Treaty of Cebu was formalized on 3 July 1565. López de Legazpis party named the new city Villa de San Miguel de Cebú, in 1567 the Cebu garrison was reinforced with the arrival of 2,100 soldiers from New Spain. The growing colony was then fortified by Fort San Pedro, by 1569 the Spanish settlement in Cebu had become important as a safe port for ships from Mexico and as a jumping-off point for further exploration of the archipelago. Small expeditions led by Juan de Salcedo went to Mindoro and Luzon, one year later, López de Legazpi departed Cebu to discuss a peace pact with the defeated Rajahs. On 14 August 1595, Pope Clement VIII created the diocese of Cebu as a suffragan to the Archdiocese of Manila
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Historic Centre of Cienfuegos
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The Historic Centre of Cienfuegos, is located in the city of Cienfuegos in Cuba. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2005, the city was founded on April 22,1819 by French and Spanish settlers under the command of Don Luis De Clouet y Favrot. At the time of settlement, the bay which the town is located by, served as a refuge for pirates, the streets were laid out forming squares and retains plenty of eclectic architecture with neoclassical decoration. The Botanical Garden of Cienfuegos declared National Monument on October 20,1989, the Reina Cemetery is an exceptional example of its type, and its architecture is inserted in the prevailing neoclassical in the buildings constructed in the city. Is the only in Cuba that retains its niches for burials, the Fortress of Nuestra Señora de los Ángeles de Jagua is located at the entrance to the Bay of Jagua. Strategically located at the entrance to the Port of Cienfuegos, this castle was built in the 18th century to defend Cienfuegos from the assaults of pirates, the park dedicated to José Martí. Media related to Cienfuegos at Wikimedia Commons
Media related to Old Town Albuquerque at Wikimedia Commons
