1.
Joshua Reynolds
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Sir Joshua Reynolds RA FRS FRSA was an influential eighteenth-century English painter, specialising in portraits. He promoted the Grand Style in painting which depended on idealization of the imperfect and he was a founder and first president of the Royal Academy of Arts, and was knighted by George III in 1769. Reynolds was born in Plympton, Devon, on 16 July 1723 the third son of the Rev. Samuel Reynolds and his father had been a fellow of Balliol College, Oxford, but did not send any of his sons to the university. One of his sisters was Mary Palmer, seven years his senior, author of Devonshire Dialogue, in 1740 she provided £60, half of the premium paid to Thomas Hudson the portrait-painter, for Joshuas pupilage, and nine years later advanced money for his expenses in Italy. His other siblings included Frances Reynolds and Elizabeth Johnson, as a boy, he came under the influence of Zachariah Mudge, whose Platonistic philosophy stayed with him all his life. The work that came to have the most influential impact on Reynolds was Jonathan Richardsons An Essay on the Theory of Painting, having shown an early interest in art, Reynolds was apprenticed in 1740 to the fashionable London portrait painter Thomas Hudson, who had been born in Devon. Hudson had a collection of old master drawings, including some by Guercino, although apprenticed to Hudson for four years, Reynolds only remained with him until summer 1743. Having left Hudson, Reynolds worked for some time as a portrait-painter in Plymouth Dock and he returned to London before the end of 1744, but following his fathers death in late 1745 he shared a house in Plymouth Dock with his sisters. In 1749, Reynolds met Commodore Augustus Keppel, who invited him to join HMS Centurion, of which he had command, while with the ship he visited Lisbon, Cadiz, Algiers, and Minorca. From Minorca he travelled to Livorno in Italy, and then to Rome, while in Rome he suffered a severe cold, which left him partially deaf, and, as a result, he began to carry a small ear trumpet with which he is often pictured. Reynolds travelled homeward overland via Florence, Bologna, Venice, and he was accompanied by Giuseppe Marchi, then aged about 17. Apart from a brief interlude in 1770, Marchi remained in Reynolds employment as an assistant for the rest of the artists career. Following his arrival in England in October 1752, Reynolds spent three months in Devon, before establishing himself in London, where he remained for the rest of his life. He took rooms in St Martins Lane, before moving to Great Newport Street and he achieved success rapidly, and was extremely prolific. In 1760 Reynolds moved into a house, with space to show his works and accommodate his assistants. Alongside ambitious full-length portraits, Reynolds painted large numbers of smaller works, in the late 1750s, at the height of the social season, he received five or six sitters a day, each for an hour. By 1761 Reynolds could command a fee of 80 guineas for a full-length portrait, the clothing of Reynolds sitters was usually painted either by one of his pupils, his studio assistant Giuseppe Marchi, or the specialist drapery painter Peter Toms. Lay figures were used to model the clothes and he had an excellent vantage from his house, Wick House, on Richmond Hill, and painted the view in about 1780
2.
Ballymahon
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Ballymahon on the River Inny is a town in the southern part of County Longford, Ireland. It is located at the junction of the N55 National secondary road, Ballymahon derives its name from Gaelic Baile Mathuna. This is disputed by others who claim Mahon may relate to a sub chieftain of the OFarrells who ruled over part of County Longford in the 14th century. The earliest documentary evidence of Ballymahon was in the year 1578, the map of the Down Survey by Sir William Petty shows Ballymahon as a group of houses situated at the southern end of the present town, on the right bank of the River Inny. Two main families, the Shuldham family of Moigh House and the King-Harman family of Newcastle House, the buildings in the town are of late Georgian architecture, with two and three storey gabled houses, colour-washed and in rows of three and four. A special feature of the town is its main street. From 1788 to 1853 the Roman Catholic bishops of Ardagh and Clonmacnoise resided in the town, the River Inny, a tributary of the River Shannon, flows westwards through Ballymahon in the direction of Lough Ree three miles from the town. A stretch of the Inny from Newcastle Bridge to Ballymahon town is a route for beginner to intermediate kayaking, canoeing. The Royal Canal also passes westwards through Ballymahon from Dublin to Clondra, following extensive works the canal has recently been restored and is now fully navigable. Ballymahon Courthouse and Market House was renovated into a new library, one stop shop. It is situated in the centre of the town, the barracks was successfully attacked during the War of Independence on 19 August 1920. The attack was led by General Seán MacEoin, Seán Connolly, a small party of local volunteers also took part in the raid which mainly aimed to seize firearms. MacEoin later visited the barracks to campaign during a campaign in the 1950s. Ruairí Ó Brádaigh was held here in the 1950s during the IRA Border Campaign, Ballymahon is a central hub in a road and canal network linking several large and county towns in the Irish midlands and has historically been a pivotal locus to transport and trade in the region. Ballymahon is on the N55 road, a major National Secondary route leading from Athlone, about 22 kilometres to the south, towards Belfast, the county town of Longford lies about 22 kilometres to the north-west. The R392 road links Ballymahon to Mullingar in the East and to Roscommon in the West and this route was a portion of an ancient ceremonial way from Rathcroghan to the Hill of Tara. Intact portions of the ancient roadway can be seen at the nearby Corlea Trackway, the Royal Canal links Ballymahon to Dublin, via several major towns such as Mullingar and Maynooth, and to the River Shannon at Clondra. The nearest third level college is AIT in Athlone, some 22 km away, mary Dowdall married Colonel Adam Molyneux of Ballymulvey House, who was granted extensive lands around Ballymahon by King Charles II and was ancestor of the Shuldham family
3.
County Longford
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County Longford is a county in Ireland. It is part of the Midlands Region and is in the province of Leinster and it is named after the town of Longford. Longford County Council is the authority for the county. The population of the county is 40,810 according to the 2016 census, with an area of 1,091 km2 and a population of 40,810, Longford is the fourth smallest of the 32 counties in area and second smallest in terms of population. It is also the fourth smallest of Leinster’s 12 counties by size and it borders counties Cavan to the northeast, Westmeath to the east and southeast, Roscommon to the west and southwest and Leitrim to the northwest. Most of Longford lies in the basin of the River Shannon with Lough Ree forming much of the western boundary. The north-eastern part of the county, however, drains towards the River Erne, lakeland, bogland, pastureland, and wetland typify Longfords generally low-lying landscapes, the highest point of the county is in the north-west - Carn Clonhugh near Drumlish at 279 m. Cairn Hill is the site of a television broadcasting to much of the Irish midlands. In the list of Irish counties by highest point, Longford ranks third lowest, only Meath and Westmeath have lower maxima. In general, the third of the county is hilly, forming part of the drumlin belt. The southern parts of the county are low-lying, with areas of raised bogland. The River Shannon marks the border with Roscommon while the Rivers Inny. The Royal Canal flows through the south of the county terminating at Cloondara at the Shannon, the canal was refurbished and reopened in 2010. Notable lakes include Kinale Lough and Lough Gowna on the Cavan border, Lough Forbes on the Roscommon border and of course Lough Ree in the south where Longford, Westmeath and Roscommon meet. With a population of 10,310, Longford Town is the largest town in the county followed by Ballymahon, Edgeworthstown, Lanesborough, the county is one half of the Dáil Éireann constituency of Longford–Westmeath. The territory now comprising County Longford was traditionally known as Annaly, Tethbae or Teffia, after the Norman invasion of the 12th century, Annaly was granted to Hugh de Lacy as part of the Liberty of Meath. Monastic remains at Ardagh, Abbeylara, Abbeyderg, Abbeyshrule, Inchcleraun Island in Lough Ree, however, by the 14th century, English influence in Ireland was on the wane. The town of Granard was sacked by Edward Bruces army in 1315, the county was officially shired in 1586 in the reign of Elizabeth I from the northern portion of Westmeath, but English control was not fully established until the aftermath of the Nine Years War
4.
Kingdom of Ireland
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The Kingdom of Ireland was a client state of the Kingdom of England that existed on Ireland from 1542 until 1800. It came into being when the Parliament of Ireland passed the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, the territory of the Kingdom had previously had the status of a lordship of the Crown. The Parliament of Ireland passed the Acts of Union 1800 by which it abolished itself, the act was also passed by the Parliament of Great Britain. The act also had the effect of establishing the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on the first day of 1801 by uniting the Crowns of Ireland, in its early years, the Kingdom of Ireland had limited recognition. While some Protestant powers in Europe recognised Henry and his heir Edward as monarch of Ireland, Henrys daughter, Queen Mary I of England, was recognised as Queen of Ireland by Pope Paul IV in 1555. The papal bull Laudabiliter of Pope Adrian IV was issued in 1155 and it granted the Angevin King Henry II of England the title Dominus Hibernae. Laudabiliter authorised the king to invade Ireland, to bring the country into the European sphere, in return, Henry was required to remit a penny per hearth of the tax roll to the Pope. This was reconfirmed by Adrians successor Pope Alexander III in 1172, when Pope Clement VII excommunicated the king of England, Henry VIII, in 1533, the constitutional position of the lordship in Ireland became uncertain. Henry had broken away from the Holy See and declared himself the head of the Church in England and he had petitioned Rome to procure an annulment of his marriage to Queen Catherine. The Treason Act 1537 was passed to counteract this, following the failed revolt of Silken Thomas in 1534–35, Grey, the lord deputy, had some military successes against several clans in the late 1530s, and took their submissions. By 1540 most of Ireland seemed at peace and under the control of the kings Dublin administration, Henry was proclaimed King of Ireland by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, an Act of the Irish Parliament. The new kingdom was not recognised by the Catholic monarchies in Europe, after the death of King Edward VI, Henrys son, the papal bull of 1555 recognised the Roman Catholic Queen Mary I as Queen of Ireland. The link of personal union of the Crown of Ireland to the Crown of England became enshrined in Catholic canon law, in this fashion, the Kingdom of Ireland was ruled by the reigning King of England. This placed the new Kingdom of Ireland in personal union with the Kingdom of England, in line with its expanded role and self-image, the administration established the Kings Inns for barristers in 1541, and the Ulster King of Arms to regulate heraldry in 1552. Proposals to establish a university in Dublin were delayed until 1592, in 1603 James VI King of Scots became James I of England, uniting the Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland in a personal union. The political order of the kingdom was interrupted by the Wars of the Three Kingdoms starting in 1639, during the subsequent interregnum period, England, Scotland and Ireland were ruled as a republic until 1660. This period saw the rise of the loyalist Irish Catholic Confederation within the kingdom and, from 1653, the kingdoms order was restored 1660 with the restoration of Charles II. Without any public dissent, Charless reign was backdated to his fathers execution in 1649, Poynings Law was repealed in 1782 in what came to be known as the Constitution of 1782, granting Ireland legislative independence
5.
Elphin, County Roscommon
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Elphin, is a small town innorth County Roscommon, Ireland. It forms the tip of a triangle with Boyle 18 km and Carrick-on-Shannon 14 km to the north west. It is at the junction of the R368 and R369 regional roads, Ireland West Airport Knock is 50 km west of Elphin - approximately 40 minutes by road. Elphin has historically been an important market town and the centre for the Diocese of Elphin. St Patrick is believed to have visited Elphin, consecrated its first church and ordained its first bishop, on his missionary tour through Connacht in 434 or 435, St Patrick came to the territory of Corcoghlan, present day Elphin. The chief of that territory, a noble Druid named Ono, gave land and afterwards his castle or fort to St Patrick to found a church, the place, which had hitherto been called Emlagh-Ono received the designation of Ail Finn, which means rock of the clear spring. It derives from a story of St Patrick raising a large stone from a well opened by him in the land of Ono, a copious stream of crystal water flowed from the well and continues to flow through Elphin to this day. St Patrick built a church called Tempull Phadruig and established an Episcopal See in Elphin, St Asicus remained as bishop of Elphin. St Patrick also founded a monastery or college at Elphin. In pre-Reformation times, Elphin was host to a number of religious orders and was a religious centre of international significance. This is supported by the appearance of Elphin in a number of maps in the Middle Ages. After the Reformation Elphin continued as the centre of a bishopric, a new bishops residence was built in the 1720s to the central block and flanking pavilions plan that is very common in Irish country houses of this period. The Church of Ireland cathedral was rebuilt in the eighteenth century. It was a modest building, no bigger than a parish church. An apse was added in the 19th century, the cathedral was used for worship up to 1961. It was badly damaged in a storm on 4 February 1957 and was demolished a few years later, associated with the cathedral was Elphin Diocesan School, popularly known as The Latin School. Its most famous students were Oliver Goldsmith and the eye surgeon Sir William Wilde, the school was closed in the 1860s when the seat of the bishopric was moved to Kilmore, County Cavan. According to legend, it was close to Elphin that the figure of Oisin fell from his horse upon his return from Tir na nOg
6.
County Roscommon
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County Roscommon is a county in the western region of the Republic of Ireland. It is also part of the province of Connacht and it is the 11th largest Irish county by area and 27th most populous. Its county town and largest town is Roscommon, Roscommon County Council is the local authority for the county. The population of the county is 64,065 according to the 2011 census and it is the third largest of Connacht’s five counties by size and fourth largest in terms of population. The county borders every other Connacht county - Galway, Mayo, Sligo and Leitrim, in 2008, a news report said that statistically, Roscommon has the longest life expectancy of any county on the island of Ireland. County Roscommon is named after the county town of Roscommon, Roscommon comes from the Irish Ros meaning a wooded, gentle height and Comán, the first abbot and bishop of Roscommon who founded the first monastery there in 550 AD. Roscommon is the eleventh largest of the 32 counties of Ireland by area and it has an area of 984 square miles. Lough Key in north Roscommon is noted for having thirty-two islands, the geographical centre of Ireland is located on the western shore of Lough Ree in the south of the county. Seltannasaggart which is located along the border with County Leitrim is the tallest point in County Roscommon measuring to a height of 428 m. There are nine historical baronies in County Roscommon, south Roscommon Ballymoe shared with County Galway includes Ballymoe, Creggs and Glenamaddy. Rathcroghan, near Tulsk, a complex of sites, the home of Queen Medb, was the seat of Kings of Connacht. This was the point of the Táin Bó Cúailnge, or Cattle Raid of Cooley. County Roscommon as a division has its origins in the medieval period. With the conquest and division of the Kingdom of Connacht, those districts in the east retained by King John as The Kings Cantreds covered County Roscommon and these districts were leased to the native kings of Connacht and eventually became the county. In 1585 during the Tudor re-establishment of counties under the Composition of Connacht, a well defined and original fine metal workshop was active in county Roscommon in the twelfth century. The workshop has been linked to St. Assicus of Elphin, John ODonovan, historian and scholar, visited County Roscommon in 1837. He was compiling information for the Ordnance Survey, entering St. Peters parish in Athlone in June 1837, he wrote I have now entered upon ia region totally different from Longford, and am very much pleased with the intelligence of the people. But he had problems with place-names
7.
Temple Church
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The Temple Church is a late 12th-century church in the City of London located between Fleet Street and the River Thames, built by the Knights Templar as their English headquarters. During the reign of King John it served as the royal treasury and it is jointly owned by the Inner Temple and Middle Temple Inns of Court, bases of the English legal profession. It is famous for being a church, a common design feature for Knights Templar churches. It was heavily damaged by German bombing during World War II and has since been greatly restored, the area around the Temple Church is known as the Temple and nearby formerly in the middle of Fleet Street stood the Temple Bar, an ornamental processional gateway. Nearby is the Temple Underground station, in the mid 12th century, before the construction of the church, the Knights Templar in London had met at a site in High Holborn in a structure originally established by Hugues de Payens. The church building comprises two separate sections, after the capture of Jerusalem in 1099 by the Crusaders, the Dome of the Rock was given to the Augustinians, who turned it into a church while the Al-Aqsa Mosque became a royal palace. Because the Dome of the Rock was the site of the Temple of Solomon, the Templum Domini, as they called the Dome of the Rock, featured on the official seals of the Orders Grand Masters, and soon became the architectural model for Round Templar churches across Europe. The round church is 55 feet in diameter, and contains within it a circle of the earliest known surviving free-standing Purbeck Marble columns and it is probable that the walls and grotesque heads were originally painted in colours. It was consecrated on 10 February 10,1185 by Heraclius and it is believed that King Henry II was present at the consecration. The Knights Templar order was very powerful in England, with the Master of the Temple sitting in parliament as primus baro, the compound was regularly used as a residence by kings and by legates of the Pope. The Temple also served as an early bank, sometimes in defiance of the Crowns attempts to seize the funds of nobles who had entrusted their wealth there. Marshall swore on behalf of the king that the grievances of the barons would be addressed in the summer, marshall later became regent during the reign of Johns infant son, King Henry III. It was consecrated on Ascension Day 1240 and comprises a central aisle, the height of the vault is 36 feet 3 inches. Although one of Henrys infant sons was buried in the chancel, after the destruction and abolition of the Knights Templar in 1307, King Edward II took control of the church as a Crown possession. It was later given to the Knights Hospitaller, who leased the Temple to two colleges of lawyers. One college moved into the part of the Temple previously used by the Knights, and the other into the previously used by its clergy. The colleges evolved into the Inner Temple and the Middle Temple, in 1540 the church became the property of The Crown once again when King Henry VIII abolished the Knights Hospitaller in England and confiscated their property. Henry provided a priest for the church under the former title Master of the Temple, in the 1580s the church was the scene of the Battle of the Pulpits, a theological conflict between the Puritans and supporters of the Elizabethan Compromise
8.
Trinity College, Dublin
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Trinity College is the sole constituent college of the University of Dublin, a research university in Ireland. It is one of the seven ancient universities of Britain and Ireland, originally it was established outside the city walls of Dublin in the buildings of the dissolved Augustinian Priory of All Hallows. Trinity College was set up in part to consolidate the rule of the Tudor monarchy in Ireland, although Catholics and Dissenters had been permitted to enter as early as 1793, certain restrictions on their membership of the college remained until 1873. From 1871 to 1970, the Catholic Church in Ireland forbade its adherents from attending Trinity College without permission, women were first admitted to the college as full members in January 1904. Trinity College is now surrounded by Dublin and is located on College Green, the college proper occupies 190,000 m2, with many of its buildings ranged around large quadrangles and two playing fields. Academically, it is divided into three faculties comprising 25 schools, offering degree and diploma courses at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. The Library of Trinity College is a deposit library for Ireland. The first University of Dublin was created by the Pope in 1311, following this, and some debate about a new university at St. The first Provost of the College was the Archbishop of Dublin, Adam Loftus, two years after foundation, a few Fellows and students began to work in the new College, which then lay around one small square. During the eighteenth century Trinity College was seen as the university of the Protestant Ascendancy, Parliament, meeting on the other side of College Green, made generous grants for building. The first building of this period was the Old Library building, begun in 1712, followed by the Printing House, during the second half of the century Parliament Square slowly emerged. The great building drive was completed in the nineteenth century by Botany Bay. In December 1845 Denis Caulfield Heron was the subject of a hearing at Trinity College, Heron had previously been examined and, on merit, declared a scholar of the college but had not been allowed to take up his place due to his Catholic religion. Heron appealed to the Courts which issued a writ of mandamus requiring the case to be adjudicated by the Archbishop of Dublin, the decision of Richard Whately and John George de la Poer Beresford was that Heron would remain excluded from Scholarship. This decision confirmed that the position remained that persons who were not Anglicans could not be elected to Scholarship, Fellowship or be made a Professor. However within less than three decades of this all disabilities imposed on Catholics were repealed as in 1873, all tests were abolished. Prior to 1956 it was the responsibility of the local Bishop, the nineteenth century was also marked by important developments in the professional schools. The Law School was reorganised after the middle of the century, the Engineering School was established in 1842 and was one of the first of its kind in Ireland and Britain
9.
The Club (dining club)
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The Club or Literary Club is a London dining club founded in February 1764 by the artist Joshua Reynolds and essayist Samuel Johnson. Initially, the club would meet one evening per week at seven, at the Turks Head Inn in Gerrard Street, later, meetings were reduced to once per fortnight whilst Parliament was in session, and were held at rooms in St Jamess Street. Though the initial suggestion was Reynolds, it is Johnson whose name is most closely associated with the Club, John Timbs, in his Club Life in London, gives an account of the Clubs centennial dinner in 1864, which was celebrated at the Clarendon hotel. Henry Hart Milman, the English historian, was treasurer, the Clubs toast, no doubt employing a bit of wishful thinking, was Esto perpetua, Latin for Let it be perpetual. The introduction of the phrase to Britain was probably through Sir Joshua Reynolds who went to Italy for his training in Renaissance art. The nine original members were, Hereafter membership was by unanimous election only, existing members would submit a black ball if a nominee was disfavored. Shortly following the establishment of the nine, Samuel Dyer became the first elected member. Hawkins left in 1768, suffering ostracism for his abuse of Burke. Membership was then increased to 12, the new seats were filled by barrister Robert Chambers, a membership of 12 was deemed optimal to retain a qualitative exclusivity. The Club grew to 16 members in 1773, then to 21 in late 1775, by 1791, the membership recorded by James Boswell included, The historian Henry Reeve recorded details of Club membership in his diaries. Members in the 1800s included, By 1881, the members of the club included John Tyndall, Sir Frederic Leighton, and Lord Houghton, with Henry Reeve serving as treasurer. Other prominent 19th century members included Lord Macaulay, Thomas Huxley, Lord Acton, Lord Dufferin, W. H. E. Lecky, winston Churchill and F. E. Smith had both desired to join The Club but were considered too controversial. In response, in 1911, they founded The Other Club, meanwhile, the Club is known to have survived at least as late as 1969. Life of Johnson, James Boswell,1791 The life and selections from the correspondence of William Whewell, Janet Mary Douglas,1881 Inns and Taverns of Old London, cited as Sambrook, ODNB Old and New London, Volume 3 at British History Online
10.
The Vicar of Wakefield
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The Vicar of Wakefield – subtitled A Tale, Supposed to be written by Himself – is a novel by Irish writer Oliver Goldsmith. It was written from 1761 to 1762 and published in 1766 and it was one of the most popular and widely read 18th-century novels among Victorians. Newbery kept it by him for two years unpublished. The Vicar – Dr Charles Primrose – lives a life in a country parish with his wife Deborah, son George, daughters Olivia and Sophia. He is wealthy due to investing an inheritance he received from a deceased relative, on the evening of Georges wedding to wealthy Arabella Wilmot, the Vicar loses all his money through the bankruptcy of his merchant investor who has left town abruptly. The wedding is called off by Arabellas father, who is known for his prudence with money, George, who was educated at Oxford and is old enough to be considered an adult, is sent away to town. The rest of the move to a new and more humble parish on the land of Squire Thornhill. On the way, they hear about the reputation of their new landlord. Also, references are made to the squires uncle Sir William Thornhill, a poor and eccentric friend, Mr. Burchell, whom they meet at an inn, rescues Sophia from drowning. She is instantly attracted to him, but her ambitious mother does not encourage her feelings, then follows a period of happy family life, interrupted only by regular visits of the dashing Squire Thornhill and Mr. Burchell. Olivia is captivated by Thornhills hollow charm, but he encourages the social ambitions of Mrs. Primrose. Finally, Olivia is reported to have fled, first Burchell is suspected, but after a long pursuit Dr. Primrose finds his daughter, who was in reality deceived by Squire Thornhill. He planned to marry her in a ceremony and leave her then shortly after. When Olivia and her return home, they find their house in flames. Although the family has lost almost all their belongings, the evil Squire Thornhill insists on the payment of the rent, as the vicar cannot pay, he is brought to prison. Afterwards is a chain of dreadful occurrences, but then Mr. Burchell arrives and solves all problems. He rescues Sophia, Olivia is not dead, and it emerges that Mr. Burchell is in reality the worthy Sir William Thornhill, in the end, there is a double wedding, George marries Arabella, as he originally intended, and Sir William Thornhill marries Sophia. Squire Thornhills servant turns out to have tricked him, and thus the marriage of the Squire
11.
The Deserted Village
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The Deserted Village is a poem by Oliver Goldsmith published in 1770. It is a work of social commentary, and condemns rural depopulation, the location of the poems deserted village is unknown, but the description may have been influenced by Goldsmiths memory of his childhood in rural Ireland, and his travels around England. The poem is written in couplets, and describes the decline of a village. In the poem, Goldsmith criticises rural depopulation, the moral corruption found in towns, consumerism, enclosure, landscape gardening, avarice, and the pursuit of wealth from international trade. The poem employs, in the words of one critic, deliberately precise obscurity, the poem was very popular in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but also provoked critical responses, including from other poets such as George Crabbe. References to the poem, and particularly its ominous Ill fares the land warning, have appeared in a number of other contexts, Goldsmith grew up in the hamlet of Lissoy in Ireland. In the 1760s, Goldsmith travelled extensively around England, visiting many small settlements, in this period, the enclosure movement was at its height. The poem is dedicated to the artist Sir Joshua Reynolds, Reynolds and Goldsmith were close friends, and were both founding members, along with Samuel Johnson, of a dining society called The Club. Reynolds had helped to promote Goldsmiths play The Good-Naturd Man to the actor and theatre manager David Garrick, the Deserted Village condemns rural depopulation and the indulgence of the rich. This was a subject that Goldsmith had tackled in his earlier poem The Traveller, or a Prospect of Society, Goldsmith also set out his ideas about rural depopulation in an essay entitled The Revolution in Low Life, published in Lloyds Evening Post in 1762. There is no single place which has identified as the village of the poems title. While personal references in the give the impression of referring to the village in which Goldsmith grew up. In The Revolution in Low Life, Goldsmith had condemned the destruction of a village within 50 miles of London in order to construct a landscape garden. Goldsmith reported that he had witnessed this scene in 1761. In the same year, Nuneham Courtenay was removed to make way for Nuneham Park and its owner—Simon Harcourt, 1st Earl Harcourt—moved the village 1.5 miles away. There are a number of other concordances between Nuneham Courtenays destruction and the contents of the The Deserted Village, the position of both villages, on a hill near a river, was similar, and both had parsons who enjoyed gardening. The poem opens with a description of a village named Auburn, loveliest village of the plain, Where health and plenty cheered the labouring swain, Where smiling spring its earliest visit paid, And parting summers lingering blooms delayed. The poem then moves on to describe the village in its current state, Goldsmith then states that the residents of Auburn have not moved to the city, but have emigrated overseas
12.
The Good-Natur'd Man
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The Good-Naturd Man is a play written by Oliver Goldsmith in 1768. The play was written in the form of a comedy and staged at the Covent Garden Theatre and it was a middling success for Goldsmith, and the printed version of the play became popular with the reading public. It was released at the time as Hugh Kellys False Delicacy was staged at Drury Lane Theatre. Garrick rejected The Good-Naturd Man, possibly because the story is an antidote of False Delicasy, sherburne, George and Bond, Donald F. A Literary History of England, Volume III, The Restoration, the Cambridge Introduction to English Theatre, 1660-1900. The Good-Natured Man public domain audiobook at LibriVox
13.
She Stoops to Conquer
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She Stoops to Conquer is a comedy by Anglo-Irish author Oliver Goldsmith that was first performed in London in 1773. The play is a favourite for study by English literature and theatre classes in the English-speaking world and it is one of the few plays from the 18th century to have an enduring appeal, and is still regularly performed today. It has been adapted into a several times, including in 1914 and 1923. Initially the play was titled Mistakes of a Night, and indeed, in 1778 John OKeeffe wrote a loose sequel, Tony Lumpkin in Town. Wealthy countryman Mr. Hardcastle arranges for his daughter Kate to meet Charles Marlow, unfortunately, Marlow prefers lower class women, finding them less intimidating than women of high society. On his first acquaintance with Kate, the latter realises she will have to pretend to be common to get Marlow to woo her, thus Kate stoops to conquer, by posing as a maid, hoping to put Marlow at his ease so he falls for her. Marlow sets out for Mr. Hardcastles manor with a friend, George Hastings, during the journey the two men get lost and stop at an alehouse, The Three Jolly Pigeons, for directions. The inn he directs them to is in fact the home of the Hardcastles, when they arrive, the Hardcastles, who have been expecting them, go out of their way to make them welcome. However, Marlow and Hastings, believing themselves in an inn, Hardcastle bears their unwitting insults with forbearance, because of his friendship with Marlows father. Kate learns of her suitors shyness from Constance and a servant tells her about Tonys trick and she decides to masquerade as a serving-maid to get to know him. Marlow falls in love with her and plans to elope with her but, because she appears of a lower class, all misunderstandings are resolved by the end, thanks to an appearance by Sir Charles Marlow. The main sub-plot concerns the romance between Constance and Hastings. Constance needs her jewels, an inheritance, guarded by Tonys mother, Mrs. Hardcastle, the play concludes with Kates plan succeeding, she and Marlow become engaged. Tony discovers his mother has lied about his being of age and he refuses to marry Constance, who is then eligible to receive her jewels and become engaged to Hastings, which she does. The original production opened in London at Covent Garden Theatre on 15 March 1773 and was an immediate success, lionel Brough is supposed to have played Tony Lumpkin 777 times. Lillie Langtry had her first big success in play in 1881. Perhaps one of the most famous incarnations of She Stoops to Conquer was Peter Halls version, staged in 1993. The most famous TV production is the 1971 version featuring Ralph Richardson, Tom Courtenay, Juliet Mills and Brian Cox and it was shot on location near Ross-on-Wye, Herefordshire and is part of the BBC archive
14.
The History of Little Goody Two-Shoes
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The History of Little Goody Two-Shoes is a childrens story published by John Newbery in London in 1765. The story popularized the phrase goody two-shoes, often used to describe an excessively virtuous person, Goody Two-Shoes is a variation of the Cinderella story. The fable tells of Goody Two-Shoes, the nickname of an orphan girl named Margery Meanwell. When a rich gentleman gives her a pair, she is so happy that she tells everyone she has two shoes. Later, Margery becomes a teacher and marries a rich widower and this earning of wealth serves as proof that her virtuousness has been rewarded, a popular theme in childrens literature of the era. The anonymous story was published in London by the John Newbery company, the story was later attributed to the Irish author Oliver Goldsmith, though this is disputed. Because Goldsmith frequently wrote for pay, and because of his copious fiction in essays, however, the book has also been attributed to Newbery himself and to Giles Jones, a friend of Newberys. Booksellers such as Newbery would frequently pay authors for anonymous work, although The History of Little Goody Two-Shoes is credited with popularizing the term goody two-shoes, the actual origin of the phrase is unknown. For example, it appears a century earlier in Charles Cottons Voyage to Ireland in Burlesque, Mistress mayoress complained that the pottage was cold, And all long of your fiddle-faddle, why, then, Goody Two-shoes, what if it be. Hold you, if you can, your tittle-tattle, quoth he, the name is used herein to point out the mayoress comparative privilege, Goody, being the equivalent of Mrs. and Two-shoes, implicitly comparing her to people who have no shoes
15.
Townland
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A townland is a small geographical division of land used in Ireland. The townland system is of Gaelic origin, pre-dating the Norman invasion, however, some townland names and boundaries come from Norman manors, plantation divisions, or later creations of the Ordnance Survey. The total number of inhabited townlands was 60,679 in 1911, the total number recognised by the Irish Place Names database as of 2014 was 61,098, including uninhabited townlands, mainly small islands. In Ireland a townland is generally the smallest administrative division of land, the term townland in English is derived from the Old English word tun, denoting an enclosure. The term describes the smallest unit of division in Ireland, based on various forms of Gaelic land division. The term baile, anglicised as bally, is the most dominant element used in Irish townland names, today the term bally denotes an urban settlement, but its precise meaning in ancient Ireland is unclear, as towns had no place in Gaelic social organisation. The modern Irish term for a townland is baile fearainn, the term fearainn means land, territory, quarter. Throughout most of Ulster townlands were known as ballyboes, and represented an area of economic value. In County Cavan similar units were called polls, and in Counties Fermanagh and these names appear to be of English origin, but had become naturalised long before 1600. In modern townland names the prefix pol- is widely found throughout western Ireland, in County Cavan, which contains over half of all townlands in Ulster with the prefix pol-, some should probably be better translated as the poll of. In County Tyrone the following hierarchy of divisions was used, ballybetagh, ballyboe, sessiagh, gort. In County Fermanagh the divisions were ballybetagh, quarter and tate, further subdivisions in Fermanagh appear to be related to liquid or grain measures such as gallons, pottles and pints. In Ulster the ballybetagh was the unit controlled by an Irish sept. Fragmentation of ballybetaghs resulted in units consisting of four, eight, one of these fragmented units, the quarter, representing a quarter of a ballybetagh, was the universal land denomination recorded in the survey of County Donegal conducted in 1608. In the early 17th century 20 per cent of the area of western Ulster was under the control of the church. These termon lands consisted likewise of ballybetaghs and ballyboes, but were held by erenaghs instead of sept leaders, other units of land division used throughout Ireland include, In County Tipperary, capell lands and quatermeers. A capell land consisted of around 20 great acres, in the province of Connacht, quarters and cartrons, a quarter being reckoned as four cartrons, and each cartron being 30 acres. The quarter has also been anglicised as carrow, carhoo or caracute, in County Clare, as in Connacht, quarters, half-quarters, cartrons and sessiagh
16.
Anglicanism
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Anglicanism is a tradition within Christianity comprising the Church of England and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures. The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to the Magna Carta and before, adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans. As the name suggests, the churches of the Anglican Communion are linked by bonds of tradition, affection and they are in full communion with the See of Canterbury, and thus the Archbishop of Canterbury, in his person, is a unique focus of Anglican unity. He calls the once-a-decade Lambeth Conference, chairs the meeting of primates, Anglicans base their Christian faith on the Bible, traditions of the apostolic Church, apostolic succession, and writings of the Church Fathers. Anglicanism forms one of the branches of Western Christianity, having declared its independence from the Holy See at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Protestantism, the word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church. Adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans, as an adjective, Anglican is used to describe the people, institutions and churches, as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the Church of England. As a noun, an Anglican is a member of a church in the Anglican Communion, the word is also used by followers of separated groups which have left the communion or have been founded separately from it, although this is sometimes considered as a misuse. The word Anglicanism came into being in the 19th century, although the term Anglican is found referring to the Church of England as far back as the 16th century, its use did not become general until the latter half of the 19th century. Elsewhere, however, the term Anglican Church came to be preferred as it distinguished these churches from others that maintain an episcopal polity, as such, it is often referred to as being a via media between these traditions. Anglicans understand the Old and New Testaments as containing all necessary for salvation and as being the rule. Reason and Tradition are seen as means to interpret Scripture. Anglicans understand the Apostles Creed as the symbol and the Nicene Creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith. Anglicans celebrate the sacraments, with special emphasis being given to the Eucharist, also called Holy Communion. Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries and it was called common prayer originally because it was intended for use in all Church of England churches which had previously followed differing local liturgies. The term was kept when the church became international because all Anglicans used to share in its use around the world, in 1549, the first Book of Common Prayer was compiled by Thomas Cranmer, who was then Archbishop of Canterbury. The founding of Christianity in Britain is commonly attributed to Joseph of Arimathea, according to Anglican legend, Saint Alban, who was executed in 209 AD, is the first Christian martyr in the British Isles. A new culture emerged around the Irish Sea among the Celtic peoples with Celtic Christianity at its core, what resulted was a form of Christianity distinct from Rome in many traditions and practices
17.
Curate
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A curate is a person who is invested with the care or cure of souls of a parish. In this sense curate correctly means a parish priest, but in English-speaking countries the term curate is used to describe clergy who are assistants to the parish priest. The duties or office of a curate are called a curacy, the term is derived from the Latin curatus. In other languages, derivations from curatus may be used differently, in French, the curé is the chief priest of a parish, as is the Italian curato, the Spanish cure, and the Filipino term kura pároko, which is derived from Spanish. In the Catholic Church, the English word curate is used for a priest assigned to a parish in a subordinate to that of the parish priest. The parish priest is the priest who has responsibility for the parish. He may be assisted by one or more priests, referred to as curates, assistant priests. In the Church of England today, curate refers to priests who are in their first post after ordination, once in possession of their benefices, rectors and vicars enjoyed a freehold, and could only be removed after due legal process, and for a restricted number of reasons. Perpetual curates were placed on a footing in 1838 and were commonly styled vicars. Clergy who assist the curate were, and are, properly called assistant curates, a house provided for an assistant curate is sometimes colloquially called a curatage. Assistant curates are also licensed by the bishop, but only at the request of the curate, for example, Geoffrey Francis Fisher served as Curate of Trent near Sherborne after retiring as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1961. With the 1968 Pastoral Measure and subsequent legislation, the Church of England has undergone a process of reform which still continues today. Ministers in the Church of England whose main income comes from sources other than their work as clergy may be termed Self Supporting Ministers or Curate. Terms like rector and curate were carried overseas with the spread of Anglicanism, in Anglican parishes with a Charismatic or evangelical tradition, the roles of curates are usually seen as being an assistant leader to the overall leader, often in a larger team of pastoral leaders. Many of the larger Charismatic and Evangelical parishes have larger ministry teams with a number of leaders, some ordained. Originally a bishop would entrust a priest with the cure of souls of a parish, when, in medieval Europe, this included the legal freehold of church land in the parish, the parish priest was a perpetual curate, an assistant would be a curate. The words perpetuus and temporalis distinguish their appointments but not the length of service, a curate is appointed by the parish priest and paid from parish funds. A perpetual curate is a priest in charge of a parish who was appointed, as the church became more embedded into the fabric of feudal Europe, various other titles often supplanted curate for the parish priest
18.
Forgney
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Forgney is an area in County Longford associated with the poet Oliver Goldsmith. The Church of Ireland church in Forgney, the Church of St. Munis, is where the Rev. Charles Goldsmith, father of the poet, the present church was built in 1810 and replaced that of Goldsmiths day. This window is erected by lovers of the man and his genious, the church is on the R392 regional road. John Henry Patterson was born in Forgney in 1867, in the 1996 film The Ghost and the Darkness, he was portrayed by actor Val Kilmer. In the First World War, Patterson was the commander of the Jewish Legion
19.
County Westmeath
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County Westmeath is a county in Ireland. It is in the province of Leinster and is part of the Midlands Region and it originally formed part of the historic Kingdom of Meath. It was named Mide because kingdom was located in middle of Ireland, Westmeath County Council is the government for the county, the capital is Mullingar. The population of the county is 88,396, following the failure of male heirs, the Lordship was split between de Lacys great-granddaughters. The western part was awarded to Margery and her husband, John de Verdun, son of Walter de Lacy while the eastern part, the official establishment of County Westmeath dates to 1543, and it was named after the kingdom of Mide. Westmeath is the 20th largest of Irelands 32 counties by area and it is the sixth largest of Leinster’s 12 counties in size and eighth largest in terms of population. It was named after the kingdom and province of Meath. Westmeath was shired under The Counties of Meath and Westmeath Act of 1543, the summit of Mullaghmeen is the highest point in County Westmeath. At just 258 metres this makes it the lowest county top in Ireland, the head office of Westmeath County Council is located in Mullingar. The three electoral areas of Westmeath are Athlone, Mullingar-Coole and Mullingar-Kilbeggan, the Local Government Act 1898, provided the framework for the establishment of County Councils throughout Ireland. The first meeting of Westmeath County Council was held on 22 April 1899, westmeaths population growth has been stronger than the national average. After the Great Famine, the population of Westmeath declined dramatically and it stabilized in the middle of the 20th century, and has continued to grow. Westmeaths proximity to Dublin with good facilities and frequent rail service has made commuting popular. County Westmeath saw a decline in population during 18th and 19th century, the largest town in the county is Athlone, followed by the County town Mullingar. Westmeath is the largest county by population in the Irish Midlands, important commercial and marketing centres include Moate, Kilbeggan, Kinnegad, Ballinahown, Delvin, Rochfortbridge, Killucan and Castlepollard. According to the 2011 census 51. 9% of Westmeath households have at least one Irish speaker, Westmeath is one of oldest counties in Ireland to have census in 1841. Some of the records of that census have been digitized and maintained by the National Archives of Ireland. According to the latest census of April 2011 Westmeath had a population of 86,164 and it was also revealed by central statistics office that despite being overall increase in population, rural population still faced declination. The population of age was 6,882, of primary school going age was 10,111
20.
Clergy house
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A clergy house is the residence, or former residence, of one or more priests or ministers of religion. Clergy houses are owned and maintained by a church, as a benefit to its clergy. The practice exists in many denominations because of the tendency of clergy to be transferred from one church to another at relatively frequent intervals, catholic clergy houses in particular may be lived in by several priests from a parish. Clergy houses frequently serve as the office of the local parish as well as a residence, they are normally located next to, or at least close to. Partly because of the general conservationism of churches, many houses are of historic interest or even importance. In the United Kingdom the 14th-century Alfriston Clergy House was the first property to be acquired by the National Trust and it was purchased in a state of near ruin in 1896 for £10, the vicarage having moved elsewhere long before. In some countries where the houses were often rather grand they have now been sold off by the churches. In England the Old Vicarage or Old Rectory is very common in villages, as a home for the upper middle-classes. Others are now offices or used for various functions, there are a number of more specific terms whose use depends on the rank of the occupant, the denomination and the locality. Above the parish level, traditionally a bishops house was called a Bishops Palace, a dean lives in a deanery, other titles may have different names for their houses. A rectory is the residence, or former residence, of an ecclesiastical rector, in North American Anglicanism a far greater proportion of parish clergy were and are titled rectors than in Britain, so the rectory is more common there. The names used for homes of the parish clergy vary considerably, and generalization is difficult, In the Anglican Communion vicarage or parsonage. Roman Catholics use priory, clergy house, parochial house, chapel house, in the Philippines, the term convent is used, a direct calque of the Spanish convento. Manse is a Scottish term, used in Scottish Presbyterianism, and general in other parts of the British Isles by Non-conformist Churches such as the Methodists and this word is also commonly used by Baptists in the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth countries. Pastorium is the term in the Southern United States, especially among Baptists. Parish house is used by many denominations Clergy housing allowance
21.
Athlone
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Athlone is a town on the River Shannon near the southern shore of Lough Ree in Ireland. It is the largest town in the Midlands Region, the 2011 Census of Ireland recorded the population of the town at 20,153, a 14. 8% increase from 2006. Recent growth has occurred outside the towns boundaries. Athlone is near the centre of Ireland, which is 8.85 kilometres north-northwest of the town. Athlone Castle is the geographical and historical centre of Athlone, in 1001 Brian Bóru sailed his army up river from Kincora and through Lough Derg to attend a gathering in Athlone. A bridge was built across the river in the 12th century, to protect the bridge, a fort was constructed on the rivers west bank, within Athlone, by Turloch Mór Ó Conor. On a number of both the fort and bridge were subject to attacks, and towards the end of the 12th century the Anglo-Normans constructed a motte-and-bailey fortification there. This earthen fort was followed by a structure built in 1210 by Justiciar John de Gray. The 12-sided donjon, or tower, dates from time, however. Throughout the wars that wracked Ireland in the 17th century, Athlone contained the vital, forty years later, during the pan-European War of the Grand Alliance, the town was again of key strategic importance. This time around, Athlone was one of the Jacobite strongholds that defended the river-crossings into the confederate-held Province of Connacht following the Battle of the Brits on 1 July 1690. That same year, Colonel Richard Graces Jacobite forces in Athlone repelled an attack by 10,000 men led by Commander Douglas. The defenders were forced to further west, toward the River Suck. The most recently discovered account of the Siege of Athlone, written after the attack, in the 1970s it was proposed in the Republican Éire Nua programme to make Athlone the capital city of a federal United Ireland. This proposal is still upheld by the Republican Sinn Féin, the part of the town that lies east of the Shannon is in the province of Leinster, the county of Westmeath, the barony of Brawny, and the civil parish of St Marys. Unusually, the barony is coterminous with a civil parish. In terms of boundaries, the eastern past of the town is in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Ardagh and Clonmacnoise. However, seven townlands, or sections of the town, lie west of the Shannon, Athlone and Big Meadow, Bellaugh, Bogganfin, Canal and Banks, Doovoge, part of Monksland, and Ranelagh
22.
University of Edinburgh
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The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582, is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands ancient universities. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city of Edinburgh, the University of Edinburgh was ranked 17th and 21st in the world by the 2014–15 and 2015-16 QS rankings. It is now ranked 19th in the according to 2016-17 QS Rankings. It is ranked 16th in the world in arts and humanities by the 2015–16 Times Higher Education Ranking and it is ranked the 23rd most employable university in the world by the 2015 Global Employability University Ranking. It is ranked as the 6th best university in Europe by the U. S. News Best Global Universities Ranking and it is a member of both the Russell Group, and the League of European Research Universities, a consortium of 21 research universities in Europe. It has the third largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, after the universities of Cambridge and it continues to have links to the British Royal Family, having had the Duke of Edinburgh as its Chancellor from 1953 to 2010 and Princess Anne since 2011. Edinburgh receives approximately 50,000 applications every year, making it the fourth most popular university in the UK by volume of applicants, after St Andrews, it is the most difficult university to gain admission into in Scotland, and 9th overall in the UK. This was a move at the time, as most universities were established through Papal bulls. Established as the Tounis College, it opened its doors to students in October 1583, instruction began under the charge of another St Andrews graduate Robert Rollock. It was the fourth Scottish university in a period when the more populous. It was renamed King Jamess College in 1617, by the 18th century, the university was a leading centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The universitys first custom-built building was the Old College, now Edinburgh Law School and its first forte in teaching was anatomy and the developing science of surgery, from which it expanded into many other subjects. From the basement of a nearby house ran the anatomy tunnel corridor and it went under what was then North College Street, and under the university buildings until it reached the universitys anatomy lecture theatre, delivering bodies for dissection. It was from this tunnel the body of William Burke was taken after he had been hanged, towards the end of the 19th century, Old College was becoming overcrowded and Robert Rowand Anderson was commissioned to design new Medical School premises in 1875. The medical school was more or less built to his design and was completed by the addition of the McEwan Hall in the 1880s. The building now known as New College was originally built as a Free Church college in the 1840s and has been the home of divinity at the university since the 1920s. The two oldest schools – law and divinity – are both well-esteemed, with law being based in Old College and divinity in New College on the Mound and they are also represented by the Edinburgh University Sports Union which was founded in 1866. The medical school is renowned throughout the world and it was widely considered the best medical school in the English-speaking world throughout the 18th century and first half of the 19th century
23.
Flanders
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Flanders is the Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium, although there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, language, politics and history. It is one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium, the demonym associated with Flanders is Fleming, while the corresponding adjective is Flemish. The official capital of Flanders is Brussels, although Brussels itself has an independent regional government, in historical contexts, Flanders originally refers to the County of Flanders, which around AD1000 stretched from the Strait of Dover to the Scheldt estuary. In accordance with late 20th century Belgian state reforms the area was made two political entities, the Flemish Community and the Flemish Region. These entities were merged, although geographically the Flemish Community, which has a cultural mandate, covers Brussels. Flanders has figured prominently in European history, as a consequence, a very sophisticated culture developed, with impressive achievements in the arts and architecture, rivaling those of northern Italy. Belgium was one of the centres of the 19th century industrial revolution, geographically, Flanders is generally flat, and has a small section of coast on the North Sea. Much of Flanders is agriculturally fertile and densely populated, with a density of almost 500 people per square kilometer. It touches France to the west near the coast, and borders the Netherlands to the north and east, the Brussels Capital Region is an enclave within the Flemish Region. Flanders has exclaves of its own, Voeren in the east is between Wallonia and the Netherlands and Baarle-Hertog in the consists of 22 exclaves surrounded by the Netherlands. It comprises 6.5 million Belgians who consider Dutch to be their mother tongue, the political subdivisions of Belgium, the Flemish Region and the Flemish Community. The first does not comprise Brussels, whereas the latter does comprise the Dutch-speaking inhabitants of Brussels, the political institutions that govern both subdivisions, the operative body Flemish Government and the legislative organ Flemish Parliament. The two westernmost provinces of the Flemish Region, West Flanders and East Flanders, forming the central portion of the historic County of Flanders, a feudal territory that existed from the 8th century until its absorption by the French First Republic. Until the 1600s, this county also extended over parts of France, one of the regions conquered by the French in Flanders, namely French Flanders in the Nord department. French Flanders can be divided into two regions, Walloon Flanders and Maritime Flanders. The first region was predominantly French-speaking already in the 1600s, the latter became so in the 20th century, the city of Lille identifies itself as Flemish, and this is reflected, for instance, in the name of its local railway station TGV Lille Flandres. The region conquered by the Dutch Republic in Flanders, now part of the Dutch province of Zeeland, the significance of the County of Flanders and its counts eroded through time, but the designation remained in a very broad sense. In the Early modern period, the term Flanders was associated with the part of the Low Countries
24.
Samuel Johnson
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Johnson was a devout Anglican and committed Tory, and is described by the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history. He is also the subject of perhaps the most famous biography in English literature, born in Lichfield, Staffordshire, Johnson attended Pembroke College, Oxford for just over a year, before his lack of funds forced him to leave. After working as a teacher, he moved to London, where he began to write for The Gentlemans Magazine and his early works include the biography Life of Mr Richard Savage, the poems London and The Vanity of Human Wishes, and the play Irene. After nine years of work, Johnsons A Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1755 and it had a far-reaching effect on Modern English and has been described as one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship. This work brought Johnson popularity and success, until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 150 years later, Johnsons was viewed as the pre-eminent British dictionary. His later works included essays, an annotated edition of The Plays of William Shakespeare. In 1763, he befriended James Boswell, with whom he travelled to Scotland. Towards the end of his life, he produced the massive and influential Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets, Johnson was a tall and robust man. His odd gestures and tics were disconcerting to some on first meeting him, after a series of illnesses, he died on the evening of 13 December 1784, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Born on 18 September 1709, to Michael Johnson, a bookseller and he did not cry and, with doubts surrounding the newborns health, his aunt exclaimed that she would not have picked such a poor creature up in the street. Since it was feared that the baby die, the vicar of St Marys was summoned to perform a baptism. Two godfathers were chosen, Samuel Swynfen, a physician and graduate of Pembroke College, Oxford, and Richard Wakefield, a lawyer, coroner, Johnsons health improved and he was put to wet-nurse with Joan Marklew. He soon contracted scrofula, known at time as the Kings Evil because it was thought royalty could cure it. Sir John Floyer, former physician to King Charles II, recommended that the young Johnson should receive the royal touch, however, the ritual was ineffective, and an operation was performed that left him with permanent scars across his face and body. Johnson demonstrated signs of intelligence as a child, and his parents, to his later disgust. His education began at the age of three, and was provided by his mother, who had him memorise and recite passages from the Book of Common Prayer. When Samuel turned four, he was sent to a nearby school, a year later, Johnson went to Lichfield Grammar School, where he excelled in Latin. During this time, Johnson started to exhibit the tics that would influence how people viewed him in his years
25.
James Boswell
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James Boswell, 9th Laird of Auchinleck, was a Scottish biographer and diarist, born in Edinburgh. Boswells surname has passed into the English language as a term for a constant companion and observer, Boswell was born in Blairs Land on the east side of Parliament Close behind St Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh on 29 October 1740. He was the eldest son of a judge, Alexander Boswell, Lord Auchinleck, as the eldest son, he was heir to his familys estate of Auchinleck in Ayrshire. Boswells mother was a strict Calvinist, and he felt that his father was cold to him, as a child, he was delicate and suffered from some type of nervous ailment which appeared to be inherent and would afflict him sporadically all through his life. At the age of five, he was sent to James Mundells academy, an institution by the standards of the time. Boswell was unhappy there, and his sickliness began to manifest itself in the physical incidents associated with nightmares, in view of this, the now-eight-year-old was removed from the academy and educated by a string of private tutors who included John Dunn and a Mr. Fergusson. The former had more success than his successor, he versed his charge in the joys of literature. Dunn was also present during, if not directly involved in, Boswells serious affliction of 1752 and this afforded him his first experience of genuine society, and his recovery was rapid and complete. It may, however, have inculcated the notion that travel, at thirteen, Boswell was enrolled into the arts course at the University of Edinburgh, studying there from 1753 to 1758. Midway through his studies, he suffered a depression and nervous illness, but. Boswell had swarthy skin, black hair and dark eyes, he was of average height and his appearance was alert and masculine, and he had an ingratiating sense of good humour. Upon turning nineteen, he was sent to continue his studies at the University of Glasgow, while at Glasgow, Boswell decided to convert to Catholicism and become a monk. Upon learning of this, his father ordered him home, instead of obeying, though, Boswell ran away to London, where he spent three months, living the life of a libertine, before he was taken back to Scotland by his father. Upon returning, he was re-enrolled at Edinburgh University and forced by his father to sign away most of his inheritance in return for an allowance of £100 a year, on 30 July 1762, Boswell took his oral law exam, which he passed with some skill. Upon this success, Lord Auchinleck decided to raise his sons allowance to £200 a year and it was during his second spell there that Boswell wrote his London Journal and, on 16 May 1763, met Johnson for the first time. The pair became friends almost immediately, the first conversation between Johnson and Boswell is quoted in Life of Samuel Johnson as follows, Mr. Johnson, I do indeed come from Scotland, but I cannot help it. That, Sir, I find, is what a great many of your countrymen cannot help. It was around three months after this first encounter with Johnson that Boswell departed for Europe with the goal of continuing his law studies at Utrecht University
26.
David Garrick
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He appeared in a number of amateur theatricals, and with his appearance in the title role of Shakespeares Richard III, audiences and managers began to take notice. Impressed by his portrayals of Richard III and a number of roles, Charles Fleetwood engaged Garrick for a season at the Theatre Royal. He remained with the Drury Lane company for the five years. This purchase inaugurated 29 years of Garricks management of the Drury Lane, at his death, three years after his retirement from Drury Lane and the stage, he was given a lavish public funeral at Westminster Abbey where he was laid to rest in Poets Corner. As an actor, Garrick promoted realistic acting that departed from the style that was entrenched when he first came to prominence. His acting delighted many audiences and his direction of many of the top actors of the English stage influenced their styles as well, during his tenure as manager of Drury Lane, Garrick also sought to reform audience behaviour. While this led to discontent among the theatre-going public, many of his reforms eventually did take hold. Garrick also sought reform in matters, bringing an overarching consistency to productions that included set design, costumes. Garricks influence extended into the side of theatre as well. Critics are almost unanimous in saying he was not a good playwright, in addition, he adapted many older plays in the repertoire that might have been forgotten. These included many plays of the Restoration era, indeed, while influencing the theatre towards a better standard he also gained a better reputation for theatre folk. This accomplishment led Samuel Johnson to remark that his profession made him rich, Garrick was born at the Angel Inn, Widemarsh Street, Hereford in 1717 into a family with French Huguenot roots in the Languedoc region of Southern France. Garricks grandfather, David Garric, was in Bordeaux in 1685 when the Edict of Nantes was abolished, revoking the rights of Protestants in France. David Garric fled to London and his son, Peter, who was an infant at the time, was smuggled out by a nurse when he was deemed old enough to make the journey. David Garric became a British subject upon his arrival in Britain, some time after David Garricks birth the family moved to Lichfield, home to Garricks mother. His father, a captain in the army, was an officer stationed in Gibraltar through most of young Garricks childhood. Garrick was the third of seven children and his brother, George. The playwright and actor Charles Dibdin recorded that George, discovering his brothers absence would often inquire Did David want me, upon Garricks death in 1779, it was noted that George died 48 hours later, leading some to speculate that David wanted him
27.
Edmund Burke
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Burke criticized British treatment of the American colonies, including through its taxation policies. Burke is remembered for his support for Catholic emancipation, the impeachment of Warren Hastings from the East India Company, in the nineteenth century Burke was praised by both conservatives and liberals. Subsequently, in the century, he became widely regarded as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism. Burke was born in Dublin, Ireland, Burke adhered to his fathers faith and remained a practising Anglican throughout his life, unlike his sister Juliana who was brought up as and remained a Roman Catholic. Although never denying his Irishness, Burke often described himself as an Englishman, according to the historian J. C. D. Clark, this was in an age before Celtic nationalism sought to make Irishness and Englishness incompatible. As a child he spent time away from the unhealthy air of Dublin with his mothers family in the Blackwater Valley in County Cork. He received his education at a Quaker school in Ballitore, County Kildare, some 67 kilometres from Dublin. He remained in correspondence with his schoolmate from there, Mary Leadbeater, in 1744, Burke started at Trinity College Dublin, a Protestant establishment, which up until 1793, did not permit Catholics to take degrees. The minutes of the meetings of Burkes Club remain in the collection of the Historical Society, Burke graduated from Trinity in 1748. Burkes father wanted him to read Law, and with this in mind he went to London in 1750, after eschewing the Law, he pursued a livelihood through writing. The late Lord Bolingbrokes Letters on the Study and Use of History was published in 1752 and this provoked Burke into writing his first published work, A Vindication of Natural Society, A View of the Miseries and Evils Arising to Mankind, appearing in Spring 1756. Burke imitated Bolingbrokes style and ideas in a reductio ad absurdum of his arguments for atheistic rationalism, Burke claimed that Bolingbrokes arguments against revealed religion could apply to all social and civil institutions as well. Lord Chesterfield and Bishop Warburton initially thought that the work was genuinely by Bolingbroke rather than a satire, all the reviews of the work were positive, with critics especially appreciative of Burkes quality of writing. Some reviewers failed to notice the ironic nature of the book, a minority of scholars have taken the position that, in fact, Burke did write the Vindication in earnest, later disowning it only for political reasons. It was his only purely philosophical work, and when asked by Sir Joshua Reynolds and French Laurence to expand it thirty years later and it was to be submitted for publication by Christmas 1758. G. M. Young did not value Burkes history and claimed that it was demonstrably a translation from the French. Lord Acton, on commenting on the story that Burke stopped his history because David Hume published his, Burke remained the chief editor of the publication until at least 1789 and there is no evidence that any other writer contributed to it before 1766. On 12 March 1757, Burke married Jane Mary Nugent, daughter of Dr Christopher Nugent and their son Richard was born on 9 February 1758, an elder son, Christopher, died in infancy
28.
Pasquale Paoli
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Filippo Antonio Pasquale di Paoli was a Corsican patriot and leader, the president of the Executive Council of the General Diet of the People of Corsica. Paoli designed and wrote the Constitution of the state, the Corsican Republic was a representative democracy asserting that the elected Diet of Corsican representatives had no master. Paoli held his office by election and not by appointment and it made him commander-in-chief of the armed forces as well as chief magistrate. Paolis government claimed the same jurisdiction as the Republic of Genoa, following the French conquest of Corsica in 1768, Paoli oversaw the Corsican resistance. Following the defeat of Corsican forces at the Battle of Ponte Novu he was forced into exile in Britain where he was a celebrated figure and he returned after the French Revolution which he was initially supportive of. He later broke with the revolutionaries and helped to create the Anglo-Corsican Kingdom which lasted between 1794 and 1796, after the island was re-occupied by France he again went into exile in Britain where he died in 1807. Paoli was born in the hamlet of Stretta, Morosaglia commune, part of the ancient parish of Rostino, Haute-Corse, prior to that century Corsicans more or less accepted Genoan rule. By 1729, the year of first rebellion, the Genovese were regarded as failing in their task of government, the major problems were the high murder rate because of the custom of vendetta, the raiding of coastal villages by the Barbary pirates, oppressive taxes and economic depression. In the rebellion of 1729 over a new tax, the Genovese withdrew into their citadels and sent for foreign interventions, first from Austria, defeated by professional troops the Corsicans ceded violence but kept their organization. After surrendering to the French in 1739 Giacinto Paoli went into exile in Naples with his then 14-year-old son, an older brother, Clemente, remained at home as a liaison to the revolutionary diet, or assembly of the people. Corsica was subsequently distracted by the War of the Austrian Succession during which troops of a number of countries occupied the cities of Corsica. In Naples Giacinto perceiving that he had a talented son spared no effort or expense in his education, the enlightenment of which Pasquale was to become a part was neo-classical in its art, architecture and sentiments. Paoli is said once to have heard an old man on the road reciting Vergil, walked up behind him, clapped him on the back, in 1741 Pasquale joined the Corsican regiment of the royal Neapolitan army and served in Calabria under his father. Corsican exiles in Italy were seeking assistance for the revolution, including a skilled general. In 1736 the exiles of Genoa had discovered Theodor von Neuhoff, a soldier of fortune whom they were willing to make king, but he was unsuccessful and in 1754 languished in debtors prison in London. The young Pasquale became of interest when in opposition to a plan to ask the Knights of Malta to assume command he devised a plan for a native Corsican government. In that year Giacinto decided that Pasquale was ready to supplant Theodore, the subsequent popular election called by Vincente at Caccia made Pasquale General-in-Chief of Corsica, commander of all resistance. Corsica at that time was still under the influence of feuding clans, the lowlanders now held an election of their own and elected Mario Matra as commander, who promptly attacked the supporters of Paoli
29.
Charles Burney
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Charles Burney FRS was an English music historian, composer and musician. He was father of the writers Frances Burney and Sarah Burney, the explorer James Burney, Charles Burney was born at Raven Street in Shrewsbury, fourth of six children of James Macburney, a musician, dancer and portrait painter, and his second wife Ann. In childhood he and a brother, Richard were for unknown reasons sent to the care of a Nurse Ball at nearby Condover, where they lived until 1739. He began formal education at Shrewsbury School in 1737 and was sent in 1739 to The Kings School in Chester. His first music master was a Mr Baker, organist of the cathedral, Burney wrote some music for Thomsons Alfred, which was produced at Drury Lane theatre on 30 March 1745. It was for his health that he went in 1751 to Lynn Regis in Norfolk, where he was elected organist, with a salary of £100. During that time he began to entertain the idea of writing a history of music. The concertos for harpsichord which Burney published soon after his return to London were much admired, in 1766 he produced, at Drury Lane, a translation and adaptation of Jean-Jacques Rousseaus opera Le devin du village, under the title of The Cunning Man. In 1749, while working as an organist and harpsichordist in London, the couple had six children, Esther or Hetty, the explorer James Burney, the celebrated writer Fanny Burney, Susan, Charlotte, and Charles Burney. Charless first wife Esther died in 1761, in 1769 he was married a second time, to Elizabeth Allen of Lynn. From this union he had a son, Richard, and a daughter, Sarah Burney, the University of Oxford honoured Burney, on 23 June 1769, with the degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Music, and his own work was performed. This consisted of an anthem, with an overture, solos, recitatives and choruses, accompanied by instruments, besides a vocal anthem in eight parts, in 1769 he published An Essay towards a History of Comets. Amidst his various professional avocations, Burney never lost sight of his main project — his History of Music — and decided to travel abroad and collect materials that could not be found in Britain. He left London in June 1770, carrying letters of introduction. The results of his observations were published in a book, The Present State of Music in France. In 1773 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, in 1776 appeared the first volume of Burneys long-projected History of Music. In 1782 Burney published his volume, and in 1789 the third. The fourth volume covers the birth and development of opera and the scene in England in Burneys time
30.
Thomas Warton
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Thomas Warton was an English literary historian, critic, and poet. From 1785 to 1790 he was the Poet Laureate of England and he is sometimes called Thomas Warton the younger to distinguish him from his father Thomas Warton the elder. His most famous poem remains The Pleasures of Melancholy, a work of the Graveyard poets. Warton was born in Basingstoke, Hampshire, the son of poet Thomas Warton, the Elder, as a youngster, Warton demonstrated a strong predilection toward writing poetry, a skill he would continue to develop all of his life. In fact, Warton translated one of Martials epigrams at nine and his early education was given to him by his father. At sixteen years of age he enrolled at Winchester College, later moving to Trinity College and he graduated from Oxford in 1747, where he subsequently became a Fellow. Warton was selected as Poet Laureate of Oxford in 1747 and again in 1748 and his duty in this post was to write a poem about a selected patroness of the University, which would be read to her on a specially appointed day. Warton was appointed Professor of Poetry at the university in 1757, in 1771 he was appointed rector of Kiddington in Oxfordshire, a post he held until his death. In 1785, he was appointed Camden Professor of History, as well as poet laureate and he was a friend and rival of Samuel Johnson, and his poetry was greatly influenced by earlier English poets such as Chaucer, Drayton, Fairfax, and Spenser. Among other important contributions, Warton, along with his brother, was among the first to argue that Sir Thopas, Warton contributed to the general project of the ballad revival. He was a supporter of the poetry of Thomas Gray—a fact that Johnson satirized in his parody Hermit hoar. In 1749, Warton penned The Triumph of Isis, a poem in praise of Oxford, published anonymously, The Triumph of Isis rebutted William Mason’s Isis, an Elegy published the previous year, which was anything but flattering to Oxford. Following the success of The Triumph of Isis, Warton wrote Newmarket, a Satire and his complete poetical works were included in an anthology that has been reissued. Wartons first major work was Observations on the Faerie Queene of Spenser. He is, however, best known for the three-volume The History of English Poetry, although the work was criticized for its many inaccuracies, it is nonetheless considered a highly important and influential historical tome. In 1782 he wrote The History and Antiquities of Kiddington, an example of English local history. As a poet, Warton was more inclined toward light and humorous verse, odes and his sonnets helped to revive the form, which had fallen out of fashion. He is remembered for his interest in primitivism, which was an important stage toward romanticism, Observations on the Faerie Queene of Spenser
31.
Oliver Goldsmith
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He is thought to have written the classic childrens tale The History of Little Goody Two-Shoes. Goldsmiths birth date and year are not known with certainty, according to the Library of Congress authority file, he told a biographer that he was born on 10 November 1728. The location of his birthplace is also uncertain, when Goldsmith was two years old, his father was appointed the rector of the parish of Kilkenny West in County Westmeath. The family moved to the parsonage at Lissoy, between Athlone and Ballymahon, and continued to live there until his fathers death in 1747, in 1744 Goldsmith went up to Trinity College, Dublin. Neglecting his studies in theology and law, he fell to the bottom of his class, in 1747, along with four other undergraduates, he was expelled for a riot in which they attempted to storm the Marshalsea Prison. He settled in London in 1756, where he held various jobs, including an apothecarys assistant. There, through fellow Club member Edmund Burke, he made the acquaintance of Sir George Savile, the combination of his literary work and his dissolute lifestyle led Horace Walpole to give him the epithet inspired idiot. During this period he used the pseudonym James Willington to publish his 1758 translation of the autobiography of the Huguenot Jean Marteilhe. Goldsmith was described by contemporaries as prone to envy, a congenial but impetuous and disorganised personality who once planned to emigrate to America, mitchell sorely missed good company, which Goldsmith naturally provided in spades. Thomas De Quincey wrote of him All the motion of Goldsmiths nature moved in the direction of the true, the natural, the sweet and his premature death in 1774 may have been partly due to his own misdiagnosis of his kidney infection. Goldsmith was buried in Temple Church in London, the inscription reads, HERE LIES/OLIVER GOLDSMITH. There is a monument to him in the centre of Ballymahon, see The Vicar of Wakefield, The Good-Naturd Man, The Traveller, and She Stoops to Conquer. In 1760 Goldsmith began to publish a series of letters in the Public Ledger under the title The Citizen of the World and it was inspired by the earlier essay series Persian Letters by Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu. Goldsmith wrote this romantic ballad of precisely 160 lines in 1765, the hero and heroine are Edwin, a youth without wealth or power, and Angelina, the daughter of a lord beside the Tyne. Angelina spurns many wooers, but refuses to make plain her love for young Edwin, quite dejected with my scorn, Edwin disappears and becomes a hermit. One day, Angelina turns up at his cell in boys clothes and, not recognising him, Edwin then reveals his true identity, and the lovers never part again. The poem is notable for its portrayal of a hermit. In keeping with tradition, however, Edwin the Hermit claims to spurn the sex
32.
Francis Barber
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Francis Barber, born Quashey, was the Jamaican manservant of Samuel Johnson in London from 1752 until Johnsons death. Johnson made him his heir, with £70 a year to be given him by Trustees, expressing the wish that he move from London to Lichfield, in Staffordshire. After Johnsons death, Barber did this, opening a drapers shop, Barber was also bequeathed Johnsons books and papers, and a gold watch. In later years he had acted as Johnsons assistant in revising his famous Dictionary of the English Language, Barber was also an important source for Boswell concerning Johnsons life in the years before Boswell himself knew Johnson. Barber was born a slave in Jamaica on a plantation belonging to the Bathurst family. His original name was Quashey, which was a name for a male slave. At the age of about 15, he was brought to England by his owner, Colonel Richard Bathhurst, whose son, Barber was sent to school in Yorkshire. Johnsons wife Elizabeth died in 1752, plunging Johnson into a depression that Barber later vividly described to James Boswell, the Bathursts sent Barber to Johnson as a valet, arriving two weeks after her death. Although the legal validity of slavery in England was ambiguous at this time, Johnson himself was an outspoken opponent of slavery, not just in England but in the American colonies as well. Barber then went to work for an apothecary in Cheapside but kept in touch with Johnson and he later signed up as a sailor for the Navy. He served as a landman aboard various ships, received pay and good reports, saw the coast of Britain from Leith to Torbay. Most recent art historians thought it was painted by James Northcote, or perhaps by Northcotes master Sir Joshua Reynolds. An alternative view, recently expressed on a BBC programme, is that it is by Reynolds himself, when making his will, Johnson asked Sir John Hawkins, later his first biographer, what provision he should make for Barber. Sir John said that a nobleman would give 50 pounds a year, then I shall be noblissimus replied Johnson, and give him 70. Hawkins disapproved, and after Johnsons death criticised his ostentatious bounty favour to negroes, the bequest was indeed widely covered in the press. Johnson, in fact, left £750 in the trust of his friend Bennet Langton from which he was expected to pay an annuity, later he opened up a small village school in nearby Burntwood. The money from his inheritance did not last and Barber sold off his store of Johnson memorabilia to defray his debts and he died in Stafford on 13 January 1801 due to an unsuccessful operation at Staffordshire Royal Infirmary. He was survived by his son, Samuel Barber, his daughter, Ann and his descendants still farm near Lichfield
33.
Apothecary
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Apothecary /əˈpɒθᵻkəri/ is one term for a medical professional who formulates and dispenses materia medica to physicians, surgeons and patients. The modern pharmacist has taken over this role and in some languages, the apothecaries investigation of herbal and chemical ingredients was a precursor to the modern sciences of chemistry and pharmacology. Apothecary shops sold ingredients and the medicines they prepared wholesale to other medical practitioners, in 1600s England, they also controlled the trade of tobacco which was imported as a medicine. Apothecary derives from the Ancient Greek word ἀποθήκη via Latin apotheca, Medieval Latin apothecarius, in some languages the word apothecary is still used for designating a pharmacist/chemist, such as German and Dutch and Luxembourgish. Likewise, pharmacy translates as apotek in the Scandinavian and some Slavic languages such as Bosnian apoteka, Serbian апотека, use of the term apothecary in the names of businesses varies with time and location. Apothecary, as a profession, could date back to 2600 BC to ancient Babylon, clay tablets were found with medical texts recording symptoms, the prescriptions, and the directions for compounding it. The Papyrus Ebers from ancient Egypt, written around 1500 B. C. contain a collection of more than 800 prescriptions and it mentions over 700 different drugs. According to Sharif Kaf al-Ghazal, and S. Hadzovic, apothecary shops existed during the Middle Ages in Baghdad by Islamic pharmacists in 754 during the Abbasid Caliphate, Apothecaries were also active in Islamic Spain by the 11th century. In modern English, this can be transliterated as, and you should not linger, Though in this town there is no apothecary, I shall teach you about herbs myself, That will be for your health and for your pride. In Renaissance Italy, Italian Nuns became a prominent source for medicinal needs, at first they used their knowledge in non-curative uses in the convents to solidify the sanctity of religion among their sisters. As they progressed in skill they started to expand their field to create profit and this profit they used towards their charitable goals. Because of their spread to urban society, these religious women gained roles of public significance beyond the spiritual realm. Later apothecaries led by nuns were spread across the Italian peninsula, from the 15th century to the 16th century, the apothecary gained the status of a skilled practitioner. In England, the apothecaries merited their own company, the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries. Its roots, however, go back much earlier to the Guild of Pepperers formed in London in 1180, however, there were ongoing tensions between apothecaries and other medical professions, as is illustrated by the experiences of Susan Reeve Lyon and other women apothecaries in 17th century London. In 1865 Elizabeth Garrett Anderson became the first woman to be licensed to practise medicine in Britain by passing the examination of the Society of Apothecaries. In German speaking countries, such as Germany, Austria and Switzerland, thus a Pharmazeut is not always an Apotheker. Apothecaries used their own measurement system, the system, to provide precise weighing of small quantities
34.
Grub Street
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Until the early 19th century, Grub Street was a street close to Londons impoverished Moorfields district that ran from Fore Street east of St Giles-without-Cripplegate north to Chiswell Street. Famous for its concentration of impoverished hack writers, aspiring poets and it was pierced along its length with narrow entrances to alleys and courts, many of which retained the names of early signboards. Its bohemian society was set amidst the impoverished neighbourhoods low-rent flophouses, brothels, Johnson himself had lived and worked on Grub Street early in his career. The contemporary image of Grub Street was popularised by Alexander Pope in his Dunciad, the street was later renamed Milton Street, which was partly swallowed up by the Barbican Estate development but still survives in part. The street name no longer exists, but Grub Street has since become a term for impoverished hack writers. According to the Oxford English Dictionary the verb grub translates as To dig superficially, to break up the surface of, to clear of roots and stumps. The earliest use of the word is in 1300, Theif hus brecand, or gruband grund, Grub is also a derogatory noun applied to a person of mean abilities, a literary hack, in recent use, a person of slovenly attire and unpleasant manners. Grub Street was in Cripplegate ward, in the parish of St Giles-without-Cripplegate, much of the area was originally extensive marshlands from the Fleet Ditch, to Bishopsgate, contiguous with Moorfields to the east. One of Grub Streets early residents was the notable recluse Henry Welby, in 1592 his half-brother attempted to shoot him with a pistol. Shocked, he took a house on Grub Street and remained there, in near-total seclusion and he died in 1636 and was buried at St Giles in Cripplegate. The virginalist Giles Farnaby also lived in Grub Street from 1634 until his death in 1640, an early use of the land surrounding Grub Street was archery. The population of St Giles in 1801 has been estimated at about 25,000 people, in the 18th century Cripplegate was well known as an area haunted by insalubrious folk, and by the mid-19th century crime was rife. Methods of dealing with criminals were severe—thieves and murderers were left dangling in their chains on Moorfields, the use of gibbets was common, and four cages were maintained by the parish, for use as a Lying-in hospital, housing the poor, and idle imposters. Well before the influx of writers in the 18th century, Grub street was therefore in a deprived area. John Garfields Wandring Whore issue V lists several Crafty Bawds operating from the Three Sugar-Loaves, the earliest literary reference to Grub Street appears in 1630, by the English poet, John Taylor. When strait I might descry, The Quintescence of Grubstreet, well distild Through Cripplegate in a contagious Map, the local population was known for its nonconformist views, its Presbyterian preacher Samuel Annesley had been replaced in 1662 by an Anglican. Famous 16th-century Puritans included John Foxe, who may have authored his Book of Martyrs in the area, the historian John Speed, the Protestant John Milton also lived near Grub Street. In 1403 the City of London Corporation approved the formation of a Guild of stationers, Stationers were either booksellers, illuminators, or bookbinders
35.
Horace Walpole
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Horatio Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford — also known as Horace Walpole — was an English art historian, man of letters, antiquarian and Whig politician. He had Strawberry Hill House built in Twickenham, south-west London and his literary reputation rests on his Gothic novel, The Castle of Otranto and his Letters, which are of significant social and political interest. He was the son of the first British Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole, as Horace Walpole was childless, on his death his barony descended to his cousin of the same surname, who was created the new Earl of Orford. Walpole was born in London, the youngest son of British Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole, like his father, he received early education in Bexley, he was also educated at Eton College and Kings College, Cambridge. Walpoles first friends were probably his cousins Francis and Henry Conway, to whom Walpole became strongly attached, at Eton he formed with Charles Lyttelton and George Montagu the Triumvirate, a schoolboy confederacy. More important were another group of friends dubbed the Quadruple Alliance, Walpole, Thomas Gray, Richard West, at Cambridge Walpole came under the influence of Conyers Middleton, an unorthodox theologian. Walpole came to accept the nature of Middletons attitude to some essential Christian doctrines for the rest of his life, including a hatred of superstition. Walpole ceased to reside at Cambridge at the end of 1738, according to one biographer his love for his mother was the most powerful emotion of his entire life. the whole of his psychological history was dominated by it. Walpole did not have any relationships with women, he has been called a natural celibate. Walpoles sexual orientation has been the subject of speculation, many contemporaries described him as effeminate. Biographers such as Timothy Mowl explore his possible homosexuality, including a passionate, some previous biographers such as Lewis, Fothergill, and Robert Wyndham Ketton-Cremer, however, have interpreted Walpole as asexual. Upon coming of age he became Comptroller of the Pipe and Clerk of the Estreats which gave him an income of £300 per annum, Walpole decided to go travelling with Thomas Gray and wrote a will whereby he left Gray all his belongings. They left Dover on 29 March and arrived at Calais later that day and they then travelled through Boulogne, Amiens and Saint-Denis, arriving at Paris on 4 April. Here they met many aristocratic Englishmen, in early June they left Paris for Rheims, then in September going to Dijon, Lyons, Dauphiné, Savoy, Aix-les-Bains, Geneva, and then back to Lyons. In October they left for Italy, arriving in Turin in November, then going to Genoa, Piacenza, Parma, Reggio, Modena, Bologna, and in December arriving at Florence. Here he struck up a friendship with Horace Mann, an assistant to the British Minister at the Court of Tuscany and wrote Epistle from Florence to Thomas Ashton, tutor to the Earl of Plymouth, a mixture of Whig history and Middletons teachings. In February 1740 Walpole and Gray left for Rome with the intention of witnessing the papal conclave upon the death of Pope Clement XII, Walpole wanted to attend fashionable parties and Gray wanted to visit all the antiquities. At social occasions in Rome he saw the Old Pretender James Francis Edward Stuart, Walpole and Gray returned to Florence in July
36.
Huguenots
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Huguenots are the ethnoreligious group of French Protestants who follow the Reformed tradition. It was used frequently to members of the French Reformed Church until the beginning of the 19th century. The term has its origin in 16th-century France, Huguenot numbers peaked near an estimated two million by 1562, concentrated mainly in the southern and western parts of France. As Huguenots gained influence and more openly displayed their faith, Catholic hostility grew, in spite of political concessions, a series of religious conflicts followed, known as the French Wars of Religion, fought intermittently from 1562 to 1598. The Huguenots were led by Jeanne dAlbret, her son, the future Henry IV, the wars ended with the Edict of Nantes, which granted the Huguenots substantial religious, political, and military autonomy. Huguenot rebellions in the 1620s prompted the abolishment of their political and they retained religious provisions of the Edict of Nantes until the rule of Louis XIV. Nevertheless, a minority of Huguenots remained and faced continued persecution under Louis XV. By the death of Louis XV in 1774, French Calvinism was almost completely wiped out, persecution of Protestants officially ended with the Edict of Versailles, signed by Louis XVI in 1787. Two years later, with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789 and they also spread to the Dutch Cape Colony in South Africa, the Dutch East Indies, the Caribbean, New Netherland, and several of the English colonies in North America. Small contingents of families went to Orthodox Russia and Catholic Quebec, a term used originally in derision, Huguenot has unclear origins. Geneva was John Calvins adopted home and the centre of the Calvinist movement, the label Huguenot was purportedly first applied in France to those conspirators involved in the Amboise plot of 1560, a foiled attempt to wrest power in France from the influential House of Guise. The move would have had the effect of fostering relations with the Swiss. Thus, Hugues plus Eidgenosse by way of Huisgenoten supposedly became Huguenot, a version of this complex hypothesis is promoted by O. I. A. Roche, who writes in his book, The Days of the Upright, A History of the Huguenots, that Huguenot is, a combination of a Dutch and a German word. Gallicised into Huguenot, often used deprecatingly, the word became, Some disagree with such double or triple non-French linguistic origins, arguing that for the word to have spread into common use in France, it must have originated in the French language. The Hugues hypothesis argues that the name was derived by association with Hugues Capet, king of France and he was regarded by the Gallicans and Protestants as a noble man who respected peoples dignity and lives. Janet Gray and other supporters of the hypothesis suggest that the name huguenote would be equivalent to little Hugos. It was in place in Tours that the prétendus réformés habitually gathered at night
37.
Thomas De Quincey
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Thomas Penson De Quincey was an English essayist, best known for his Confessions of an English Opium-Eater. Many scholars suggest that in publishing this work De Quincey inaugurated the tradition of literature in the West. De Quincey was born at 86 Cross Street, Manchester, Lancashire and his father was a successful merchant with an interest in literature who died when he was quite young. Soon after his birth the family went to The Farm and then later to Greenheys, in 1796, three years after the death of his father, Thomas Quincey, his mother – the erstwhile Elizabeth Penson – took the name De Quincey. In the same year, De Quinceys mother moved to Bath, Somerset, De Quincey was a weak and sickly child. His youth was spent in solitude, and when his brother, William, came home. De Quinceys mother was a woman of character and intelligence. It is purported that at time, in 1799, De Quincey first read Lyrical Ballads by Wordsworth. In 1800, De Quincey, aged fifteen, was ready for the University of Oxford and that boy, his master at Bath had said, could harangue an Athenian mob better than you or I could address an English one. He was sent to Manchester Grammar School, in order that after three years stay he might obtain a scholarship to Brasenose College, Oxford, but he took flight after nineteen months. His first plan had been to reach William Wordsworth, whose Lyrical Ballads had consoled him in fits of depression and had awakened in him a reverence for the poet. From July to November 1802, De Quincey lived as a wayfarer and he soon lost his guinea by ceasing to keep his family informed of his whereabouts, and had difficulty making ends meet. Still, apparently fearing pursuit, he borrowed money and travelled to London. Having failed, he lived close to starvation rather than return to his family, discovered by chance by his friends, De Quincey was brought home and finally allowed to go to Worcester College, Oxford, on a reduced income. Here, we are told, he came to be looked upon as a strange being who associated with no one, in 1804, while at Oxford, he began the occasional use of opium. He completed his studies, but failed to take the oral examination leading to a degree and he became an acquaintance of Coleridge and Wordsworth, having already sought out Charles Lamb in London. His acquaintance with Wordsworth led to his settling in 1809 at Grasmere and he lived for ten years in Dove Cottage, which Wordsworth had occupied and which is now a popular tourist attraction, and for another five years at Fox Ghyll near Rydal. De Quincey was married in 1816, and soon after, having no money left and his wife Margaret bore him eight children before her death in 1837
38.
Westminster Abbey
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It is one of the United Kingdoms most notable religious buildings and the traditional place of coronation and burial site for English and, later, British monarchs. Between 1540 and 1556, the abbey had the status of a cathedral, since 1560, however, the building is no longer an abbey nor a cathedral, having instead the status of a Church of England Royal Peculiar—a church responsible directly to the sovereign. The building itself is the abbey church. According to a tradition first reported by Sulcard in about 1080, a church was founded at the site in the 7th century, at the time of Mellitus, construction of the present church began in 1245, on the orders of King Henry III. Since the coronation of William the Conqueror in 1066, all coronations of English and British monarchs have held in Westminster Abbey. There have been at least 16 royal weddings at the abbey since 1100, two were of reigning monarchs, although, before 1919, there had been none for some 500 years. The first reports of the abbey are based on a tradition claiming that a young fisherman called Aldrich on the River Thames saw a vision of Saint Peter near the site. This seems to be quoted to justify the gifts of salmon from Thames fishermen that the abbey received in later years, in the present was, the Fishmongers Company still gives a salmon every year. The proven origins are that in the 960s or early 970s, Saint Dunstan, assisted by King Edgar, between 1042 and 1052, King Edward the Confessor began rebuilding St Peters Abbey to provide himself with a royal burial church. It was the first church in England built in the Romanesque style, the building was completed around 1090 and was consecrated on 28 December 1065, only a week before Edwards death on 5 January 1066. A week later, he was buried in the church, and, nine years later and his successor, Harold II, was probably crowned in the abbey, although the first documented coronation is that of William the Conqueror later the same year. The only extant depiction of Edwards abbey, together with the adjacent Palace of Westminster, is in the Bayeux Tapestry, construction of the present church was begun in 1245 by Henry III who selected the site for his burial. The abbot and monks, in proximity to the royal Palace of Westminster, the abbot often was employed on royal service and in due course took his place in the House of Lords as of right. The abbey built shops and dwellings on the west side, encroaching upon the sanctuary, the abbey became the coronation site of Norman kings. The Confessors shrine subsequently played a part in his canonisation. The work continued between 1245 and 1517 and was finished by the architect Henry Yevele in the reign of Richard II. Henry III also commissioned the unique Cosmati pavement in front of the High Altar, Henry VII added a Perpendicular style chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary in 1503. Much of the came from Caen, in France, the Isle of Portland
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Epitaph
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An epitaph is a short text honouring a deceased person. Strictly speaking, it refers to text that is inscribed on a tombstone or plaque, some epitaphs are specified by the person themselves before their death, while others are chosen by those responsible for the burial. An epitaph may be written in prose or in verse, poets have been known to compose their own epitaphs prior to their death. Most epitaphs are brief records of the family, and perhaps the career, of the deceased, often with an expression of love or respect—for example. Notably, the Laudatio Turiae, the longest known Ancient Roman epitaph, exceeds almost all of these at 180 lines, it celebrates the virtues of an honored wife, some are quotes from holy texts, or aphorisms. One approach of many epitaphs is to speak to the reader, a wry trick of others is to request the reader to get off their resting place, inasmuch as the reader would have to be standing on the ground above the coffin to read the inscription. Nearly all note name, year or date of birth, many list family members and the relationship of the deceased to them. Heroes and Kings your distance keep, In peace let one poor poet sleep, Who never flattered folks like you, Let Horace blush, — Alexander Pope Wir müssen wissen. — David Hilbert He never killed a man that did not need killing, — Clay Allison Here lies One whose Name was writ in Water — John Keats Undefeated — Hans-Joachim Marseille And the beat goes on. — Sonny Bono Sleep after toyle, port after stormie seas, Ease after warre, death after life, — Joseph Conrad Thats all folks. — Mel Blanc Ive finally stopped getting dumber, — Paul Erdős Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by that here, obedient to their law, we lie. — Simonidess epigram at Thermopylae I told you I was ill, — Spike Milligan Here sleeps at peace a Hampshire Grenadier Who caught his early death by drinking cold small beer. Soldiers, be wise at his fall, And when youre hot. — Thomas Thetcher tombstone epitaph in Winchester Cathedral To save your world you asked this man to die, Would this man, could he see you now, ask why. — Epitaph for the Unknown Soldier, written by W. H. Auden There is borne an empty hearsecovered over for such as appear not. Heroes have the earth for their tomb. — Unknown Soldiers epitaph, Athens, passages taken from Pericles Funeral Oration Against you I will fling myself, unvanquished and unyielding, O Death. — Virginia Woolf Good frend for Iesvs sake forebeare, To digg the dvst encloased heare. Bleste be man spares thes stones, Good friend for Jesus sake forbear, To dig the dust enclosed here. Blessed be the man that spares these stones, And cursed be he moves my bones
40.
Persian Letters
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Persian Letters is a literary work, written in 1721, by Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu, recounting the experiences of two Persian noblemen, Usbek and Rica, who are traveling through France. In 1711 Usbek leaves his seraglio in Isfahan to take the journey to France. He leaves behind five wives in the care of a number of black eunuchs, over time, various disorders surface back in the seraglio, and, beginning in 1717, the situation there rapidly unravels. The Chronology breaks down as follows, Letters 1–21, The journey from Isfahan to France, Letters 22 –89, Paris in the reign of Louis XIV,3 years in all. Letters 90 –137 or, the Regency of Philippe d’Orléans, covering five years, Letters 138 –150, the collapse of the seraglio in Isfahan, approximately 3 years. Called edition A, this is the text utilized in the recent critical edition of Lettres persanes for the works of Montesquieu published by the Voltaire Foundation in 2004. All subsequent editions in the author’s lifetime derive from A or B, a new edition in 1758, prepared by Montesquieu’s son, included eight new letters – bringing the total to 161 – and a short piece by the author entitled Quelques réflexions sur les Letters persanes. There is a beginning, development, and ending. Initially, for most of its first readers as well as for its author, it was not considered primarily a novel, and even less an epistolary novel, indeed, it has little in common with the sole model at the time, Guilleragues’s Lettres portugaises of 1669. The Lettres persanes thus helped confirm the vogue of a format that was already established, whence this remark in Montesquieu’s Mes Pensées, My Lettres persanes taught people to write letter-novels. The epistolary structure is flexible, nineteen correspondents in all. Usbek and Rica by far dominate with sixty-six letters for the former, ibben, who functions more as addressee than correspondent, writes only two letters but receives forty-two. Likewise, an unnamed person – if always the same – receives eighteen letters, there is even one complete anomaly, a letter from Hagi Ibbi to Ben Josué, neither of whom is mentioned elsewhere in the novel. In Paris, the Persians express themselves on a variety of subjects. The difference of temperament of the two friends is notable, Usbek being more experienced and asking questions, Rica less implicated and more free. We observe the function of parliaments, tribunals, religious bodies, public places and their publics and they describe a thriving culture, where even the presence of two Persians quickly becomes a popular phenomenon, thanks to the proliferation of prints. The café – where debates take place – has become established as an institution, as were already the theatre. There are still people foolish enough to search at their own expense for the stone, the newsmonger
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Montesquieu
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He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, which is implemented in many constitutions throughout the world. He is also known for doing more than any author to secure the place of the word despotism in the political lexicon. Montesquieu was born at the Château de la Brède in southwest France,25 kilometres south of Bordeaux and his father, Jacques de Secondat, was a soldier with a long noble ancestry. His mother, Marie Françoise de Pesnel, who died when Charles was seven, was an heiress who brought the title of Barony of La Brède to the Secondat family. After the death of his mother he was sent to the Catholic College of Juilly, a prominent school for the children of French nobility and his father died in 1713 and he became a ward of his uncle, the Baron de Montesquieu. He became a counselor of the Bordeaux Parliament in 1714, in 1715 he married Jeanne de Lartigue, a Protestant, who eventually bore him three children. The Baron died in 1716, leaving him his fortune as well as his title, Montesquieus early life occurred at a time of significant governmental change. England had declared itself a constitutional monarchy in the wake of its Glorious Revolution, in France the long-reigning Louis XIV died in 1715 and was succeeded by the five-year-old Louis XV. These national transformations had a impact on Montesquieu, he would refer to them repeatedly in his work. Montesquieu withdrew from the practice of law to himself to study. De lEsprit des Lois was originally published anonymously in 1748, the book quickly rose to influence political thought profoundly in Europe and America. In France, the met with an unfriendly reception from both supporters and opponents of the regime. The Catholic Church banned lEsprit – along with many of Montesquieus other works – in 1751 and it received the highest praise from the rest of Europe, especially Britain. Montesquieu was also regarded in the British colonies in North America as a champion of liberty. Following the American revolution, Montesquieus work remained an influence on many of the American founders, most notably James Madison of Virginia. He was buried in the Église Saint-Sulpice, Paris, Montesquieus philosophy of history minimized the role of individual persons and events. Ask the Romans, who had a sequence of successes when they were guided by a certain plan. There are general causes, moral and physical, which act in every monarchy, elevating it, maintaining it, all accidents are controlled by these causes
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English landscape garden
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The English garden presented an idealized view of nature. The work of Lancelot Capability Brown was particularly influential, by the end of the 18th century the English garden was being imitated by the French landscape garden, and as far away as St. Petersburg, Russia, in Pavlovsk, the gardens of the future Emperor Paul. It also had a influence on the form of the public parks. These parks featured vast lawns, woods, and pieces of architecture and these gardens, modelled after the gardens of Versailles, were designed to impress visitors with their size and grandeur. William Kent was an architect, painter and furniture designer who introduced Palladian style architecture to England and his gardens were designed to complement the Palladian architecture of the houses he built. He collaborated with Kent on several major gardens, providing the botanical expertise which allowed Kent to realize his architectural visions, Kent created one of the first true English landscape gardens at Chiswick House for Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington. Between 1733 and 1736, he redesigned the garden, adding lawns sloping down to the edge of the river, for the first time the form of a garden was inspired not by architecture, but by an idealized version of nature. Rousham House in Oxfordshire is considered by some as the most accomplished, the patron was General Dormer, who commissioned Bridgeman to begin the garden in 1727, then brought in Kent to recreate it in 1737. Bridgeman had built a series of gardens, including a grotto of Venus, on the slope along the river Cherwell, finally, he added cascades modelled on those of the garden of Aldobrandini and Pratolino in Italy, to add movement and drama. Stowe, in Buckinghamshire, was a more radical departure from the formal French garden. In the early 18th century, Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham, had commissioned Charles Bridgeman to design a formal garden, bridgemans design included an octagonal lake and a Rotunda designed by Vanbrugh. In the 1730s, William Kent and James Gibbs were appointed to work with Bridgeman, Kent remade the lake in a more natural shape, and created a new kind of garden, which took visitors on a tour of picturesque landscapes. The garden attracted visitors from all over Europe, including Jean-Jacques Rousseau and it became the inspiration for landscape gardens in Britain and on the Continent. Stourhead, in Wiltshire, created by banker Henry Hoare, was one of the first picturesque gardens, Hoare had travelled to Italy on the Grand Tour and had returned with a painting by Claude Lorrain. He sought to create an ideal landscape out of the English countryside and he created artificial lakes and used dams and canals to transform streams or springs into the illusion that a river flowed through the garden. He compared his own role as a designer to that of a poet or composer. Here I put a comma, there, when its necessary to cut the view, I put a parenthesis, there I end it with a period, the most important were, Petworth in 1752, Chatsworth in 1761, Bowood in 1763, Blenheim Palace in 1764. Humphry Repton was the last great English landscape designer of the eighteenth century, to help clients visualize his designs, Repton produced Red Books with explanatory text and watercolors with a system of overlays to show before and after views
