1.
Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
2.
Regions of Peru
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The regions of Peru are the first-level administrative subdivisions of Peru. Since its 1821 independence, Peru had been divided into departments but faced the problem of a centralization of political and economic power in its capital. Under the new arrangement, the former 24 departments plus the Callao Province has become regional circumscriptions, the province of Lima has been excluded from this process and does not form part of any region. Unlike the earlier departments, regions have a government and have a wide array of responsibilities within their jurisdiction. Under the 2002 Organic Law of Regional Governments, there is a process of transfer of functions from the central government to the regions. A2005 referendum for the merger of several failed to get the necessary electoral support. Peruvian regions and departments are subdivided in provinces and districts, the 1979 Peruvian Constitution contained provisions for the decentralization of power through the creation of autonomous regions, but they were not implemented. As a way of creating a source of power, the regime established twelve autonomous regions on January 20,1989 in the hope of winning some elections at this level. However, due to the haste of their creation, these governments were not provided with fiscal resources of their own so they depended on the goodwill of the central government for funding. The 1990 presidential elections were marked by the discredit of political parties as evidenced in the election of Alberto Fujimori, Fujimori withheld financial transfers to regional governments and then, on December 29,1992, replaced them with government-designated Transitory Councils of Regional Administration. Having dissolved Congress in the 1992 Peruvian constitutional crisis, Fujimori called an election for a Constitutional Assembly which drafted the 1993 Constitution and this new text included provisions for the creation of regions with autonomous, elected governments but they were not carried out. A framework law on decentralization issued on January 30,1998, confirmed the permanence of transitory councils, Fujimori was forced to resign in November 2000 under accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations. After an interim government led by Valentín Paniagua, Alejandro Toledo was elected president for the 2001–2006 period on a platform that included creating regional governments. New regional governments were elected on November 20,2002, one in each of the former departments, the province of Lima, containing the capital, was excluded from the process thus it is not part of any region. In the 2002 elections, most regional governments went to parties in opposition, with going to the APRA and only one to Possible Peru. Thus, no merger was carried out, new elections for regional governments were held on November 19,2006, most regions went to local political movements rather than to national parties. The APRA, which had won the elections held on June 4,2006. The Regional Coordination Council has a role on planning and budget issues
3.
Cusco Region
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Cusco is a region in Peru. It is bordered by the Ucayali Region on the north, the Madre de Dios and Puno regions on the east, the Arequipa Region on the south, and its capital is Cusco, the capital of the Inca Empire. It is located about 3,000 metres above sea level and is used to cultivate mainly high altitude such as potatoes, tarwi, barley. According to the 2007 Peru Census, the language learnt first by most of the residents was Quechua, the Quechua variety spoken in this region is Cusco Quechua
4.
Provinces of Peru
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The provinces of Peru, known in Spanish as provincias, are the second-level administrative subdivisions of the country. There are 196 provinces in Peru, grouped into 25 regions except for the Lima Province which does not belong to any region and this makes an average of 7 provinces per region. The region with the fewest provinces is Callao and the region with the most is Ancash, while provinces in the sparsely populated Amazon rain forest of eastern Peru tend to be larger, there is a large concentration of them in the north-central area of the country. The province with the least number of districts is Purús Province, the province with the most districts is Lima Province, with 43 districts. The most common number of districts per province is 8, a total of 29 provinces share this number of districts, the table below shows all provinces with their capitals and the region in which they are located. The UBIGEO code uniquely identifies each province, capitals in bold are also a regional capital. Provinces in which the capital is located all have an UBIGEO code ending in 01. Administrative divisions of Peru Regions of Peru Districts of Peru Municipalities of Peru
5.
Urubamba Province
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Urubamba Province is one of thirteen provinces in the Cusco Region in the southern highlands of Peru. The Urupampa and Willkapampa mountain ranges traverse the province, some of the highest peaks of the province are listed below, The province is divided into seven districts, each of which is headed by a mayor. Quechua is the language which the majority of the population learnt to speak in childhood,46. 78% of the residents started speaking using the Spanish language, the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Machu Pikchu is probably the most famous site among the numerous archaeological remains of the province
6.
Districts of Peru
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The districts of Peru are the third-level country subdivisions of Peru. They are subdivisions of the provinces, which in turn are subdivisions of the regions or departments. There are 1,838 districts in total, in the dry Andean area, many districts have less than 3,500 inhabitants due to low population density in the area. In some cases, their populations have decreased in comparison to the days when they were founded, districts that are located at very high altitudes tend to be scarcely populated. These districts usually are large in area, have few available land for use, many basic government services do not reach all residents of these districts due to their difficult geography. Many lack financial means to govern their jurisdictions and they often have high emigration rates. A similar pattern can be observed in many districts located in the Peruvian Amazon rainforest, once important settlements created during the era of colonization, they nowadays do not offer much space for agriculture. Deeper into the jungle, the districts of the selva alta have higher populations living on geographically large districts, districts located outside the colonized area have very low populations that are entirely composed of Native Amazonian tribes. All over the country, many districts have higher populations than the minimum required by law and these districts are old and tend to be smaller in area with high population densities since prehispanic times. Districts with a population of more than 10000 inhabitants should ideally be subdivided, particularly if they are large in area. Colonization happens quickly and boundaries of districts are not modified. This is less of a problem in the coast where communication is easier, however, reaching to large populations remain a problem in this area. This is a list of the top twenty Peruvian districts by population, population density, area, Source, INEI Source, INEI Source, INEI Source, INEI Regions of Peru Provinces of Peru Administrative divisions of Peru
7.
Ollantaytambo District
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Ollantaytambo District is one of seven districts of the province Urubamba in Peru. The Urupampa and Willkapampa mountain ranges traverse the district, the highest peak of the district is Sallqantay at 6,271 metres. Other mountains are listed below, The people in the district are mainly indigenous citizens of Quechua descent, Quechua is the language which the majority of the population learnt to speak in childhood,38. 74% of the residents started speaking using the Spanish language. Inkapintay Kachi Qhata Kusichaka River Pumamarka Qurimarka Qusqu Qhawarina Willkaraqay Official municipal website
8.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
9.
Quechua language
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Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
10.
Inca Empire
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The Inca Empire, also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru, the Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572, from 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. The Incas considered their king, the Sapa Inca, to be the son of the sun, the Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many features associated with civilization in the Old world. In the words of one scholar, The Incas lacked the use of wheeled vehicles, the Incan economy has been described as feudal, slave, socialist. The economy functioned largely without money and without markets, instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. Taxes consisted of an obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food, the Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, the four suyu. The four suyu were, Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, Qullasuyu and Kuntisuyu, the name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu, the term Inka means ruler or lord in Quechua and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family. The Incas were a small percentage of the total population of the empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000. The Spanish adopted the term as a term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class. As such the name Imperio inca referred to the nation that they encountered, the Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Incan oral history tells a story of three caves. The center cave at Tampu Tuqu was named Qhapaq Tuqu, the other caves were Maras Tuqu and Sutiq Tuqu. Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave and they were, Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Awqa and Ayar Uchu, and Mama Ocllo, Mama Raua, Mama Huaco and Mama Qura. Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans, Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live and they traveled for a long time
11.
Cusco
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Cuzco, often spelled Cusco, is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region as well as the Cusco Province, in 2013, the city had a population of 435,114. Located on the end of the Knot of Cuzco, its elevation is around 3,400 m. The site was the capital of the Inca Empire from the 13th until the 16th-century Spanish conquest. In 1983 Cusco was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and it has become a major tourist destination, hosting nearly 2 million visitors a year. The Constitution of Peru designates it as the Historical Capital of Peru, the indigenous name of this city is Qusqu. Although the name was used in Quechua, its origin is found in the Aymara language, the word is derived from the phrase qusqu wanka, related to the citys foundation myth of the Ayar Siblings. According to this legend, Ayar Awqa acquired wings and flew to the site of the future city, there he was transformed into a rock to mark the possession of the land by his ayllu. Then Ayar Oche stood up, displayed a pair of large wings, then they went up on top of the hill. Now at the site where he was to remain as an idol and he returned and told Ayar Manco that from then on he was to be named Manco Capac. Ayar Oche came from where the Sun was and the Sun had ordered that Ayar Manco take that name, after this had been stated by the idol, Ayar Oche turned into a stone, just as he was, with his wings. Later Manco Capac went down with Ayar Auca to their settlement. he liked the place now occupied in this city Cuzco, Manco Capac and his companion, with the help of the four women, made a house. Having done this, Manco Capac and his companion, with the four women and it is said that they took the maize from the cave, which this lord Manco Capac named Pacaritambo, which means those of origin because. they came out of that cave. The Spanish conquistadors adopted the name, transliterating it into Spanish phonetics as Cuzco or, less often. Cuzco was the spelling on official documents and chronicles in colonial times. Cuzco, pronounced as in 16th-century Spanish, seems to have been an approximation to the Cusco Quechua pronunciation of the name at the time. As both Spanish and Quechuan pronunciation have evolved since then, the Spanish pronunciation of z is no longer close to the Quechuan pronunciation of the consonant represented by z in Cuzco. In 1976, the city signed an ordinance banning the traditional spelling and ordering the use of a new one, Cusco
12.
Pachacuti
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Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui or Pachacutec or Pachakutiq Inka Yupanki was the ninth Sapa Inca of the Kingdom of Cusco which he transformed into the Inca Empire. Most archaeologists now believe that the famous Inca site of Machu Picchu was built as an estate for Pachacuti, in Quechua Pachakutiq means he who overturns space and time, and Yupanki means with honor. During his reign, Cusco grew from a hamlet into an empire that could compete with, and eventually overtake and he began an era of conquest that, within three generations, expanded the Inca dominion from the valley of Cusco to nearly the whole of western South America. He was the ruler of the Inca state who, from ruling a simple chiefdom came to rule a great empire. Although he had not been designated as successor by his father Viracocha Inca, he led a defense against the warlike army of Chanka while his father. The victory over the Chankas made Inca Viracocha recognize him as his successor around 1438, as part of his vision of a statesman and warrior chieftain he conquered many ethnic groups and states, highlighting his conquest of the Collao that enhanced the prestige of the Inca Pachacutec. Due to the expansion of their domains he was considered an exceptional leader, enlivening glorious epic stories. Numerous kurakas do not hesitate to recognize his skills and identify him as son of the Sun and he conquered the provinces of Colla-Suyu and Chinchay-Suyu. Along with his sons, Tupac Ayar Manco, and Apu Paucar Usnu, additionally, he left garrisons in subjugated lands. Pachacuti, son of Inca Viracocha, was the fourth of the Hanan dynasty and his wifes name was Mama Anahuarqui, or Quya Anawarkhi. He had three sons, Tupac Ayar Manco, Apu Paucar, and Tupac Inca Yupanqui, pacachuti had his two brothers, Ccapac Yupanqui and Huayana Yupanqui, killed after the military campaign against the province of Chinchay-Suyu. He also killed his sons Tilca Yupanqui and Auqui Yupanqui, Amaru, the older son, was originally chosen to be co-regent and eventual successor. Pachacuti later chose Tupac Inca because Amaru was not a warrior and he was also the first one to retire. Pachacutis given name was Cusi Yupanqui and he was not supposed to succeed his father Inca Viracocha who had appointed his brother Urco as crown prince. However in the midst of an invasion of Cuzco by the Chankas, while his father and brother fled the scene, Pachacuti rallied the army and prepared for a desperate defense of his homeland. In the resulting battle, the Chankas were defeated so severely that legend tells even the stones rose up to fight on Pachacutis side, thus The Earth Shaker won the support of his people and the recognition of his father as crown prince after the death of Urco. Pachacuti rebuilt much of Cusco, designing it to serve the needs of an imperial city, each suyu had a sector of the city, centering on the road leading to that province, nobles and immigrants lived in the sector corresponding to their origin. Each sector was divided into areas for the hanan and hurin moieties
13.
Manco Inca Yupanqui
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Manco Inca Yupanqui was the founder and monarch of the independent Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba, although he was originally a puppet Inca Emperor installed by the Spaniards. He was also known as Manco II and Manco Cápac II and he was one of the sons of Huayna Cápac and a younger brother of Huascar. Túpac Huallpa was a puppet ruler crowned by the conquistador Francisco Pizarro, after his death, Manco Inca joined Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro in Cajamarca. When Pizarros force arrived in Cusco, he had the caciques acknowledge Manco as their Inca, Manco Inca then joined Almagro and Hernando de Soto in pursuit of Quizquiz. The Pizarro brothers so mistreated Manco Inca that he tried to escape in 1535. He failed, was captured and imprisoned, Hernando Pizarro released him to recover a golden statue of his father Huayana Capac. Only accompanied by two Spaniards, he escaped a second time. Manco then gathered an army of 200,000 Inca warriors and laid siege to Cusco in early 1536, after ten months, Manco retreated to the nearby fortress of Ollantaytambo in 1537. Here Manco successfully defended attacks by the Spaniards in the battle of Ollantaytambo, Manco coordinated his siege of Cusco with one on Lima, led by one of his captains, Quiso Yupanqui. The Incans were able to defeat four relief expeditions sent by Francisco Pizarro from Lima and this resulted in the death of nearly 500 Spanish soldiers. Some Spaniards were captured and sent to Ollantaytambo, alonso de Alvarado was sent by Pizarro to Cusco, but upon his arrival at Abancay, he and his army were captured by Rodrigo Orgóñez in the Battle of Abancay. This was the beginning of the first civil war between the conquistadors, abandoning Ollantaytambo, Manco Inca retreated to Vitcos and finally to the remote jungles of Vilcabamba, where he founded the Neo-Inca State which lasted until the death of Túpac Amaru in 1572. From there, he continued his attacks against the Wankas, having some success after fierce battles, and to the highlands of present-day Bolivia, the Spaniards crowned his younger half brother Paullu Inca as puppet Sapa Inca after his retreat for his valuable help in that last campaign. The Spanish succeeded in capturing Mancos sister-wife, Cura Ocllo, and had her murdered in 1539. They in turn were all killed by Mancos soldiers, Manco was succeeded by his son Sayri Tupaq. Manco Inca had several sons, including Sayri Tupaq, Titu Cusi, Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire Sapa Inca Cura Ocllo
14.
Sacred Valley
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The Sacred Valley of the Incas or the Urubamba Valley is a valley in the Andes of Peru,20 kilometres at its closest north of the Inca capital of Cusco. It is located in the present-day Peruvian region of Cusco, in colonial documents it was referred to as the Valley of Yucay. The Sacred Valley was incorporated slowly into the incipient Inca Empire during the period from 1000 to 1400 CE, the scenic and historical Sacred Valley is a major tourist destination. In 2013,1.2 million people,800,000 of them non-Peruvians, are estimated to have visited Machu Picchu, many of the same tourists also visited other archaeological sites and modern towns in the Sacred Valley. The valley, running generally west to east, is understood to include everything along the Urubamba River between the town and Inca ruins at Písac westward to Machu Piccu,100 kilometres distant. The Sacred Valley has elevations above sea level along the river ranging from 3,000 metres at Pisac to 2,050 metres at the Urubamba River below the citadel of Macchu Piccu, the intensely cultivated valley floor is about 1 kilometre wide on average. Side valleys and agricultural terraces expand the cultivatable area, the valley was formed by the Urubamba river, also known as the Vilcanota River, Willkanuta River or Willkamayu. The latter, in Quechua, the still spoken lingua franca of the Inca Empire and it is fed by numerous tributaries which descend through adjoining valleys and gorges, and contains numerous archaeological remains and villages. The climate of Urubamba is typical of the valley, the Incas built extensive irrigation works throughout the valley to counter deficiencies and seasonality in precipitation. The early Incas lived in the Cuzco area, by conquest or diplomacy, during the period 1000 to 1400 CE, the Inca achieved administrative control over the various ethnic groups living in or near the Sacred Valley. The attraction of the Sacred Valley to the Inca, in addition to its proximity to Cuzco, was probably that it was lower in elevation, the lower elevation permitted maize to be grown in the Sacred Valley. Large scale maize production in the Sacred Valley was apparently facilitated by varieties bred in nearby Moray, the Inca customarily divided conquered lands into three more-or-less equal parts. One part was for the emperor, one part for the religious establishment, in the 1400s, the Sacred Valley became an area of royal estates and country homes. Once a royal estate was created by an emperor it continued to be owned by descendants of the emperor after his death, the estate of the emperor Huayna Capac, are in the town of Urubamba. Most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was built as an estate for Pachacuti, agricultural terraces, called andenes, were built up hillsides flanking the valley floor and are today the most visible and widespread signs of the Inca civilization in the Sacred Valley. In 1537, the Inca Emperor Manco Inca Yupanqui fought and won the Battle of Ollantaytambo against a Spanish army headed by Hernando Pizarro, nevertheless, Manco soon withdrew from the Sacred Valley and the area came under the control of the Spanish colonialists
15.
Inca Trail to Machu Picchu
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The Inca road system was the most extensive and advanced transportation system in pre-Columbian South America. It was about 39,900 kilometres long, the network was based on two north-south roads with numerous branches. The best known portion of the system is the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu. Part of the network was built by cultures that precede the Inca Empire. During the Spanish colonial era, parts of the system were given the status of Camino Real. In 2014 the road became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The eastern route ran high in the grasslands and mountain valleys from Quito, Ecuador to Mendoza. The western route followed the coastal plain not including in coastal deserts where it hugged the foothills, more than twenty routes ran over the western mountains, while others traversed the eastern cordillera in the mountains and lowlands. Some of these roads reach heights of over 5,000 metres above sea level, the trails connected the regions of the Inca empire from the northern provincial capital in Quito, Ecuador past the modern city of Santiago, Chile in the south. The Inca road system linked together about 40,000 kilometres of roadway, although the Inca roads varied greatly in scale, construction, and appearance, for the most part they varied between about 1 to 4 metres in width. Much of the system was the result of the Incas claiming exclusive right over numerous traditional routes, many new sections were built or upgraded substantially, through Chiles Atacama desert, and along the western margin of Lake Titicaca, serve as two examples. The Incas developed techniques to overcome the difficult territory of the Andes, on steep slopes they built stone steps resembling giant flights of stairs. In desert areas near the coast they built low walls to keep the sand from drifting over the road, the Qhapaq Ñan constituted the principal north-south highway of the Inca Empire traveling 6,000 kilometres along the spine of the Andes. The Qhapaq Ñan unified this immense and heterogeneous empire through a political system of power. It allowed the Inca to control his Empire and to troops as needed from the capital. The most important Inca road was the Camino Real, as it is known in Spanish and it began in Quito, Ecuador, passed through Cusco, and ended in what is now Tucumán, Argentina. The Camino Real traversed the mountain ranges of the Andes, with altitudes of more than 5,000 m. El Camino de la Costa, the trail, with a length of 4,000 kilometres
16.
Viracocha
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Viracocha is the great creator deity in the pre-Inca and Inca mythology in the Andes region of South America. Full name and some spelling alternatives are Wiracocha, Apu Qun Tiqsi Wiraqutra, Viracocha was one of the most important deities in the Inca pantheon and seen as the creator of all things, or the substance from which all things are created, and intimately associated with the sea. Viracocha created the universe, sun, moon, and stars, time, Viracocha was worshipped as god of the sun and of storms. He was represented as wearing the sun for a crown, with thunderbolts in his hands, according to a myth recorded by Juan de Betanzos, Viracocha rose from Lake Titicaca during the time of darkness to bring forth light. He made the sun, moon, and the stars and he made mankind by breathing into stones, but his first creation were brainless giants that displeased him. So he destroyed it with a flood and made a new, Viracocha eventually disappeared across the Pacific Ocean, and never returned. He wandered the earth disguised as a beggar, teaching his new creations the basics of civilization and he wept when he saw the plight of the creatures he had created. It was thought that Viracocha would re-appear in times of trouble, in one legend he had one son, Inti, and two daughters, Mama Killa and Pachamama. These two founded the Inca civilization carrying a staff, called tapac-yauri. In another legend, he fathered the first eight civilized human beings, in some stories, he has a wife called Mama Qucha. In another legend, Viracocha had two sons, Imahmana Viracocha and Tocapo Viracocha, after the Great Flood and the Creation, Viracocha sent his sons to visit the tribes to the northeast and northwest to determine if they still obeyed his commandments. During their journey, Imaymana and Tocapo gave names to all the trees, flowers, fruits and they also taught the tribes which of these were edible, which had medicinal properties, and which were poisonous. Eventually, Viracocha, Tocapo and Imahmana arrived at Cusco and the Pacific seacoast where they walked across the water until they disappeared, the word Viracocha literally means Sea Foam. Tiqsi Huiracocha may have several meanings, in the Quechuan languages, tiqsi means foundation or base, wira means fat, and qucha means lake, sea, or reservoir. Viracochas many epithets include great, all knowing, powerful, etc, some people state that Wiraqucha could mean Fat of the sea. This story was first reported by Pedro Cieza de León and later by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, similar accounts by Spanish chroniclers describe Viracocha as a white god, often with a beard. The Anales de Cuauhtitlan is an important early source which is particularly valuable for having been originally written in Nahuatl. In this quote the beard is represented as a dressing of feathers, a representation of the messenger of Viracocha named Wiracochan or Tunupa is shown in the small village of Ollantaytambo, southern Peru
17.
Retinue
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A retinue is a body of persons retained in the service of a noble or royal personage, a suite of retainers. The word, recorded in English since circa 1375, stems from Old French retenue, itself from retenir, from Latin retenere, hold back, some were a source of trouble and abuse in the 15th and early 16th century. Often their real importance was very different from their rank, on the one hand, sinecures and supernumerary appointments allowed enjoying benefits without performing full service. On the other hand, having the ear of the master can allow one to act as a confidant in a capacity, or in some cases. Sometimes used in the meaning the supporters or followers of a medieval knight. Druzhina in Rus Manrent, a Scottish clan bond Svita This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
18.
Conquistador
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Conquistadors /kɒŋˈkɪstəˌdɔːrz/ is a term used to refer to the soldiers and explorers of the Spanish Empire or the Portuguese Empire in a general sense. During the Age of Discovery, conquistadors sailed beyond Europe to the Americas, Oceania, Africa and Asia, conquering territory and they colonized much of the world for Spain and Portugal in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Portugal established a route to China in the early 16th century, sending ships via the southern coast of Africa, human infections gained worldwide transmission vectors for the first time, from Africa and Eurasia to the Americas and vice versa. The spread of diseases, including smallpox, flu and typhus. In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered American ports, by the late 16th century silver imports from America provided one-fifth of Spains total budget. The conquistadors were professional warriors, using European tactics, firearms and their units would often specialize in forms of combat that required long periods of training that were too costly for informal groups. Their armies were composed of Iberian and other European soldiers. Native allied troops were largely equipped with armament and armour that varied geographically. Some groups consisted of men without military experience, Catholic clergy which helped with administrative duties. These native forces often included African slaves and Native Americans and they not only fought in the battlefield but served as interpreters, informants, servants, teachers, physicians, and scribes. India Catalina and Malintzin were Native American women slaves who worked for the Spaniards, Castilian law prohibited foreigners and non-Catholics from settling in the New World. However, not all conquistadors were Castilian, many foreigners Hispanicised their names and/or converted to Catholicism to serve the Castilian Crown. For example, Ioánnis Fokás was a Castilian of Greek origin who discovered the strait that bears his name between Vancouver Island and Washington State in 1592, german-born Nikolaus Federmann, Hispanicised as Nicolás de Federmán, was a conquistador in Venezuela and Colombia. The origin of people in mixed expeditions was not always distinguished. Castilian law banned Spanish women from travelling to America unless they were married and accompanied by a husband, women who travelled thus include María de Escobar, María Estrada, Marina Vélez de Ortega, Marina de la Caballería, Francisca de Valenzuela, Catalina de Salazar. Some conquistadors married Native American women or had illegitimate children, European young men enlisted in the army because it was one way out of poverty. Catholic priests instructed the soldiers in mathematics, writing, theology, Latin, Greek, and history, Kings army officers taught military arts. An uneducated young recruit could become a leader, elected by their fellow professional soldiers
19.
Battle of Ollantaytambo
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The Battle of Ollantaytambo took place in January 1537, between the forces of Inca emperor Manco Inca and a Spanish expedition led by Hernando Pizarro during the Spanish conquest of Peru. A former ally of the Spaniards, Manco Inca rebelled in May 1536, to end the stand-off, the besieged mounted a raid against the emperors headquarters in the town of Ollantaytambo. The expedition, commanded by Hernando Pizarro, included 100 Spaniards, in any case, the Inca army managed to hold the Spanish forces from a set of high terraces and flood their position to hinder their cavalry. Severely pressed and unable to advance, the Spaniards withdrew by night to Cusco, in 1531, a group of Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro landed on the shores of the Inca Empire, thus starting the Spanish conquest of Peru. At that time the empire was emerging from a war in which Atahualpa had defeated his brother Huascar to claim the title of Sapa Inca. Atahualpa underestimated the strength of the force of Spaniards and was captured during an ambush at Cajamarca in November 1532. Pizarro ordered the execution of the emperor in July 1533, to replace Atahualpa, Pizarro installed his brother Túpac Huallpa as a puppet ruler, but he died shortly afterwards. Another brother, Manco Inca, was crowned in his place, for a while, Manco Inca and the conquistadors maintained cordial relations, together they defeated Atahualpas generals and reestablished Inca rule over most of the empire. However, Manco came to realize that real authority rested in Spanish hands when his house was looted with impunity by a Spaniard mob in 1535. Following this episode, the Inca emperor was subject to constant harassment as the Spaniards demanded gold, took away his wives, in response, he fled his capital to start an uprising. In May 1536, an Inca army besieged Cusco, which was garrisoned by a group of Spaniards, the conquistadors were hard pressed but they managed to resist and counterattack, storming the main Inca stronghold at Sacsayhuaman. Primary sources about the battle of Ollantaytambo were written mainly by Spaniards, pedro Pizarro, a cousin of Francisco Pizarro, was part of the expedition against Manco Incas headquarters. Years later he wrote down his recollections of these and other events in a chronicle called Relación del descubrimiento y conquista de los reinos del Perú, completed in 1571. Herrera was the Cronista Mayor de las Indias of the Spanish Crown and despite writing in Madrid, had access to many documents and sources. On the Inca side, the written account of the battle is included in the Relación de la conquista del Perú y hechos del Inca Manco II written in 1570 by Titu Cusi Yupanqui. Manco Inca had gathered more than 30,000 troops at Ollantaytambo, among them, Manco Incas forces were a militia army made up mostly of conscripted farmers with only rudimentary weapons training. This was the fare in the Inca Empire, where military service was a duty for all married men between 25 and 50 years old. In combat, these soldiers were organized according to their group and led into battle by their native leaders
20.
Neo-Inca State
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The Neo-Inca State, also known as the Neo-Inca state of Vilcabamba, was the Inca state established by Inca emperor Huayna Capacs son Manco Inca Yupanqui in Vilcabamba in 1537. It is considered the remnants of the Inca Empire after the Spanish conquest and it lasted until 1572, when the last Inca stronghold was conquered, and the last ruler, Túpac Amaru, Mancos son, was captured and executed. This ended resistance to the Spanish conquest under the authority of the Inca state. During the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, Túpac Huallpa was a puppet ruler crowned by the conquistador Francisco Pizarro, after his death, Manco Inca Yupanqui joined Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro in Cajamarca. When Pizarros force arrived in Cusco, he had the caciques acknowledge Manco as their Inca, Manco Inca then joined Almagro and Hernando de Soto in pursuit of Quizquiz. The Pizarro brothers so mistreated Manco Inca that he tried to escape in 1535. He failed, was captured and imprisoned, Hernando Pizarro released him to recover a golden statue of his father Huayana Capac. Only accompanied by two Spaniards, he escaped a second time. Manco then gathered an army of 100,000 Inca warriors and laid siege to Cusco in early 1536, after ten months, Manco retreated to the nearby fortress of Ollantaytambo in 1537. Here Manco repelled attacks by the Spaniards in the Battle of Ollantaytambo, Manco coordinated his siege of Cusco with one on Lima, led by one of his captains, Quiso Yupanqui. The Incans were able to defeat four relief expeditions sent by Francisco Pizarro from Lima and this resulted in the death of nearly 500 Spanish soldiers. Some Spaniards were captured and sent to Ollantaytambo, however, with the Spaniards position consolidated by Almagros reinforcements, Manco Inca decided that Ollantaytambo was too close to Cusco to be tenable so he withdrew further west. Abandoning Ollantaytambo, Manco Inca retreated to Vitcos and finally to the jungles of Vilcabamba. At Vilcabamba the state known as the Neo-Inca State was established by Manco, from there, he continued his attacks against the Wankas, having some success after fierce battles, and to the highlands of present-day Bolivia, where after many battles his army was defeated. They in turn were all killed by Mancos soldiers, Manco was succeeded by his son Sayri Tupaq. He was five years old at the time and he became Inca in Vilcabamba, reigning for ten years with the aid of regents. This was a time of peace with the Spanish, viceroy Pedro de la Gasca offered to provide Sayri Túpac with lands and houses in Cuzco if he would emerge from the isolated Vilcabamba. Sayri Túpac accepted, but during the preparations his relative Paullu Inca suddenly died and this was taken as a bad omen, and Sayri Tupac remained in Vilcabamba
21.
Encomienda
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The encomienda was a labor system, rewarding conquerors with the labor of particular groups of people. It was first established in Spain during the Roman period, and it was applied on a much larger scale during the Spanish colonization of the Americas and the Philippines. Conquered peoples were considered vassals of the Spanish monarch and the award of an encomienda was a grant from the crown to a particular individual. In the encomienda, the Spanish crown granted a person a specified number of natives from a community, with the indigenous leaders in charge of mobilizing the assessed tribute. In return, the natives would provide tributes in the form of metals, maize, wheat, in the first decade of Spanish presence in the Caribbean, Spaniards divided up the natives, who in some cases were worked relentlessly. With the ouster of Christopher Columbus, the Spanish crown sent a governor, Fray Nicolás de Ovando. In many cases natives were forced to do hard labor and subjected to extreme punishment, however, Queen Isabella of Castile had forbidden Indian slavery and deemed the indigenous free vassals of the crown, allowing many natives and Spaniards to appeal to the Real Audiencias. In the former Inca Empire, for example, the system continued the Incaic traditions of extracting tribute in the form of labor, the heart of encomienda and encomendero lies in the Spanish verb encomendar, to entrust. The encomienda was based on the Reconquista institution in which adelantados were given the right to extract tribute from Muslims or other peasants in areas that they had conquered and resettled. The encomienda system in Spanish America differed from the Peninsular institution in that encomenderos did not own the land on which the natives lived, the system did not entail any direct land tenure by the encomendero, Indian lands were to remain in the possession of their communities. This right was protected by the crown of Castile because the rights of administration in the New World belonged to this crown. The first grantees of the encomienda or encomenderos were usually conquerors who received grants of labor by virtue of participation in a successful conquest. Later, some receiving encomiendas in New Spain were not conquerors themselves but were well connected that they received grants. He designated as pobladores antiguos, a group of undetermined number of encomenderos in New Spain, holders of encomiendas also included women and indigenous notables. The daughter of Doña Marina and conqueror Juan Jaramillo, Doña Maria Jaramillo, two of Moctezumas daughters, Doña Isabel Moctezuma and her younger sister, Doña Leonor Moctezuma, were granted extensive encomiendas in perpetuity by Hernan Cortes. Doña Leonor Moctezuma married in succession two Spaniards, and left the encomiendas to her daughter by her second husband, vassal Inca rulers established after the conquest also sought and were granted encomiendas. Indeed, the settler-conquistadors knew the fury of the aroused Indian lords, voyagers, explorers, initially, the encomienda system was devised to meet the needs of the early agricultural economies in the Caribbean. Later it was adopted to the economy of Peru and Upper Peru
22.
Clements Markham
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Sir Clements Robert Markham KCB FRS was an English geographer, explorer, and writer. He was secretary of the Royal Geographical Society between 1863 and 1888, and later served as the Societys president for a further 12 years. In the latter capacity he was responsible for organising the National Antarctic Expedition of 1901–04. Markham began his career as a Royal Naval cadet and midshipman, later, Markham served as a geographer to the India Office, and was responsible for the collection of cinchona plants from their native Peruvian forests, and their transplantation in India. By this means the Indian government acquired a home source from which quinine could be extracted, Markham also served as geographer to Sir Robert Napiers Abyssinian expeditionary force, and was present in 1868 at the fall of Magdala. The main achievement of Markhams RGS presidency was the revival at the end of the 19th century of British interest in Antarctic exploration, after a 50-year interval. He had strong and determined ideas about how the National Antarctic Expedition should be organised, to do this he overcame hostility and opposition from much of the scientific community. In the years following the expedition he continued to champion Scotts career, all his life Markham was a constant traveller and a prolific writer, his works including histories, travel accounts and biographies. He authored many papers and reports for the RGS, and did editing and translation work for the Hakluyt Society. Among the geographical features bearing his name is Antarcticas Mount Markham, Markham was born on 20 July 1830 at Stillingfleet, Yorkshire, the second son of the Reverend David Markham, then vicar of Stillingfleet. Markhams mother Catherine, née Milner, was the daughter of Sir William Milner, Bt. of Nun Appleton Hall, in 1838 David Markham was appointed rector of Great Horkesley, near Colchester, Essex. A year later Clement began his schooling, first at Cheam, reportedly an apt pupil, he showed particular interest in geology and astronomy, and from an early age he wrote prolifically, an activity which filled much of his spare time. At Westminster, which he found a wonderful and delightful place, he developed a particular interest in boating, in May 1844 Markham was introduced by his aunt, the Countess of Mansfield, to Rear-Admiral Sir George Seymour, a Lord of the Admiralty. The boy made an impression on the admiral, and the meeting led to the offer of a cadetship in the Royal Navy. Accordingly, on 28 June 1844 Markham travelled to Portsmouth to join Seymours flagship HMS Collingwood, Collingwood was being fitted out for an extended voyage to the Pacific Ocean where Seymour was to assume command of the Pacific station. This tour of duty lasted for almost four years, Markhams social connections assured him of a relatively comfortable time, he was frequently invited to dine with the admiral, whose wife and daughters were on board. On 25 June 1846 Markham passed the examination for midshipman, being placed third in a group of ten, the long periods spent in Chilean and Peruvian ports had also enabled him to learn Spanish. Towards the end of the voyage Markham experienced growing doubts about a naval career, he now desired above all to be an explorer
23.
E. G. Squier
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Ephraim George Squier, usually cited as E. G. Squier, was an American archaeologist and newspaper editor. Squier was born in Bethlehem, New York, the son of a minister of English heritage, in early youth he worked on a farm, attended and taught school, studied engineering, and became interested in American antiquities. The Panic of 1837 made an engineering career unfeasible, so he pursued literature and he was associated in the publication of the New York State Mechanic at Albany 1841-1842. In 1843-1848, he engaged in journalism in Hartford, Connecticut and then edited the Chillicothe, Ohio, during this period, Squier collaborated with physician Edwin H. Davis on the book, Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, which was issued in 1848. The work was a landmark in American scientific research, the study of the prehistoric Mound Builders of North America, the book was the first volume of the Smithsonian Institutions Contributions to Knowledge series and the Institutions first publication. Squier and Daviss collection of ancient Mound objects is now kept at the British Museum and he was appointed special chargé daffaires to all the Central American states in 1849, and negotiated treaties with Nicaragua, Honduras, and San Salvador. In 1853 he made a visit to Central America to examine a line for a projected interoceanic railroad. In 1856 he received the medal of the French Geographical Society for his researches, in 1858, he married Miriam Florence Folline who had recently had a previous marriage annulled. About 1860, he became editor-in-chief for Frank Leslies publishing house, in 1863 Squier was appointed U. S. commissioner to Peru, where he made an exhaustive investigation of Inca remains and took numerous photographs of them. He later gave a series of 12 lectures on The Inca Empire for the Lowell Institute for their 1866-67 season, in 1868 he was appointed consul-general of Honduras at New York, and in 1871 he was elected the first president of the Anthropological Institute of New York. He conducted ethnological studies, especially in Nicaragua, Honduras and Peru, on returning from Peru, he continued working for Frank Leslie, but gave it up when his health failed. In 1873, his wife divorced him, and married Leslie a year later and he was a member of numerous historical, archaeological, and scientific societies. He died in Brooklyn, New York, Ephraim George Squier and the Development of American Anthropology. Stiebing, William H. Jr. Ancient Astronauts, Cosmic Collisions, works written by or about Ephraim George Squier at Wikisource
24.
Charles Wiener
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Charles Wiener was an Austrian-French scientist-explorer. Born in Vienna, he is perhaps best known as the explorer who traveled extensively in Peru, climbed the Illimani and his first intellectual stirrings were in the area of linguistics, since he published a small work on this subject in 1873. Later, he was a teacher of German in Paris, according to Kim MacQuarrie, Wiener, in his exploration, would travel from Ollantaytambo up over the Panticalla Pass until he arrived at the Urubamba River at the bridge crossing of Chuquichaca. In a book he published in 1880, Wiener wrote of how locals in Ollantaytambo had told him about, make a detailed map of the Urubamba Valley, on which he included two peaks and marked them with the names Matchopicchu and Huyanapicchu. The map was published in Paris by the Societe de Geographie in 1877
25.
Hiram Bingham III
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Hiram Bingham III was an American academic, explorer and politician. He made public the existence of the Inca citadel of Machu Picchu in 1911 with the guidance of local indigenous farmers, later, Bingham served as a member of the United States Senate for the state of Connecticut. Bingham was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, the son of Clara Brewster and Hiram Bingham II, an early Protestant missionary to the Kingdom of Hawaii and he attended Oahu College, now known as Punahou School in Hawaii from 1882 to 1892. He went to the United States in his teens in order to complete his education, entering Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts and he earned a B. A. D. from Harvard University in 1905. Since Harvard at the time did not have a specialist in Latin American history, while at Yale, Bingham was a member of Acacia Fraternity. He taught history and politics at Harvard and then served as preceptor under Woodrow Wilson at Princeton University, Bingham has been considered one of the pioneers of teaching and research on Latin American history in the U. S. S. as well as in South America. From 1924, he was a member of the Acorn Club, Bingham was not a trained archaeologist. Yet, it was during Binghams time as a lecturer – later professor – in South American history at Yale that he re-discovered the largely forgotten Inca city of Machu Picchu, in 1908, he had served as delegate to the First Pan American Scientific Congress at Santiago, Chile. On his way home via Peru, a local prefect convinced him to visit the city of Choquequirao. Bingham published an account of this trip in Across South America, an account of a journey from Buenos Aires to Lima by way of Potosí, with notes on Brazil, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. Bingham was thrilled by the prospect of unexplored Inca cities, and he in fact, guided by locals, rediscovered and correctly identified both Vitcos and Vilcabamba, which he named Eromboni Pampa. However, he did not correctly recognize Vilcabamba as the last capital, instead continuing onward, on July 24,1911, Melchor Arteaga led Bingham to Machu Picchu, which had been largely forgotten by everybody except the small number of people living in the immediate valley. Also the Cusco explorers Enrique Palma, Gabino Sanchez and Agustín Lizarraga are said to have arrived at the site in 1901, Bingham returned to Peru in 1912,1914 and 1915 with the support of Yale and the National Geographic Society. In The Lost City of the Incas, Bingham related how he came to believe that Machu Picchu housed a religious shrine. Modern archaeological research has determined that the site was not a religious center but a royal estate to which Inca leaders. The switchback-filled road that carries tourist buses to the site from the Urubamba River is called the Hiram Bingham Highway, Bingham has been cited as one possible basis for the Indiana Jones character. His book Lost City of the Incas became a bestseller upon its publication in 1948, Peru has long sought the return of the estimated 40,000 artifacts, including mummies, ceramics and bones, that Bingham had excavated and exported from the Machu Picchu site. On September 14,2007, an agreement was made between Yale University and the Peruvian government for the return of the objects, on April 12,2008, the Peruvian government stated that it had revised previous estimates of 4,000 pieces up to 40,000
26.
Urubamba River
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The Urubamba River or Vilcamayo River is a river in Peru. Upstream it is called Vilcanota River, within the La Convención Province the naming changes to Urubamba. A partially navigable headwater of the Amazon River, it rises in the Andes to the southeast of Cuzco and it originates on the slopes of Khunurana in the Puno Region, Melgar Province, near the La Raya pass. It flows north-north-west for 724 kilometers before coalescing with the Tambo River to form the Ucayali River, John Walter Gregory, the British geologist, drowned in the river on June 2,1932 while on a geological expedition to the Andes. The Urubamba is divided into Upper Urubamba and Lower Urubamba, the feature being the Pongo de Mainique. The Upper Urubamba valley features a high population and extensive irrigation works, a number of ruins of the Inca Empire lie in the Sacred Valley, including the Incan city of Machu Picchu, Patallaqta, Pikillaqta and Raqchi. The Lower Urubamba is relatively undeveloped and features a significant indigenous population consisting of the Campa tribes, principally the Machiguenga, the economy is based on forestry and the nearby Camisea Gas Project. The main settlement in the region is the town of Sepahua,1934 first mapping The lower Urubamba River was mapped for the first time in 1934 by Edward Kellog Strong III. He and two friends from Palo Alto, California, Art Post and Gain Allan John, navigated the river with its ferocious rapids by canoe, the mapping was done at the request of the Peruvian military when they heard of the expedition planned by the three 18-year-olds. It was turned over to the military when the arrived in Iquitos. It was the map of the river until it was mapped by satellite many years later. The names and places on the latest map came from the map drawn by Edward Strong. Teresa or Salcantay Sacsara Luqumayu Vilcabamba Chawpimayu Pampaconas San Miguel Comportayoc Concevidayoc Cosireni Sacred Valley
27.
Machu Picchu
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Machu Picchu is a 15th-century Inca citadel situated on a mountain ridge 2,430 metres above sea level. It is located in the Cusco Region, Urubamba Province, Machupicchu District in Peru, above the Sacred Valley, most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was built as an estate for the Inca emperor Pachacuti. Often mistakenly referred to as the Lost City of the Incas, the Incas built the estate around 1450 but abandoned it a century later at the time of the Spanish Conquest. Machu Picchu was built in the classical Inca style, with polished dry-stone walls and its three primary structures are the Inti Watana, the Temple of the Sun, and the Room of the Three Windows. Most of the buildings have been reconstructed in order to give tourists a better idea of how they originally appeared. By 1976, thirty percent of Machu Picchu had been restored, Machu Picchu was declared a Peruvian Historical Sanctuary in 1981 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. In 2007, Machu Picchu was voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in a worldwide Internet poll. In the Quechua language, machu means old or old person, while picchu means peak, mountain or prominence with a base that ends in sharp peaks. Machu Picchu was built around 1450, at the height of the Inca and its construction appears to date to the period of the two great Inca rulers, Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui and Túpac Inca Yupanqui. It was abandoned just over 100 years later, in 1572 and it is possible that most of its inhabitants died from smallpox introduced by travellers before the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area. Although it was located only about 80 kilometers from the Inca capital in Cusco, the conquistadors had notes of a place called Piccho, although no record of a Spanish visit exists. The types of sacred rocks defaced by the conquistadors in other locations are untouched at Machu Picchu, over the centuries, the surrounding jungle overgrew the site, and few outside the immediate area knew of its existence. The site may have discovered and plundered in 1867 by a German businessman. Some evidence indicates that German engineer J. M. von Hassel arrived earlier, maps show references to Machu Picchu as early as 1874. In 1911 American historian and explorer Hiram Bingham travelled the region looking for the old Inca capital and was shown to Machu Picchu by a local farmer, Bingham brought Machu Picchu to international attention and organized another expedition in 1912 to undertake major clearing and excavation. He returned in 1914 and 1915 to continue with excavation, in 1981, Peru declared an area of 325.92 square kilometres surrounding Machu Picchu a Historical Sanctuary. In addition to the ruins, the sanctuary includes a portion of the adjoining region, rich with the flora and fauna of the Peruvian Yungas. In 1983, UNESCO designated Machu Picchu a World Heritage Site, describing it as a masterpiece of architecture
28.
Orthogonality
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The concept of orthogonality has been broadly generalized in mathematics, as well as in areas such as chemistry, and engineering. The word comes from the Greek ὀρθός, meaning upright, and γωνία, the ancient Greek ὀρθογώνιον orthogōnion and classical Latin orthogonium originally denoted a rectangle. Later, they came to mean a right triangle, in the 12th century, the post-classical Latin word orthogonalis came to mean a right angle or something related to a right angle. In geometry, two Euclidean vectors are orthogonal if they are perpendicular, i. e. they form a right angle, two vectors, x and y, in an inner product space, V, are orthogonal if their inner product ⟨ x, y ⟩ is zero. This relationship is denoted x ⊥ y, two vector subspaces, A and B, of an inner product space, V, are called orthogonal subspaces if each vector in A is orthogonal to each vector in B. The largest subspace of V that is orthogonal to a subspace is its orthogonal complement. Given a module M and its dual M∗, an element m′ of M∗, two sets S′ ⊆ M∗ and S ⊆ M are orthogonal if each element of S′ is orthogonal to each element of S. A term rewriting system is said to be if it is left-linear and is non-ambiguous. Orthogonal term rewriting systems are confluent, a set of vectors in an inner product space is called pairwise orthogonal if each pairing of them is orthogonal. Such a set is called an orthogonal set, nonzero pairwise orthogonal vectors are always linearly independent. In certain cases, the normal is used to mean orthogonal. For example, the y-axis is normal to the curve y = x2 at the origin, however, normal may also refer to the magnitude of a vector. In particular, a set is called if it is an orthogonal set of unit vectors. As a result, use of the normal to mean orthogonal is often avoided. The word normal also has a different meaning in probability and statistics, a vector space with a bilinear form generalizes the case of an inner product. When the bilinear form applied to two results in zero, then they are orthogonal. The case of a pseudo-Euclidean plane uses the term hyperbolic orthogonality, in the diagram, axes x′ and t′ are hyperbolic-orthogonal for any given ϕ. In 2-D or higher-dimensional Euclidean space, two vectors are orthogonal if and only if their dot product is zero, i. e. they make an angle of 90°, hence orthogonality of vectors is an extension of the concept of perpendicular vectors into higher-dimensional spaces
29.
Grid plan
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The grid plan, grid street plan or gridiron plan is a type of city plan in which streets run at right angles to each other, forming a grid. In the context of the culture of ancient Rome, the grid method of land measurement was called centuriation. The grid plan dates from antiquity and originated in multiple cultures, by 2600 BC, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, were built with blocks divided by a grid of straight streets, running north-south and east-west. Each block was subdivided by small lanes, the cities and monasteries of Gandhara, dating from the 1st millennium BC to the 11th century AD, also had grid-based designs. Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan since 1959, was founded on the grid-plan of the nearby ruined city of Sirkap. A workers village at Giza, Egypt, housed a rotating labor force and was out in blocks of long galleries separated by streets in a formal grid. Many pyramid-cult cities used a common orientation, an axis from the royal palace. Hammurabi was a king of the Babylonian Empire who made Babylon one of the greatest cities in antiquity and he rebuilt Babylon, building and restoring temples, city walls and public buildings, and building canals for irrigation. The streets of Babylon were wide and straight, intersected approximately at right angles, the tradition of grid plans is continuous in China from the 15th century BC onward in the traditional urban planning of various ancient Chinese states. Guidelines put into form in the Kaogongji during the Spring and Autumn period stated. Three gates on each side of the lead into the nine main streets that crisscross the city. Teotihuacan, near modern-day Mexico City, is the largest ancient grid-plan site in the Americas, the citys grid covered eight square miles. Perhaps the most well-known grid system is spread through the colonies of the Roman Empire. The archetypal Roman Grid was introduced to Italy first by the Greeks, with such information transferred by way of trade, although the idea of the grid was present in Hellenic societal and city planning, it was not pervasive prior to the 5th century BC. However, it slowly gained primacy through the work of Hippodamus of Miletus, the concept of a grid as the ideal method of town planning had become widely accepted by the time of Alexander the Great. His conquests were a step in the propagation of the grid plan throughout colonies, some as far-flung as Taxila in Pakistan, that would later be mirrored by the expansion of the Roman Empire. The Greek grid had its streets aligned roughly in relation to the points and generally looked to take advantage of visual cues based on the hilly landscape typical of Greece. The Etruscan people, whose territories in Italy encompassed what would eventually become Rome and it was based on Greek Ionic ideas, and it was here that the main east-west and north-south axes of a town could first be seen in Italy
30.
Adobe
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Adobe is a building material made from earth and often organic material. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world, modern methods of construction allow the pouring of whole adobe walls that are reinforced with steel. In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass, cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the 1976 Guatemala earthquake, the 2003 Bam earthquake and the 2010 Chile earthquake. Puebloan peoples built their structures with handfuls or basketfuls of adobe. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages and its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics. A distinction is made between the smaller adobes, which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger adobines. The word adobe /əˈdoʊbiː/ has existed for around 4000 years with little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the Middle Egyptian word ɟbt mudbrick, Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian, Demotic or pre-Coptic, and finally to Coptic, where it appeared as τωωβε tōʾpə. This was borrowed into Arabic as الطوب aṭ-ṭawbu or aṭ-ṭūbu, with the definite article al- attached, tuba, English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century. In more modern English usage, the adobe has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America. An adobe brick is a material made of earth mixed with water. The soil composition typically contains sand, silt and clay, straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles 50 to 250 mm with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight, no more than half the clay content should be expansive clays with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the resulting in cracking. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where construction is in use, are an adequate composition. Adobe walls are bearing, i. e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure
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Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
32.
Inca Civil War
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The war followed Huayna Capacs death in 1527, although it did not begin until 1529, and lasted until 1532. Huáscar initiated the war because he saw himself as the heir to the kingdom of all the Incas. Accounts from sources all vary in the exact details, in 1524-1526, the Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro explored South America. There were 62 horsemen and 106 foot soldiers, smallpox was taken to the continent, causing disaster for the Incas. Sapa Inca Huayna Capac travelled north to investigate the strangers, although he never met any Spaniards, he contracted smallpox and died in 1524. His eldest son and heir, Ninan Cuyochi, died soon after him, thus it became uncertain as to who should be the next Inca king. There were no rules of succession. The choice stood between two sons of Huayna Capac, Huáscar, and Atahualpa, born of different mothers and he was the eldest pure Inca, because his parents, Huayna Capac and Chincha Ocllo, were siblings. Huascar was ill tempered, suspicious and disrespectful of the laws, Atahualpas mother, Paccha, was born outside the royal family and was merely the daughter of Cacha Shyri Duchicela, the former leader against the Incan conquest in the north. He was much liked in the North, as he was good tempered and carried himself with royal dignity and he allegedly had cunning and early wisdom. Nobles considered Atahualpa illegitimate and Huáscar felt it an insult that a bastard was even considered for Sapa Inca, Huáscar eventually became king, but he felt that Atahualpa should not have any more land and that he should pay homage to him. Soon after Huascar claimed the throne, he expected all subjects to swear him allegiance, to announce his loyalty, Atahualpa sent his most trusted captains to Cuzco, along with generous gifts of gold and silver. Accusing him of rebellion, he ordered some of his messengers killed, Atahualpa declared war against his brother. Just before the Spaniards arrived in Cajamarca, Atahualpa had sent troops to Cusco to capture Huáscar, Huáscar gathered his soldiers in preparation for attack. After getting stunned by his brother, Huascar proclaimed him a traitor, people loyal to Atahualpa created a new capital in Quito, so they could follow their preferred ruler and gain favor within the government. Atahualpa agreed to take the role of Sapa Inca in this new capital. At this news, Huáscar and his army moved north in an attack at Tumebamba. The local Cañari supported the attack, in order to expel the nearest source of power, while the army celebrated, they got drunk and allowed a woman in to meet Atahualpa
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Terrace (agriculture)
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This type of landscaping, therefore, is called terracing. Graduated terrace steps are used to farm on hilly or mountainous terrain. Terraced fields decrease both erosion and surface runoff, and may be used to growing crops that require irrigation. The Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras have been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site because of the significance of this technique, terraced paddy fields are used widely in rice, wheat and barley farming in east, south, and southeast Asia, as well as other places. In the South American Andes, farmers have used terraces, known as andenes, for over a years to farm potatoes, maize. Terraced farming was developed by the Wari and other peoples of the south-central Andes before 1000 AD, centuries before they were used by the Inca, the terraces were built to make the most efficient use of shallow soil and to enable irrigation of crops. The Inca built on these, developing a system of canals, aqueducts and these terraced farms are found wherever mountain villages have existed in the Andes. They provided the necessary to support the populations of great Inca cities. Terracing is also used for sloping terrain, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon may have built on an artificial mountain with stepped terraces. At the seaside Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, the gardens of Julius Caesars father-in-law were designed in terraces to give pleasant. Terraced fields are common in islands with steep slopes, the Canary Islands present a complex system of terraces covering the landscape from the coastal irrigated plantations to the dry fields in the highlands. These terraces, which are named cadenas, are built with walls of skillful design. In Old English, a terrace was also called a lynch, an example of an ancient Lynch Mill is in Lyme Regis. The water is directed from a river by a duct along a terrace and this set-up was used in steep hilly areas in the UK. Anden Banaue Rice Terraces Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras Satoyama Terrace garden Terrace Fields around the World
34.
Solar radiation
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Solar irradiance is the power per unit area received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of the measuring instrument. Irradiance may be measured in space or at the Earths surface after atmospheric absorption and it is measured perpendicular to the incoming sunlight. Total solar irradiance, is a measure of the power over all wavelengths per unit area incident on the Earths upper atmosphere. The solar constant is a measure of mean TSI at a distance of one astronomical Unit. Irradiance is a function of distance from the Sun, the solar cycle, Irradiance on Earth is also measured perpendicular to the incoming sunlight. Insolation is the received on Earth per unit area on a horizontal surface. It depends on the height of the Sun above the horizon, the solar irradiance integrated over time is called solar irradiation, solar exposure or insolation. However, insolation is often used interchangeably with irradiance in practice, the SI unit of irradiance is watt per square meter. An alternate unit of measure is the Langley per unit time, the solar energy industry uses watt-hour per square metre per unit time, the relation to the SI unit is thus 1 kW/m2 =24 kWh/m2/day =8760 kWh/m2/year. Irradiance can also be expressed in Suns, where one Sun equals 1000 W/m2 at the point of arrival, part of the radiation reaching an object is absorbed and the remainder reflected. Usually the absorbed radiation is converted to energy, increasing the objects temperature. Manmade or natural systems, however, can convert part of the radiation into another form such as electricity or chemical bonds. The proportion of reflected radiation is the objects reflectivity or albedo, insolation onto a surface is largest when the surface directly faces the sun. As the angle between the surface and the Sun moves from normal, the insolation is reduced in proportion to the angles cosine, see effect of sun angle on climate. In the figure, the angle shown is between the ground and the rather than between the vertical direction and the sunbeam, hence the sine rather than the cosine is appropriate. A sunbeam one mile wide arrives from directly overhead, and another at a 30° angle to the horizontal, the sine of a 30° angle is 1/2, whereas the sine of a 90° angle is 1. Therefore, the angled sunbeam spreads the light over twice the area, consequently, half as much light falls on each square mile. This projection effect is the reason why Earths polar regions are much colder than equatorial regions
35.
Microclimate
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A microclimate is a local set of atmospheric conditions that differ from those in the surrounding areas, often with a slight difference but sometimes with a substantial one. The term may refer to areas as small as a few meters or square feet or as large as many square kilometers or square miles. Microclimates can be found in most places, another contributing factor of microclimate is the slope or aspect of an area. The terminology micro-climate first appeared in the 1950s in publications such as Climates in Miniature, microclimates can be used to the advantage of gardeners who carefully choose and position their plants. Cities often raise the temperature by zoning, and a sheltered position can reduce the severity of winter. Roof gardening, however, exposes plants to more extreme temperatures in summer and winter. Tall buildings create their own microclimate, both by overshadowing large areas and by channeling strong winds to ground level, wind effects around tall buildings are assessed as part of a microclimate study. Microclimates can also refer to environments, such as those in a room or other enclosure. Microclimates are commonly created and carefully maintained in museum display and storage environments and this can be done using passive methods, such as silica gel, or with active microclimate control devices. Usually, if the areas have a humid continental climate. The type of soil found in an area can also affect microclimates, for example, soils heavy in clay can act like pavement, moderating the near ground temperature. On the other hand, if soil has many air pockets, then the heat could be trapped underneath the topsoil, two main parameters to define a microclimate within a certain area are temperature and humidity. A source of a drop in temperature and/or humidity can be attributed to different sources or influences, often microclimate is shaped by a conglomerate of different influences and is a subject of microscale meteorology. The well known examples of cold air pool effect are Gstettneralm Sinkhole in Austria, the presence of permafrost close to the surface in a crater creates a unique microclimate environment. As similar as lava tubes can be to caves which are not formed due to volcanic activity the microclimate within the former is different due to dominant presence of basalt, lava tubes and basaltic caves are important astrobiological targets on Earth and Mars. Artificial reservoirs as well as natural ones create microclimates and often influence the climate as well. Northern California above the Bay Area is also known for microclimates with significant differences of temperatures. Even as far north as the Klamath River valley around the 41st parallel north between Willow Creek and Eureka averages such temperatures, which is hot for such northerly areas
36.
Inca architecture
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Incan architecture is the most significant pre-Columbian architecture in South America. The Incas inherited a legacy from Tiwanaku, founded in the 2nd century BCE in present-day Bolivia. The capital of the Inca empire, Cuzco, still contains many examples of Inca architecture. The famous royal estate of Machu Picchu is an example of Inca architecture. Other significant sites include Saksaywaman and Ollantaytambo, the Incas also developed an extensive road system spanning most of the western length of the continent. Inca buildings were made out of fieldstones or semi-worked stone blocks and dirt set in mortar, adobe walls were quite common. The material used in Inca buildings depended on the region, for instance, the most common shape in Inca architecture was the rectangular building without any internal walls and roofed with wooden beams and thatch. There were several variations of basic design, including gabled roofs. Rectangular buildings were used for different functions in almost all Inca buildings. Even so, there are examples of curved walls on Inca buildings. Two-story buildings were infrequent, when they were built the second floor was accessed from the outside via a stairway or high terrain rather than from the first floor. Wall apertures, including doors, niches and windows, usually had a trapezoidal shape, other kinds of decoration were scarce, some walls were painted or adorned with metal plaques, in rare cases walls were sculpted with small animals or geometric patterns. The most common form in Inca architecture was the kancha. A testimony of the importance of these compounds in Inca architecture is that the part of the Inca capital of Cusco consisted of large kancha, including Qurikancha. The best preserved examples of kancha are found at Ollantaytambo, an Inca settlement located along the Urubamba River, Inca architecture is widely known for its fine masonry, which features precisely cut and shaped stones closely fitted without mortar. However, despite this fame, most Inca buildings were made out of fieldstone. In the 1940s, American archaeologist John H. Rowe classified Inca fine masonry in two types, coursed, which features rectangular shaped stones, and polygonal, which blocks of irregular shape. In addition to references, they also identified some formal similarities between Tiwanaku and Inca architecture including the use of cut and polished stone blocks, as well as of double jambs
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Qullqa
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A qullqa (Quechua pronunciation, deposit, storehouse, was a storage building found along roads and near the cities and political centers of the Inca Empire. The uncertainty of agriculture at the high altitudes which comprised most of the Inca Empire was among the factors which probably stimulated the construction of large numbers of qullqas. The pre-Columbian Andean civilizations, of which the Inca Empire was the last, the heartland of the empire and much of its arable land was at elevations between 3,000 metres to more than 4,000 metres and subject to frost, hail, and drought. Tropical crops could not be grown in the growing seasons. The people at higher elevations grew potatoes, quinoa and a few other root, herding llamas and alpacas for meat, wool, and as beasts of burden was important. Storage facilities were necessary because the Incas did not have navigable rivers, wheeled vehicles, or draft animals, except llamas. Nor did the Incas have a monetary, financial, or trading system to facilitate commerce. Thus, food and other items were stored near where they were produced and distributed by the State when necessary, large numbers of qullqas were constructed near every major governmental center, state-owned farm, temple, and royal estate. Qullqas were built at every tambo, which were located a days march, about 22 kilometres. Another use for the items, especially food, was for the ceremonial feasts that were an important part of the relationship between the rulers and their subjects. Food was also distributed to the populace in cases of crop failures or shortages of food. The products stored in qullqas varied from region to region in the Inca Empire depending upon production in the local area. At Wanuku Pampa in north central Peru, a major Inca administrative and storage area,50 to 80 percent of the qullqas were used to store dried potatoes and other root crops. Only 5 to 7 percent of qullqas were devoted to the storage of maize, probably because the high altitudes, root crops were layered with straw and baled for storage. Maize was shelled and stored in large jars, additional agriculture products stored in qullqas consisted of quinoa, beans, other vegetables, dried meat (Charki or jerky, and seeds. Non-agricultural goods stored included textiles and clothing, wool, cotton, the economy of the Inca Empire was to a large extent redistributive. The Inca state seems to have financed itself primarily through direct managerial command of land, labor, and storage systems, rather than through a market exchange system. Under the mita system, citizens were required to labor to the Empire and the resultant production of food, textiles
Peru
Ollantaytambo travel guide from Wikivoyage