1.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
2.
Gustave Le Gray
–
Gustave Le Gray was born in 1820 in Villiers-le-Bel, Val-dOise. He was originally trained as a painter, studying under François-Édouard Picot and he even exhibited at the salon in 1848 and 1853. He then crossed over to photography in the years of its development. He made his first daguerreotypes by 1847 and his early photographs included portraits, scenes of nature such as Fontainebleau Forest, and buildings such as châteaux of the Loire Valley. He taught photography to students such as Charles Nègre, Henri Le Secq, Nadar, Olympe Aguado, in 1851 he became one of the first five photographers hired for the Missions Héliographiques to document French monuments and buildings. In that same year he helped found the Société Héliographique, the first photographic organization in the world, Le Gray published a treatise on photography, which went through four editions, in 1850,1851,1852, and 1854. In 1855 Le Gray opened a lavishly furnished studio, at that time, becoming progressively the official photographer of Napoleon III, he became a successful portraitist. His most famous work dates from period,1856 to 1858. The studio was a place, but in spite of his artistic success, his business was a financial failure. He therefore closed his studio, abandoned his wife and children and he began to tour the Mediterranean in 1860 with the writer Alexandre Dumas, père. They crossed the path of Giuseppe Garibaldi, and Dumas enthusiastically joined the forces with his fellow travelers. His striking pictures of Giuseppe Garibaldi and Palermo under Sicilian bombing became as famous throughout Europe as their subjects. Dumas abandoned Le Gray and the travellers in Malta as a result of a conflict about a woman. Le Gray went to Lebanon, then Syria where he covered the movements of the French army for a magazine in 1861, injured, he remained there before heading to Egypt. In Alexandria he photogaphed Henri dArtois and the future Edward VII of the United Kingdom and he established himself in Cairo in 1864, he remained there about 20 years, earning a modest living as a professor of drawing, while retaining a small photography shop. He sent pictures to the exhibition in 1867 but they did not really catch anyones attention. He received commissions from the vice-king Ismail Pasha, from this late period there remain a mere 50 pictures, some of them as beautiful as ever. He probably died on July 30,1884, in Cairo and his technical innovations included, Improvements on paper negatives, specifically waxing them before exposure making the paper more receptive to fine detail
3.
Carte de visite
–
The carte de visite, abbreviated CdV, was a type of small photograph which was patented in Paris by photographer André Adolphe Eugène Disdéri in 1854, although first used by Louis Dodero. It was usually made of a print, which was a thin paper photograph mounted on a thicker paper card. The size of a carte de visite is 54.0 mm ×89 mm mounted on a card sized 64 mm ×100 mm, in 1854, Disdéri had also patented a method of taking eight separate negatives on a single plate, which reduced production costs. The Carte de Visite was slow to gain widespread use until 1859 and this made the format an overnight success. The new invention was so popular it was known as cardomania and it spread throughout Europe and then quickly to America, each photograph was the size of a visiting card, and such photograph cards were traded among friends and visitors. Albums for the collection and display of cards became a fixture in Victorian parlors. The immense popularity of these card photographs led to the publication and collection of photographs of prominent persons. By the early 1870s, cartes de visite were supplanted by cabinet cards, which were also usually albumen prints, cabinet cards remained popular into the early 20th century, when Kodak introduced the Brownie camera and home snapshot photography became a mass phenomenon. The carte de visite photograph proved to be a popular item during the American Civil War. Soldiers, friends and family members would have a means of obtaining photographs. Photos of Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, and other celebrities of the era became an instant hit in the North, people were not only buying photographs of themselves, but also collecting photographs of celebrities. Cabinet card Postcard Business card Gernsheim, Helmut, dr. Robert Leggat MA M. Ed Ph. D. The history of photograph Silkenat, David, a Typical Negro, Gordon, Peter, Vincent Coyler, and the Story Behind Slaverys Most Famous Photograph. Available on Wisconsin Historical Images, the Wisconsin Historical Societys online image database, also included are 64 photographs attributed to Mathew Brady. Southern Cartes de Visite Collection, A. S, williams III American Collection, Division of Special Collections, University of Alabama Libraries. Over 3300 digitized cartes-de-visite, the majority of them from southern studios, the Carte de Visite file at the New-York Historical Society Cartes de Visite of California photographers at Beinecke Library
4.
Joseph Bonaparte
–
Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte was a French diplomat and nobleman, the elder brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, who made him King of Naples and Sicily, and later King of Spain. After the fall of Napoleon, Joseph styled himself Comte de Survilliers, Joseph was born in 1768 to Carlo Buonaparte and Maria Letizia Ramolino at Corte, the capital of the Corsican Republic. In the year of his birth, Corsica was invaded by France and his father was originally a follower of the Corsican Patriot leader, Pasquale Paoli, but later became a supporter of French rule. As a lawyer, politician, and diplomat, Joseph served in the Cinq-Cents and was the French ambassador to Rome, in 1795 Joseph was a member of the Council of Ancients, where he used his position to help his brother overthrow the Directory four years later. The Château de Villandry had been seized by the French Revolutionary government, in 1806, Joseph was given military command of Naples, and shortly afterward was made king by Napoleon, to be replaced two years later by his sisters husband, Joachim Murat. Joseph was then made King of Spain in August 1808, soon after the French invasion, Joseph somewhat reluctantly left Naples, where he was popular, and arrived in Spain where he was extremely unpopular. His arrival sparked the legitimate Spanish revolt against French rule, Joseph temporarily retreated with much of the French Army to northern Spain. Joseph and his supporters never established complete control over the country, King Josephs Spanish supporters were called josefinos or afrancesados. During his reign, he ended the Spanish Inquisition, partly because Napoleon was at odds with Pope Pius VII at the time, during Josephs rule of Spain, Mexico and Venezuela declared independence from Spain. King Joseph abdicated and returned to France after the main French forces were defeated by a British-led coalition at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. He was seen by Bonapartists as the rightful Emperor of the French after the death of Napoleons own son Napoleon II in 1832, Josephs home was located near the confluence of Crosswicks Creek and the Delaware River. He considerably expanded Sayres home and created extensive gardens in the picturesque style, when his first home was destroyed by fire in January 1820 he converted his stables into a second grand house. At Point Breeze, Joseph entertained many of the leading intellectuals, reputedly some Mexican revolutionaries offered to crown him Emperor of Mexico in 1820, but he declined. Joseph Bonaparte returned to Europe, where he died in Florence, Italy and he married Marie Julie Clary daughter of François Clary on 1 August 1794 in Cuges-les-Pins, France. They had three daughters, Julie Joséphine Bonaparte, zénaïde Laetitia Julie Bonaparte, married, in 1822 to Charles Lucien Bonaparte. Charlotte Napoléone Bonaparte, married, in 1826 to Napoleon Louis Bonaparte and he claimed the two surviving daughters as his heirs. He also sired two children with Maria Giulia, the Countess of Atri, Giulio Teresa, Joseph had two American daughters born at Point Breeze, his estate in Bordentown, New Jersey, by his mistress, Annette Savage, Pauline Anne, died young. He was asked by his brother Napoleon to monitor freemasonry as Grand Master of the Grand Orient of France, with Cambacérès he managed the post-revolution rebirth of the Order in France
5.
Peninsular War
–
The Peninsular War was a military conflict between Napoleons empire and the allied powers of Spain, Britain and Portugal, for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war started when French and Spanish armies invaded and occupied Portugal in 1807, the Peninsular War overlaps with what the Spanish-speaking world calls the Guerra de la Independencia Española, which began with the Dos de Mayo Uprising on 2 May 1808 and ended on 17 April 1814. The French occupation destroyed the Spanish administration, which fragmented into quarrelling provincial juntas, the British Army, under the then Lt. Gen. Arthur Wellesley, guarded Portugal and campaigned against the French in Spain alongside the reformed Portuguese army. The demoralised Portuguese army was reorganised and refitted under the command of Gen, in the following year Wellington scored a decisive victory over King Josephs army at Vitoria. The years of fighting in Spain were a burden on Frances Grande Armée. The Spanish armies were beaten and driven to the peripheries. This drain on French resources led Napoleon, who had provoked a total war. War and revolution against Napoleons occupation led to the Spanish Constitution of 1812, the burden of war destroyed the social and economic fabric of Portugal and Spain, and ushered in an era of social turbulence, political instability and economic stagnation. Devastating civil wars between liberal and absolutist factions, led by officers trained in the Peninsular War, persisted in Iberia until 1850. The cumulative crises and disruptions of invasion, revolution and restoration led to the independence of most of Spains American colonies, the Treaties of Tilsit, negotiated during a meeting in July 1807 between Emperors Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon, concluded the War of the Fourth Coalition. With Prussia shattered, and Russia allied with France, Napoleon expressed irritation that Portugal was open to trade with the United Kingdom, furthermore, Prince John of Braganza, regent for his insane mother Queen Maria I, had declined to join the emperors Continental System against British trade. After a few days, a large force started concentrating at Bayonne, meanwhile the Portuguese governments resolve was stiffening, and shortly afterward Napoleon was once again told that Portugal would not go beyond its original agreements. After he received the Portuguese answer, he ordered Junots corps to cross the frontier into Spain, while all this was going on, the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau had been signed between France and Spain. The document was drawn up by Napoleons marshal of the palace Géraud Duroc and Eugenio Izquierdo, the treaty proposed to carve up Portugal into three entities. Porto and the part was to become the Kingdom of Northern Lusitania. The southern portion, as the Principality of the Algarves, would fall to Godoy, the rump of the country, centered on Lisbon, was to be administered by the French. According to the Treaty of Fontainebleau, Junots invasion force was to be supported by 25,500 men in three Spanish columns, Gen. Taranco and 6,500 troops were ordered to march from Vigo to seize Porto in the north. Capt. Gen. Solano would advance from Badajoz with 9,500 soldiers to capture Elvas, Gen. Caraffa and 9,500 men were instructed to assemble at Salamanca and Ciudad Rodrigo, and cooperate with Junots main force
6.
Ferdinand VII of Spain
–
Ferdinand VII was twice King of Spain, in 1808 and again from 1813 to his death. He was known to his supporters as the Desired and to his detractors as the Felon King and he reestablished the absolutist monarchy and rejected the liberal constitution of 1812. He suppressed the liberal press 1814-33 and jailed many of its editors and writers, under his rule, Spain lost nearly all of its American possessions, and the country entered into civil war on his death. His reputation among historians is very low, historian Stanley Payne says, He proved in many ways the basest king in Spanish history. Cowardly, selfish, grasping, suspicious, and vengeful, seemed almost incapable of any perception of the commonwealth and he thought only in terms of his power and security and was unmoved by the enormous sacrifices of Spanish people to retain their independence and preserve his throne. Ferdinand was ostensibly the eldest surviving child of Charles IV of Spain, Ferdinand was born in the palace of El Escorial near Madrid. The Queens confessor Fray Juan Almaraz wrote in his last will that she admitted in articulo mortis that none, none of her sons and daughters, none was of the legitimate marriage. In his youth Ferdinand occupied the position of an heir apparent who was excluded from all share in government by his parents and their advisor and Prime Minister. National discontent with the government produced a rebellion in 1805, in October 1807, Ferdinand was arrested for his complicity in the El Escorial Conspiracy in which the rebels aimed at securing foreign support from the French Emperor Napoleon. When the conspiracy was discovered, Ferdinand submitted to his parents, following a popular riot at Aranjuez Charles IV abdicated in March 1808. Ferdinand ascended the throne and turned to Napoleon for support and he abdicated on 6 May 1808. Napoleon kept Ferdinand under guard in France for six years at the Chateau of Valençay, while the upper echelons of the Spanish government accepted his abdication and Napoleons choice of his brother Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain, the Spanish people did not. Uprisings broke out throughout the country, marking the beginning of the Peninsular War, provincial juntas were established to control regions in opposition to the new French king. After the Battle of Bailén proved that the Spanish could resist the French, on 24 August, Ferdinand VII was proclaimed king of Spain again, and negotiations between the Council and the provincial juntas for the establishment of a Supreme Central Junta were completed. Subsequently, on 14 January 1809, the British government acknowledged Ferdinand VII as king of Spain, the Spanish people, blaming the policies of the Francophiles for causing the Napoleonic occupation and the Peninsular War by allying Spain too closely to France, at first welcomed Fernando. Ferdinand soon found that in the years a new world had been born of foreign invasion. In his name Spain fought for its independence and in his name as well juntas had governed Spanish America, Spain was no longer the absolute monarchy he had relinquished six years earlier. Instead he was now asked to rule under the liberal Constitution of 1812, before being allowed to enter Spanish soil, Ferdinand had to guarantee the liberals that he would govern on the basis of the Constitution, but, only gave lukewarm indications he would do so
7.
Guadalquivir Marshes
–
The Guadalquivir Marshes are a natural region of marshy lowlands on the lower Guadalquivir River. The Las Marismas zone forms a part of the province of Seville in Andalucia. The area includes parts of the municipalities of Isla Mayor, Los Palacios y Villafranca, La Puebla del Río, Utrera, Las Cabezas de San Juan and Lebrija. Approximately two millennia ago the wetlands comprised a large lagoon and estuary, known as Lacus Ligustinus in Latin, over time the lake silted up, gradually transforming into marshland. Nowadays the Guadalquivir wetland regions main economic activity is agriculture, specialising in the cultivation of rice, an area of about 400 km² is devoted to rice farming with an annual output of about 310,000 metric tonnes, equating to approximately 40% of Spains rice production. The wetland zone acts as a zone between the human settlements of the Guadalquivir region and Doñana National Park, a protected area of marshland, streams. Gulf of Cádiz Sanlúcar de Barrameda Coto de Doñana Sanlúcar Central Bureau for Tourism
8.
Daguerreotype
–
Daguerreotype process, or daguerreotypy, was the first publicly available photographic process, and for nearly twenty years it was the one most commonly used. During the past few decades, there has been a revival of daguerreotypy among photographers interested in making artistic use of early photographic processes. The darkest areas of the image are simply bare silver, lighter areas have a microscopically fine light-scattering texture, the surface is very delicate, and even the lightest wiping can permanently scuff it. Some tarnish around the edges is normal, the name daguerreotype correctly refers only to one very specific image type and medium, the product of a process that was in wide use only from the early 1840s to the late 1850s. Since the Renaissance era, artists and inventors had searched for a method of capturing visual scenes. Later, with the advent of Modernism, the absence of perspective in art from China, Japan. To copy these images was the first object of Mr. Daguerre met with Niépce, Niépce had invented an early internal combustion engine together with his brother Claude and made improvements to the velocipede, as well as experimenting with lithography and related processes. Their correspondence reveals that Niépce was at first reluctant to any details of his work with photographic images. To guard against letting any secrets out before the invention had been improved,15, for example, signified the tanning action of the sun on human skin,34 - a camera obscura,74 - sulphuric acid. Niépce undertook to release details of the process he had invented - the asphalt process or heliography, Daguerre was sworn to secrecy under penalty of damages, and undertook to design a camera and improve the process. The improved process was named the physautotype. Niépces early experiments had derived from his interest in lithography, the asphalt process, or heliography required exposures that were so long that Arago said it was not fit for use. Nevertheless, without Niépces experiments, it is unlikely that Daguerre would have been able to build on them to adapt, after Niépces death in 1833, his son, Isidore, inherited rights in the contract and a new version was drawn up between Daguerre and Isidore. It would bear Daguerres name alone and this was the daguerreotype process that used iodized silvered plates and was developed with mercury fumes. To exploit the invention four hundred shares would be on offer for a thousand francs each, or, the rights of the process could be bought for twenty thousand francs. Everyone says it is superb, but it will cost us the thousand francs before we learn it and be able to judge if it could remain secret. M. de Mandelot himself knows several persons who could subscribe but will not do so because they think it would be revealed by itself, and now I have proof that many think in this way. I entirely agree with the idea of M. Arago, that is get the government to purchase this discovery, nevertheless, he benefited from the state pension awarded to him together with Daguerre
9.
Collodion process
–
The collodion process is an early photographic process. Collodion is normally used in its wet form, but can also be used in humid or dry form, the latter made the dry form unsuitable for the usual portraiture work of most professional photographers of the 19th century. The use of the dry form was mostly confined to landscape photography. The collodion process is said to have invented in 1851, almost simultaneously, by Frederick Scott Archer. During the subsequent decades, many photographers and experimenters refined or varied the process, by the end of the 1850s it had almost entirely replaced the first practical photographic process, the daguerreotype. During the 1880s the collodion process, was replaced by gelatin dry plates—glass plates with a photographic emulsion of silver halides suspended in gelatin. The dry gelatin emulsion was not only convenient, but it could also be made much more sensitive. The wet plate collodion process has undergone a revival as a historical technique over the past few decades, there are several practising ambrotypists and tintypists who regularly set up and make images at Civil War re-enactments. Fine art photographers use the process and its handcrafted individuality for gallery showings, there are several makers of reproduction equipment. The process is taught in workshops around the world and several workbooks, many artists work with collodion around the globe, including traveling photographer Craig Murphy, Kurt Grüng, Sally Mann, and Ben Cauchi. The collodion process produced an image on a transparent support. The collodion process, thus combined desirable qualities of the calotype process, collodion printing was typically done on albumen paper. The collodion process had other advantages, especially in comparison with the daguerreotype and it was a relatively inexpensive process. The polishing equipment and fuming equipment needed for the daguerreotype could be dispensed with entirely, the support for the images was glass, which was far less expensive than silver-plated copper, and was more durable than paper negatives. It was also fast for the time, requiring only seconds for exposure, the wet collodion process had a major disadvantage. The entire process, from coating to developing, had to be done before the plate dried and this gave the photographer no more than 10 minutes to complete everything. This made it inconvenient for use, as it required a portable darkroom. The plate dripped silver nitrate solution, causing stains and troublesome build-ups in the camera, the silver nitrate bath was also a source of problems
10.
Camille Silvy
–
Camille-Léon-Louis Silvy was a French photographer, primarily active in London. He learned photography from his friend, Count Olympe Aguado, in 1857 and he then moved to London and opened a portrait studio at 38 Porchester Terrace, Bayswater, becoming a member of the Photographic Society in 1859. Sitters in Silvys portraits include Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge, Queen Emma of Hawaii, Lady Amberley, Harriet Martineau, Adelina Patti and he also photographed many members of the British royal family. The National Portrait Gallery, London, holds his studios daybooks and he closed his studio and returned to France in 1868. He himself believed that his nervous system had been damaged by exposure to cyanide in the darkroom. The last thirty years of his life were spent in a succession of hospitals, sanatoria, review of National Portrait Gallery exhibition by Richard Dorment, Camille Silvy, Photographer of Modern Life at the National Portrait Gallery, The Daily Telegraph,19 July 2010
11.
Napoleon III
–
Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was the only President of the French Second Republic and, as Napoleon III, the Emperor of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I and he was the first President of France to be elected by a direct popular vote. He remains the longest-serving French head of state since the French Revolution, during the first years of the Empire, Napoleons government imposed censorship and harsh repressive measures against his opponents. Some six thousand were imprisoned or sent to penal colonies until 1859, thousands more went into voluntary exile abroad, including Victor Hugo. From 1862 onwards, he relaxed government censorship, and his came to be known as the Liberal Empire. Many of his opponents returned to France and became members of the National Assembly, Napoleon III is best known today for his grand reconstruction of Paris, carried out by his prefect of the Seine, Baron Haussmann. He launched similar public works projects in Marseille, Lyon, Napoleon III modernized the French banking system, greatly expanded and consolidated the French railway system, and made the French merchant marine the second largest in the world. He promoted the building of the Suez Canal and established modern agriculture, Napoleon III negotiated the 1860 Cobden–Chevalier free trade agreement with Britain and similar agreements with Frances other European trading partners. Social reforms included giving French workers the right to strike and the right to organize, womens education greatly expanded, as did the list of required subjects in public schools. In foreign policy, Napoleon III aimed to reassert French influence in Europe and he was a supporter of popular sovereignty and of nationalism. In Europe, he allied with Britain and defeated Russia in the Crimean War and his regime assisted Italian unification and, in doing so, annexed Savoy and the County of Nice to France, at the same time, his forces defended the Papal States against annexation by Italy. Napoleon doubled the area of the French overseas empire in Asia, the Pacific, on the other hand, his armys intervention in Mexico which aimed to create a Second Mexican Empire under French protection ended in failure. Beginning in 1866, Napoleon had to face the power of Prussia. In July 1870, Napoleon entered the Franco-Prussian War without allies, the French army was rapidly defeated and Napoleon III was captured at the Battle of Sedan. The French Third Republic was proclaimed in Paris, and Napoleon went into exile in England, charles-Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, later known as Louis Napoleon and then Napoleon III, was born in Paris on the night of 20–21 April 1808. His presumed father was Louis Bonaparte, the brother of Napoleon Bonaparte. His mother was Hortense de Beauharnais, the daughter by the first marriage of Napoleons wife Joséphine de Beauharnais, as empress, Joséphine proposed the marriage as a way to produce an heir for the Emperor, who agreed, as Joséphine was by then infertile. Louis married Hortense when he was twenty-four and she was nineteen and they had a difficult relationship, and only lived together for brief periods
12.
Salt print
–
The salt print was the dominant paper-based photographic process for producing positive prints during the period from 1839 through approximately 1860. The salted paper technique was created in the mid-1830s by English scientist and this produced a tenacious coating of silver chloride in an especially light-sensitive chemical condition. The paper darkened where it was exposed to light, in 1839, washing with a solution of sodium thiosulfate was found to be the most effective way to make the results truly light-fast. The salt print process is often confused with Talbots slightly later calotype or talbotype process and this made calotype paper far more practical for use in a camera. Salted paper typically required at least an hour of exposure in the camera to yield a negative showing much more than objects silhouetted against the sky
13.
Albumen print
–
During the mid-19th century, the carte de visite became one of the more popular uses of the albumen method. In the 19th century, E. & H. T. Anthony & Company were the largest makers and distributors of the Albumen photographic prints, a piece of paper, usually 100% cotton, is coated with an emulsion of egg white and salt, then dried. The albumen seals the paper and creates a slightly glossy surface for the sensitizer to rest on, the paper is then dipped in a solution of silver nitrate and water which renders the surface sensitive to UV light. The paper is then dried in the absence of UV light, the dried, prepared paper is placed in a frame in direct contact under a negative. The negative is traditionally a glass negative with collodion emulsion, but this step can be performed with a silver halide negative. The paper with negative is then exposed to light until the image achieves the level of darkness. Though direct sunlight was used long ago, a UV exposure unit is often used contemporarily because it is more predictable, a bath of sodium thiosulfate fixes the print’s exposure, preventing further darkening. Optional gold or selenium toning improves the photograph’s tone and stabilizes against fading, depending on the toner, toning may be performed before or after fixing the print. Because the image emerges as a result of exposure to light, without the aid of a developing solution. The table salt in the emulsion forms silver chloride when in contact with silver nitrate. Silver chloride is unstable when exposed to light, which makes it decompose into silver, the silver ion is reduced to silver by addition of an electron during the development/printing process, and the remaining silver chloride is washed out during fixing. The black parts of the image are formed by metallic silver, photography, the importance of its applications in preserving pictorial records. Containing a practical description of the Talbotype process, george Eastman House Photographic Process 3. Albumen printing, Creating and processing albumen paper, archived from the original on 2009-01-07
14.
J. Paul Getty Museum
–
The J. Paul Getty Museum, commonly referred to as the Getty, is an art museum in California housed on two campuses, the Getty Center and Getty Villa. The Getty Center is in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles and is the location of the museum. The collection features Western art from the Middle Ages to the present and its estimated 1.3 million visitors annually make it one of the most visited museums in the United States. The museums second location, the Getty Villa, is in the Pacific Palisades neighborhood and displays art from ancient Greece, Rome, and Etruria. In 1974, J. Paul Getty opened a museum in a re-creation of the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum on his property in Pacific Palisades, in 1982, the museum became the richest in the world when it inherited US$1.2 billion. In 1997, the moved to its current location in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles. Detailed information about the J. Paul Getty Museum’s collections is provided on GettyGuide, at the GettyGuide stations in the Museum, visitors can get information about exhibitions, interact with a timeline, watch videos on art-making techniques, and more. Also available at the Museum, the GettyGuide multimedia player features commentary from curators and conservators on many works of art, with GettyGuide on the Web, one may browse the Museum’s collection and bookmark works of art to create a customized tour and printable map. In 1984, Frel was demoted, and in 1986, he resigned, the Getty is involved in a controversy regarding proper title to some of the artwork in its collection. The museums previous curator of antiquities, Marion True, was indicted in Italy in 2005 on criminal charges relating to trafficking in stolen antiquities, similar charges have been addressed by the Greek authorities. The primary evidence in the case came from the 1995 raid of a Geneva, Switzerland, in 2005 True was forced to tender her resignation by the Board of Trustees, which announced her early retirement. Italy allowed the statute of limitations of the charges filed against her to expire in October 2010, True is currently under investigation by Greek authorities over the acquisition of a 2, 500-year-old funerary wreath. The wreath, along with a 6th-century BC statue of a woman, have returned to Greece and are exhibited at the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki. The Getty Museum resisted the requests of the Italian government for two decades, only to admit later that there might be problems attached to the acquisition. In 2006, Italian senior cultural official Giuseppe Proietti said, The negotiations havent made a step forward. Only after he suggested the Italian government to take cultural sanctions against the Getty, suspending all cultural cooperation, in another unrelated case in 1999, the Getty Museum had to hand over three antiquities to Italy after determining they were stolen. A Summary Catalogue of European Decorative Arts in the J. Paul Getty Museum was published in 2001, indeed, some discrete works are provided with annotations, e. g. In 2016, the head of the Greek god Hades was returned to Sicily
15.
Strasbourg Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art
–
The Musée dArt Moderne et Contemporain de Strasbourg is an art museum in Strasbourg, France, which was founded in 1973 and opened in its own building in November 1998. It owns a total of 18,000 works, numerous exhibitions are organized annually, showing either the works of a particular artist or a retrospective of an artistic genre. The art library of the museums, the art book shop of the municipal museums. The spacious roof terrace accommodates a museum cafe, the municipal collection of modern and contemporary art of the city of Strasbourg has been constantly enlarged and enriched since 1871 and the founding of the Reichsland Alsace-Lorraine. There had already been plans to erect an independent museum since the 1960s, the building was constructed on the left bank of the Ill River from 1995 until 1998. It was designed by the Parisian architect Adrien Fainsilber, who had designed the Cité des Sciences et de lIndustrie in the French capital. A horse sculpture, Hortus conclusus, by the Italian artist Mimmo Paladino is placed on the museums roof and it is also served by its own tramway stop on the Strasbourg tramway. A further accent is set by contemporary German painters, who give a glimpse of an art genre which is otherwise rarely seen in France. The artistic video collection has works of Bill Viola, Nam June Paik, Woody Vasulka, Olaf Breuning and many others.391 artists as of 19 June 2016
16.
Antoine Samuel Adam-Salomon
–
Antoine Samuel Adam-Salomon was a French sculptor and photographer. Antoine Samuel Adam-Salomon was born to a French Jewish family on 9 January 1818 in La Ferté-sous-Jouarre, Seine-et-Marne, following a brief career as a modeler for the Jacob Petit pottery factory in Fontainebleau, he received a scholarship to study sculpture in Paris. He also traveled for studies to Switzerland and England and his notable sculptures include busts of Victor Cousin, Odilon Barrot, Pierre-Jean de Béranger, Alphonse de Lamartine, Gioachino Rossini, and Marie Antoinette. After becoming established as a sculptor, Adam-Salomon studied photography under the portraitist Franz Hanfstaengl in Munich in 1858 and he became a leading portrait photographer. Adam-Salomon returned to Paris where he opened a studio in 1859. In 1870 Adam-Salomon was made a member of the Société française de photographie, adam-Salomons portrait photographs were considered to be among the best existing works during his lifetime, and were renowned for their chiaroscuro produced by special lighting techniques. The photography of Adam-Salomon played a role in the mainstream acceptance of photography as an art form. For example, in 1858 the poet Alphonse de Lamartine described photography as this chance invention which will never be art, a short time later, after seeing the photographs by Adam-Solomon, Lamartine changed his opinion. Coverage of Salomons work in the French press outnumbered that of Félix Nadar by a ratio of ten to one, after the Paris Exposition of 1867, the reviewer for The Times described Salomons pictures matchless, beyond praise, the finest photographic portraits in the world. New Edition of the Complete Works, buerger, Janet E. International Museum of Photography at George Eastman House, eds. CS1 maint, Uses editors parameter Hannavy, John, downcast eyes, the denigration of vision in twentieth-century French thought. The British Journal of Photography Almanac, waters, Clara Erskine Clement, Hutton, Laurence. Artists of the century and their works, A handbook containing two thousand and fifty biographical sketches. New York, New York, Funk & Wagnalls
17.
Arthur Batut
–
Arthur Batut was a French photographer and pioneer of aerial photography. Batut, born 1846 in Castres, was interested in history, archeology and his book on kite aerial photography appeared in 1890 and contained an aerial photograph taken in 1889 from a kite over Labruguière, where he spent most his life until he died there in 1918. It is believed that in 1887 or 1888 he was the first to use this method successfully, at the time, kite aerial photography had potential applications for aerial reconnaissance, but also for agriculture and archeology. The first aerial photographs had been taken by Nadar from a balloon in 1858, the use of unmanned kites promised obvious advantages in a military setting. Inspired by Francis Galton, he also produced composite photographs combining portraits of people onto one plate. La photographie appliquée à la production du type dune famille, dune tribu ou dune race, site devoted to Batut Batut Museum page
18.
Hippolyte Bayard
–
Hippolyte Bayard was a French photographer and pioneer in the history of photography. He invented his own known as direct positive printing and presented the worlds first public exhibition of photographs on 24 June 1839. He claimed to have invented photography earlier than Louis-Jacques Mandé Daguerre in France and William Henry Fox Talbot in England, Bayard experimented with the new medium taking photos of plant speciments, statuary, street scenes, urban landscapes, architectural photos, and portraits. He photographed prominent figures and an ordinary worker and he also advocated combination printing and was one of the founders of a photo society. While working as a servant, Bayard experimented with photography. He developed his own method of producing photos called the direct positive process and it involved exposing silver chloride paper to light, which turned the paper completely black. It was then soaked in potassium iodide before being exposed in a camera, after the exposure, it was washed in a bath of hyposulfite of soda and dried. The resulting image was a photograph that could not be reproduced. Due to the poor light sensitivity, an exposure of approximately twelve minutes was required. Using this method of photography, still subject matter, such as buildings, were favoured. When used for photographing people, sitters were told to close their eyes so as to eliminate the eerie, Bayard was persuaded to postpone announcing his process to the French Academy of Sciences by François Arago, a friend of Louis Daguerre, who invented the rival daguerreotype process. Aragos conflict of interest cost Bayard the recognition as one of the inventors of photography. He eventually gave details of the process to the French Academy of Sciences on 24 February 1840 in return for money to buy better equipment. As a reaction to the injustice he felt he had subjected to, Bayard created the first staged photograph entitled. In the image, he pretends to have committed suicide, sitting and leaning to the right. Bayard wrote on the back of his most notable photograph, The corpse which you see here is that of M. Bayard, as far as I know this indefatigable experimenter has been occupied for about three years with his discovery. The Government which has only too generous to Monsieur Daguerre, has said it can do nothing for Monsieur Bayard. Oh the vagaries of human life and he has been at the morgue for several days, and no-one has recognized or claimed him
19.
Auguste-Rosalie Bisson
–
Auguste-Rosalie Bisson was a French photographer, active from 1841 to the year of his death,1900. He was born and died in Paris and was the son of the painter, Louis-François Bisson. He was the first person to take pictures from the summit of Mont Blanc, while making this expedition, he took 25 porters to carry his equipment. Bisson, Auguste-Rosalie, LC Control Number no 99059153, cited 7 February 2006 Union List of Artists Names, Bisson, Auguste-Rosalie, cited 7 February 2006 Media related to Auguste-Rosalie Bisson at Wikimedia Commons
20.
Louis-Auguste Bisson
–
Louis-Auguste Bisson was a 19th-century French photographer. Bisson opened a studio in early 1841. Soon after, his brother Auguste-Rosalie Bisson entered into partnership with him and their studio was in the La Madeleine in Paris, and they became famous as the Bisson Brothers. In 1860 they accompanied Napoleon III on his visit to Savoy, the pair produced remarkable images of the local scenery. Having received a response to his work, the following year Auguste ascended Mont Blanc. One of the most famous works attributed to this artist is his photograph of composer Frédéric Chopin, the origin of the portrait has never been adequately explained and, subsequently, the image was excluded from the Les frères Bisson Photographes exhibition at the Bibliothèque Nationale in 1999. Media related to Louis-Auguste Bisson at Wikimedia Commons
21.
Bruno Braquehais
–
Auguste Bruno Braquehais was a French photographer active primarily in Paris in the mid-19th century. His photographic work documenting the 1871 Paris Commune is considered an important early example of photojournalism, Braquehais was born in Dieppe, Seine-Maritime, in 1823. Deaf from an age, he attended the Institut royal des sourds et muets in Paris. He worked as a lithographer in Caen until 1850, when he met photographer Alexis Gouin, Gouin specialized in colored daguerreotypes and stereoscopic plates. In 1852, Braquehais opened his own studio on the rue de Richelieu in Paris, following the death of Gouin in 1855, he managed Gouins studio with Gouins widow and stepdaughter. In 1863, after the death of Gouins widow, Braquehais opened a new studio, Paris Photography, Braquehaiss work was exhibited at the Société française de photographie in 1864 and at the Paris Universal Exposition of 1867. In March 1871, a group of disenchanted soldiers, workers and this was one of the first major events in France to be covered by photographers. Braquehais published 109 of his photographs in a booklet, Paris During the Commune, after the fall of the Commune, government authorities used Braquehaiss photos to track down and arrest the Communes supporters. In the years after the Paris Commune, Braquehais struggled financially, by early 1874, he was bankrupt, and was jailed for 13 months for loss of confidence. He died in February 1875, a few days after his release, Braquehaiss early photographs consist primarily of portraits and female nudes, many of which were colored by his wife, Laure. Art critics have pointed out many of Braquehaiss photographs of female nudes are cluttered with distracting objects. Notable portraits by Braquehais include composer Ludwig Minkus and choreographer Arthur Saint-Léon, Braquehaiss 109 photographs of the Paris Commune document the Commune at its height and after its fall. Braquehaiss photographs have been exhibited by the Musée dOrsay, the Musée dArt et dHistoire at St. Bruno Braquehais – Luminous-Lint
22.
Adolphe Braun
–
Adolphe Braun was a French photographer, best known for his floral still lifes, Parisian street scenes, and grand Alpine landscapes. One of the most influential French photographers of the 19th century, in his later years, he used photographic techniques to reproduce famous works of art, which helped advance the field of art history. Braun was born in Besançon in 1812, the eldest child of Samuel Braun, a police officer, when he was about 10, his family relocated to Mulhouse, a textile manufacturing center in the Alsace region along the Franco-German border. He showed promise as a draftsman, and was sent to Paris in 1828 to study decorative design, after several unsuccessful design ventures in the 1830s, he published a successful collection of floral designs in 1842. In 1843, Braun sold his Paris studio and moved back to Mulhouse, where he became chief designer in the studio of Dollfus-Ausset, in 1847, he opened his own studio in Dornach, a suburb of Mulhouse. In the early 1850s, Braun began photographing flowers to aid in the design of new floral patterns. Making use of the recently developed process, which allowed for print reproduction of the glass plates, he published over 300 of his photographs in an album, Fleurs photographiées. These photographs caught the attention of the Paris art community, in 1857, Braun formed a photography company, Braun et Cie, and with the help of his sons, Henri and Gaston, and several employees, set about taking photographs of the Alsatian countryside. These were published in 1859 in L’Alsace photographiée, and several were displayed at the 1859 Salon, by the 1860s, the Braun et Cie studio was operating in a factory-like manner, producing all of its own materials except paper. The studio created thousands of images of the Alpine regions of France, Germany, Switzerland. Braun also produced a number of panoramic images of the Alpine countryside, using the pantoscopic camera developed by English inventors John Johnson. In the mid-1860s, Braun invested in a new print method developed by English chemist Joseph Wilson Swan. In 1867, Braun used the new method to create a series of large-format hunting scenes entitled. This endeavor proved successful, and Braun focused primarily on art reproductions for the remainder of his career, after his death in 1877, his son, Gaston, continued operating Braun et Cie into the 20th century. Photography historian Naomi Rosenblum described Brauns work as representative of the relationship between art and commercialism in the mid-19th century, Brauns early photographs were primarily of flowers, originally taken to complement his work as a pattern designer. Subsequent photographs focused on Alpine landscapes, especially lake scenes, unlike many landscape photographers during this period, Braun liked to include people in his scenes. Photography historian Helmut Gernsheim suggested that Braun was one of the most skillful photographers of his era in rendering composition. While not known as a portraitist, he did portraits of several notable individuals, including Pope Pius IX, Franz Liszt
23.
Antoine Claudet
–
Antoine François Jean Claudet, was a French photographer and artist who produced daguerreotypes. He was born in La Croix-Rousse son of Claude Claudet, a merchant and Etiennette Julie Montagnat, was active in Great Britain. He was a student of Louis Daguerre and he headed a glass factory at Choisy-le-Roi together with Georges Bontemps and moved to England to promote the factory with a shop in High Holborn, London. Having acquired a share in L. J. M and he also invented the red dark-room light, and it was he who suggested the idea of using a series of photographs to create the illusion of movement. The idea of using painted backdrops is also attributed to him, from 1841 to 1851 he operated a studio on the roof of the Adelaide Gallery, behind St. Martins in the Fields church, London. He opened subsequent studios at the Colosseum in Regents Park and at 107 Regent Street and he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1853, and in 1858 he produced the stereomonoscope, in reply to a challenge from Sir David Brewster. In 1851 he moved his business to 107 Regent Street, where he established what he called a Temple to Photography. Claudet received many honours, among which was the appointment, in 1853, as Photographer-in-ordinary to Queen Victoria, sadly, less than a month after his death, his Temple to photography was burnt down, and most of his most valuable photographic treasures were lost. Claudet, A. LC Control Number nr 88000067, cited 10 February 2006 Union List of Artists Names, s. v
24.
Louis Daguerre
–
Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre was a French artist and photographer, recognized for his invention of the daguerreotype process of photography. He became known as one of the fathers of photography, though he is most famous for his contributions to photography, he was also an accomplished painter and a developer of the diorama theatre. Louis Daguerre was born in Cormeilles-en-Parisis, Val-dOise, France and he was apprenticed in architecture, theatre design, and panoramic painting to Pierre Prévost, the first French panorama painter. Exceedingly adept at his skill of theatrical illusion, he became a designer for the theatre, and later came to invent the diorama. In 1829, Daguerre partnered with Nicéphore Niépce, an inventor who had produced the worlds first heliograph in 1822, Niépce died suddenly in 1833, but Daguerre continued experimenting, and evolved the process which would subsequently be known as the daguerreotype. After efforts to interest private investors proved fruitless, Daguerre went public with his invention in 1839, under assurances of strict confidentiality, Daguerre explained and demonstrated the process only to the Academys perpetual secretary François Arago, who proved to be an invaluable advocate. Members of the Academy and other individuals were allowed to examine specimens at Daguerres studio. The images were enthusiastically praised as nearly miraculous, and news of the daguerreotype quickly spread, in 1839, he was elected to the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Academician. Daguerre died on 10 July 1851 in Bry-sur-Marne,12 km from Paris, a monument marks his grave there. Daguerres name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel tower, in the mid-1820s, prior to his association with Daguerre, Niépce used a coating of bitumen of Judea to make the first permanent camera photographs. The bitumen was hardened where it was exposed to light and the portion was then removed with a solvent. A camera exposure lasting for hours or days was required, Niépce and Daguerre later refined this process, but unacceptably long exposures were still needed. After the death of Niépce in 1833, Daguerre concentrated his attention on the properties of silver salts. The plate was exposed in the camera. Upon seeing the image, the contents of which are unknown, Daguerre said, the latent image on a daguerreotype plate was developed by subjecting it to the vapor given off by mercury heated to 75 °C. The resulting visible image was then fixed by removing the silver iodide with concentrated and heated salt water. Later, a solution of the more effective hypo was used instead, the resultant plate produced an exact reproduction of the scene. The image was laterally reversed—as images in mirrors are—unless a mirror or inverting prism was used during exposure to flip the image, daguerreotypes were usually portraits, the rarer landscape views and other unusual subjects are now much sought-after by collectors and sell for much higher prices than ordinary portraits
25.
Maxime Du Camp
–
Maxime Du Camp was a French writer and photographer. Born in Paris, Du Camp was the son of a successful surgeon, after finishing college, he indulged in his strong desire for travel, thanks to his fathers assets. Du Camp traveled in Europe and the East between 1844 and 1845, and again between 1849 and 1851 in company with Gustave Flaubert, after his return, Du Camp wrote about his traveling experiences. Flaubert also wrote about his experiences with Maxime, in 1851, Du Camp became a founder of the Revue de Paris, and a frequent contributor to the Revue des deux mondes. In 1853, he became an officer of the Legion of Honour, serving as a volunteer with Garibaldi in his 1860 conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Du Camp recounted his experiences in Expédition des deux Siciles. In 1870 he was nominated for the senate, but his election was frustrated by the downfall of the Empire. He was elected a member of the Académie française in 1880, mainly, it is said, on account of his history of the Commune, published under the title of Les Convulsions de Paris. Du Camp was an amateur photographer who learned the craft from Gustave Le Gray shortly prior to departing on his 1849–1859 trip to Egypt. His travel books were among the first to be illustrated with photographs, Maxime Du Camp died in 1894 and was buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre in the Montmartre Quarter of Paris. He published several works on social questions, one of which and his Souvenirs littéraires contain much information about contemporary writers, especially Gustave Flaubert, of whom Du Camp was an early and intimate friend. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Works by or about Maxime Du Camp at Internet Archive
26.
Louis Arthur Ducos du Hauron
–
Louis Arthur Ducos du Hauron was a French pioneer of color photography. He was born in Langon, Gironde and died in Agen, in 1868 he patented his ideas and in 1869 he published them in Les couleurs en photographie, solution du problème. The discovery of dye sensitization by Hermann Wilhelm Vogel in 1873 greatly facilitated the initial analysis on which all of Ducos de Haurons methods depended. The most widely reproduced of his color photographs is the View of Agen. In 1891, he introduced the anaglyph stereoscopic print, the red, colour Photography, The First Hundred Years, 1840-1940
27.
Joseph-Philibert Girault de Prangey
–
Joseph-Philibert Girault de Prangey was a French photographer and draughtsman who was active in the Middle East. His daguerreotypes are the earliest surviving photographs of Greece, Palestine, Egypt, Syria, remarkably, his photographs were only discovered in the 1920s in a storeroom of his estate and then only became known eighty years later. Girault de Prangey studied painting in Paris at the École des Beaux-Arts and in 1841 he learned daguerreotypy, after his return to France, Girault de Prangey made watercolour and pen-and-ink studies after his photographs and published a small-edition book of lithographs from them. He also made stereographs of his estate and the plants he collected. Girault de Prangey did not exhibit or otherwise make his photographs known during his lifetime, in May 2003 Sheik Saud Al-Thani of Qatar purchased a daguerreotype by Joseph-Philibert Girault de Prangey for a world-record price of £565,250 or $922,488. Girault de Prangey, LC Control Number no 97045139, vues de Suisse, de France et du Proche-Orient, Ed
28.
Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros
–
Jean-Baptiste-Louis Gros, also known as Baron Gros, was a French diplomat and later senator, as well as a notable pioneer of photography. He entered the French diplomatic service in 1823 and was given the title of baron in 1829 during the Bourbon Restoration and he served as Ambassador to London, travelling extensively, including to China and Japan in 1857 and 1858. He was minister-in-command of French troops during the Anglo-French expedition to China, in September 1858, he was named to the French Senate, where he served until his death in 1870. He produced many famous daguerrotypes — chief among them those of the Acropolis in Greece, while he is best known for his daguerrotypes, he painted a few Latin American landscape paintings which are quite striking for their realism. Baron Gros, a member of The Photographic Society, also photographed The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London, Baron Knight, Order of Santiago Grand-croix, Légion dhonneur France-Japan relations List of Ambassadors of France to the United Kingdom Media related to Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros at Wikimedia Commons
29.
Henri Le Secq
–
Jean-Louis-Henri Le Secq des Tournelles was a French painter and photographer. After the French government made the open for public in 1839. Jean-Louis-Henri Le Secq des Tournelles was born in 1818 in Paris and he was trained in sculpture and worked in several studios. He was also a collector of iron objects and the Musée le Secq des Tournelles in Rouen is devoted to him. He started his career while still working as a painter in the studio of Paul Delaroche. He experimented with various photograph processing techniques together with his colleague Charles Nègre and this process had the advantage that it produced negatives unlike the daguerreotype process. He, along with Hippolyte Bayard, Edouard Baldus, Gustave Le Gray and he worked mainly on cathedrals in Chartres, Strasbourg, Reims and near Paris. Cameras capable of taking photographs, sized up to 51 cm by 74 cm, were used. His works during this Commission des Monuments Historiques are considered his finest, in 1851 he became one of the founders of the first photographic organization of the world, the Société héliographique, which was very short lived. He gave up photography after 1856 but continued to paint and collect art, around 1870 he started reprinting his famous works as cyanotypes because he was afraid of possible loss due to fading. He gave the reprints the dates of the negatives, some of which are still in good condition. Janis, Eugenia Parry, and Josianne Sartre, Henri Le Secq, Photographe de 1850 a 1860. Catalogue Raisonné de la Collection de la Bibliothèque des Arts Decoratifs, with photographs by Henri Le Secq. NY, The Eakins Press,1970 Antic de Mondenard, La Mission heliographique, Cinq photographes parcourent la France en 1851, published by Monum, editions du patrimoine, France,2002 Shelly, photographic exhibitions in Britain 1835 -1865 Article in TIME
30.
Gabriel Lippmann
–
Gabriel Lippmann was born in Bonnevoie, Luxembourg, on 16 August 1845. At the time, Bonnevoie was part of the commune of Hollerich which is given as his place of birth. His father, Isaïe, a French Jew born in Ennery near Metz, in 1848, the family moved to Paris where Lippmann was initially tutored by his mother, Miriam Rose, before attending the Lycée Napoléon. He was said to have been a rather inattentive but thoughtful pupil with a special interest in mathematics, Lippmann then returned to Paris in 1875, where he continued to study until 1878, when he became professor of physics at the Sorbonne. Lippmann made several important contributions to various branches of physics over the years, in a paper delivered to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow on 17 January 1883, John G. The lower end is drawn into a point, until the diameter of the capillary is.005 of a millimetre. The tube is filled with mercury, and the point is immersed in dilute sulphuric acid. A platinum wire is put into connection with the mercury in each tube, such an instrument is very sensitive, and Lippmann states that it is possible to determine a difference of potential so small as that of one 10, 080th of a Daniell. It is thus a very delicate means of observing and of measuring minute electromotive forces, Lippmanns PhD thesis, presented to the Sorbonne on 24 July 1875, was on electrocapillarity. In 1881, Lippmann predicted the converse piezoelectric effect, above all, Lippmann is remembered as the inventor of a method for reproducing colours by photography, based on the interference phenomenon, which earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1908. In 1886, Lippmanns interest turned to a method of fixing the colours of the spectrum on a photographic plate. By April 1892, he was able to report that he had succeeded in producing colour images of a glass window, a group of flags, a bowl of oranges topped by a red poppy. He presented his theory of photography using the interference method in two papers to the Academy, one in 1894, the other in 1906. The interference phenomenon in optics occurs as a result of the propagation of light. In the case of ordinary incoherent light, the waves are distinct only within a microscopically thin volume of space next to the reflecting surface. Lippmann made use of this phenomenon by projecting an image onto a photographic plate capable of recording detail smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. The light passed through the glass sheet into a very thin. After development, the result was a structure of laminae, distinct parallel layers composed of metallic silver grains
31.
Charles Marville
–
Charles Marville, the pseudonym of Charles François Bossu, was a French photographer, who mainly photographed architecture, landscapes and the urban environment. He used both paper and glass negatives and he is most well known for taking pictures of ancient Parisian quarters before they were destroyed and rebuilt under Haussmannization, Baron Haussmanns new plan for modernization of Paris. In 1862, he was named official photographer of Paris, Marvilles past was largely a mystery until Sarah Kennel of the National Gallery of Art and independent researcher Daniel Catan discovered that Marvilles given name was Charles-François Bossu. That newly-found association allowed them to discover a variety of information, including photographs of his family. Bossu was born in 1813 in Paris, coming from an established Paris family, he trained as a painter, illustrator and engraver. He assumed the pseudonym Charles Marville around 1832, and began working in his field, after 17 years, as an illustrator, he took up photography around 1850. He had no family, but a companion was included in his will. He died in 1879 in Paris, starting in 1850, Marville began to make photographs. He traveled throughout France, Italy and Germany, using the paper negative process with great skill to create beautiful landscapes, many of these works were included in albums produced by the pioneering publisher Louis Désiré Blanquart-Evrard. Around 1855, Marville undertook a series of cloud studies. At the same time that he was exploring new photographic technologies, arguably his first important body of work that was conceived of and executed as a systematic series, the Bois de Boulogne series would influence his best-known work, the Old Paris photographs. Known as the Album du Vieux Paris, the series of photographs are held by the Musée Carnavalet, Paris, as well as the Bibliothèque de la Ville. The State Library of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia also holds a significant collection of Marville photographs gifted to the Library by the Government of France in 1881, the negatives are housed in the Bibliothèque Historique de la Ville de Paris. Media related to Charles Marville at Wikimedia Commons -Information, le Monde, 12/11/2010, Un scoop du XIXe siècle, le photographe Marville sappelait Bossu. Picture Perfect Paris, by Richard B
32.
Nadar (photographer)
–
Nadar was the pseudonym of Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, a French photographer, caricaturist, journalist, novelist, and balloonist. Photographic portraits by Nadar are held by many of the national collections of photographs. Nadar was born in April 1820 in Paris and his father, Victor Tournachon, was a printer and bookseller. After his fathers death, Nadar decided to quit his studies for economic reasons. Nadar started working as a caricaturist and novelist for various newspapers and he fell in with the Parisian bohemian group of Gérard de Nerval, Charles Baudelaire and Théodore de Banville. His friends picked a nickname for him, Tournadar, which later became Nadar and his work was published in Le Charivari for the first time in 1848. In 1849, he founded the Revue comique and the Petit journal pour rire, from work as a caricaturist, he moved on to photography, particularly portraits. He opened his studio in rue Saint Lazare in 1854. Nadar photographed a wide range of personalities, politicians, stage actors, writers, painters, portrait photography was going through a period of native industrialization and Nadar refused to use the traditional sumptuous decors, preferred natural daylight and despised useless accessories. In 1886, with his son Paul, he did what may be the first photo-report and it was published in Le Journal Illustré. He took his first photographs in 1853 and in 1855 opened a studio at 25 Boulevard des Capucines. He also pioneered the use of lighting in photography, working in the catacombs of Paris. He was the first person to photograph above ground with his balloons, as well as the first to photograph below ground, Le Géant was badly damaged at the end of its second flight, leading Nadar to the conviction that heavier-than-air machines would be more successful. Later, The Society for the Encouragement of Aerial Locomotion by Means of Heavier than Air Machines was established, with Nadar as president, Nadar was the inspiration for the character of Michael Ardan in Vernes From the Earth to the Moon. On his visit to Brussels with Le Géant, on 26 September 1864, crowd control barriers are still known in Belgium as Nadar barriers. In April 1874, he lent his studio to a group of painters to present the first exhibition of the Impressionists. He photographed Victor Hugo on his death-bed in 1885 and he is credited with having published the first photo-interview, and also took erotic photographs. From 1895 until his return to Paris in 1909, the Nadar photo studio was in Marseilles, Nadar died in 1910, aged 89
