1.
Pepes
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Pepes is an Indonesian cooking method using banana leaf as food wrappings. The banana-leaf package containing food is secured with lidi seumat, cooked on steam, although being cooked simultaneously with food, the banana leaf is a non-edible material and its function was as the cookable organic wrapper. The common name pepes was derived from Sundanese word papais, the form of pais in Sundanese language. Because its popularity was first contributed through the Sundanese cuisine, today pepes is often associated with Sundanese cuisine and this technique is most commonly used to prepare fish. In West Java, ikan mas is the most popular fish to be cooked as pepes, in Palembang, patin is the most common fish to be used, while in West Sumatra, people use bilih fish. However fish is not the only ingredient to be made for pepes, seafood, meat, chicken, tofu, tempeh, oncom, mushroom or vegetables are also available to be prepared in this method. There are many variations of pepes recipes, other seafoods such as shrimp and squid, although less common, can be used in pepes. Non-fish meat such as chicken and minced beef mixed with egg can also be used, in Palembang, the dish pepes tempoyak is well known, which is a steamed fermented durian paste in banana leaf container. A rather exotic and unusual meat might also be cooked as pepes, for example as swikee variations, frog legs, otak-otak is similar to pepes, it is a mixture of fish and tapioca flour with spices wrapped in banana leaf. The vegetables with shredded coconut pepes is called Botok, buntil is prepared in a similar way, but used papaya or cassava leaves instead of banana leaves, making the wrapping edible as part of the dish. Sundanese cuisine recognizes two types of pepes, the regular or “plain” variety and yellow pepes, which is cooked with turmeric, the leaf is wrapped tight and secured with a stick at each ends, then steamed or grilled. To make a soft-boned fish pepes, the method using pressure-cooker or prolonged cooking time is employed
2.
Staple food
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The staple food of a specific society may be eaten as often as every day or every meal, and most people live on a diet based on just a small number of staples. Typical examples of staples include tubers and roots, and grains, legumes, such nonperishable foods are the only possible staples during seasons of shortage, such as dry seasons or cold temperate winters, against which times harvests have been stored. During seasons of plenty, wider choices of foods may be available. Most staple plant foods are derived either from cereals such as wheat, barley, rye, maize, or rice, or starchy tubers or root vegetables such as potatoes, yams, taro, arrowroot, other staple foods include pulses, sago, and fruits. Staple foods may contain, sorghum, olive oil, coconut oil. Most staples are plant materials, but in some fishing is the primary source of nutrition. Of the more than 50,000 edible plant species in the world, although there are over 10,000 species in the cereal family, just a few have been widely cultivated over the past 2,000 years. The staple food in different parts of the world is a function of weather patterns, local terrain, farming constraints, acquired tastes, for example, the main energy source staples in the average African diet are cereals, roots and tubers and animal products. In Western Europe the main staples in the diet are animal products, cereals and roots. Regional staples include rye, soybeans, barley, oats and teff, just 15 crop plants provide 90 percent of the worlds food energy intake, with rice, maize and wheat comprising two-thirds of human food consumption. The three are the staples of about 80% of the population, and rice feeds almost half of humanity. Roots and tubers, meanwhile, are important staples for over 1 billion people in the developing world, roots and tubers are high in carbohydrates, calcium and vitamin C but low in protein. Cassava root is a staple food in the developing world. With economic development and free trade, many countries have shifted away from low-nutrient-density staple foods to higher-nutrient-density staples, despite this trend, there is growing recognition of the importance of traditional staple crops in nutrition. Efforts are underway to identify better strains with superior nutrition, disease resistance, some foods like quinoa—a pseudocereal grain that originally came from the Andes—were also staple foods centuries ago. Oca, ulluco and amaranth seed are other foods claimed to be staples in Andean history, pemmican was a staple of the Plains Indians of North America. In 2010, the consumption of speciality grains such as quinoa was very small compared to other staples such as rice, wheat. These grains, once popular but then forgotten, are being reevaluated and reintroduced, most staple food is produced using modern and conventional farming practices
3.
West Java
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West Java is a province of Indonesia. The provinces population is 46.3 million and it is the most populous, all these cities are suburban to Jakarta. The oldest human inhabitant archaeological findings in the region were unearthed in Anyer with evidence of bronze, the prehistoric Buni culture clay pottery were later developed with evidence found in Anyer to Cirebon. Artefacts, such as food and drink containers, were mostly as burial gifts. Records of Tarumanegaras administration lasted until the sixth century, which coincides with the attack of Srivijaya, the Sunda Kingdom subsequently became the ruling power of the region, as recorded on the Kebon Kopi II inscription. An Ulama, Sunan Gunung Jati, settled in Cirebon, with the intention of spreading the word of Islam in the pagan town, in the meantime, the Sultanate of Demak in central Java grew to an immediate threat against the Sunda kingdom. To defend against the threat, Prabu Surawisesa Jayaperkosa signed a treaty with the Portuguese in 1512, in return, the Portuguese were granted an accession to build fortresses and warehouses in the area, as well as form trading agreements with the kingdom. This first international treaty of West Java with the Europeans was commemorated by the placement of the Padrao stone monument at the bank of the Ciliwung River in 1522, although the treaty with the Portuguese had been established, it could not come to realization. Sunda Kalapa harbour fell under the alliance of the Sultanate of Demak, in 1524/1525, their troops under Sunan Gunung Jati also seized the port of Banten and established the Sultanate of Banten which was affiliating with the Sultanate of Demak. The war between the Sunda kingdom with Demak and Cirebon sultanates then continued for five years until a treaty were made in 1531 between King Surawisesa and Sunan Gunung Jati. From 1567 to 1579, under the last king Raja Mulya, alias Prabu Surya Kencana, after 1576, the kingdom could not maintain its capital at Pakuan Pajajaran and gradually the Sultanate of Banten took over the former Sunda kingdoms region. The Mataram Sultanate from central Java also seized the Priangan region, in the sixteenth century, the Dutch and the British trading companies established their trading ships in West Java after the falldown of Sultanate of Banten. For the next three hundred years, West Java fell under the Dutch East Indies administration, West Java was officially declared as a province of Indonesia in 1950, referring to a statement from Staatblad number 378. On October 17,2000, as part of nationwide political decentralization, Banten was separated from West Java, there have been recent proposals to rename the province Pasundan after the historical name for West Java. Since the creation of West Bandung Regency in 2008, the Province of West Java has been subdivided into 9 cities and 17 regencies and these 26 cities and regencies are divided into 620 districts, which comprise 1,576 urban villages and 4,301 rural villages. West Java borders Jakarta and Banten province to the west, to the north is the Java Sea. To the south is the Indian Ocean, unlike most other provinces in Indonesia which have their capitals in coastal areas, the provincial capital, Bandung, is located in the mountainous area in the centre of the province. Banten Province was formerly part of West Java Province but was created a province in 2000
4.
Sundanese people
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The Sundanese are an ethnic group native to the western part of the Indonesian island of Java. They number approximately 40 million, and are the second most populous of all the nations ethnicities, in their own language, Sundanese, the group is referred to as Urang Sunda, and Orang Sunda or Suku Sunda in the national language, Indonesian. The Sundanese have traditionally been concentrated in the provinces of West Java, Banten, Jakarta, Sundanese migrants can also be found in Lampung and South Sumatra. The provinces of Central Java and East Java are home to the Javanese, the name Sunda derives from the Sanskrit prefix su- which means goodness or possessing good quality. The example is used to describe gold. Sunda is also name for Hindu God Vishnu. In Sanskrit, the term Sundara or Sundari means beautiful or excellence, the term Sunda also means bright, light, purity, cleanness and white. The Sundanese are of Austronesian origins who are thought to have originated in Taiwan, migrated though the Philippines, the Sunda Wiwitan belief contains the mythical origin of Sundanese people, Sang Hyang Kersa, the supreme divine being in ancient Sundanese belief created seven bataras in Sasaka Pusaka Buana. The oldest of these bataras is called Batara Cikal and is considered the ancestor of the Kanekes people, other six bataras ruled various locations in Sunda lands in Western Java. This legend suggested the Parahyangan highland as the playland or the abode of gods, the earliest historical polity appeared in Sundanese realm in Western part of Java was the kingdom of Tarumanagara, flourished between 4th to 7th century. Hindu influences have reached Sundanese people as early as the 4th century CE as evident in Tarumanagara inscriptions, the adoption of these dharmic faith in Sundanese way of life however, was never as intense as their Javanese counterpart. It seems that despite the court began to adopt Hindu-Buddhist culture and institution. By the 4th century, the megalithic culture probably still alive. Court cultures flourished in ancient times, for example, during the era of Sunda Kingdom, however, the Sundanese appear not to have had the resources nor desire to construct large religious monuments similar to those built by Javanese in Central and East Java. Geographic constrains that isolate each regions, also led Sundanese village to enjoy their simple way of life and that was probably the factors that would contribute to the carefree nature, egalitarian, conservative, independent and somewhat individualistic social outlook of Sundanese people. The Sundanese seems to love and revere their nature in spiritual ways, the conservative tendency and somewhat their opposition of foreign influences, is demonstrated in extreme isolationist measures adopted keenly by Kanekes or Baduy people. They have these rules against interacting to outsiders and adopting foreign ideas, technology and they also has set some taboos, such as not to cut the trees nor harm the forest creatures, in order to conserve their natural ecosystem. One of the earliest historical record that mention the name Sunda appear in Sanghyang Tapak inscription dated 952 saka discovered in Cibadak, near Sukabumi
5.
Sundanese cuisine
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Sundanese cuisine is the cuisine of the Sundanese people of West Java, Indonesia. It is one of the most popular foods in Indonesia, Sundanese food is characterised by its freshness, the famous lalab eaten with sambal and also karedok demonstrate the Sundanese fondness for fresh raw vegetables. Sambal terasi is the most important and the most common condiment in Sundanese cuisine, sayur Asem vegetable tamarind soup is probably the most popular vegetable soup dish in Sundanese cuisine. Another popular soup is Soto Bandung, a soup of beef and daikon radish, fresh water fishes such as carp, gourami, tilapia and catfish are usually either being bakar or goreng and usually served with sambal or sweet soy sauce. Sundanese people has developed fondness for salted seafoods, various fried salted fishes, anchovy, and salted cuttlefish is popular in Sundanese daily diet. The pais or pepes cooking method that employs banana leaf as the wrapper of food is common in Sundanese cuisine. Among other, pais lauk emas or carp fish pepes is among the favourite pepes dishes, chicken are usually either fried or grilled, also served with sambal or sweet soy sauce. Bakakak hayam is Sundanese style ayam bakar, sometimes chicken also can be made as pepes or soup. Meats such as beef, water buffalo, lamb, or goat can be marinated with the mixture of spices and coconut sugar and fried to make the empal gepuk sweet fried meat, beef and potato sometimes are stewed in sweet soy sauce and spices as semur daging. Cow liver and jengkol stinky bean also can be made as semur as well, goat and lamb meat also can be made as satay in Sundanese style, such as sate maranggi. Gulai kambing and empal gentong goat meat and offal curry is also popular soup, Sundanese has developed the fermentation method to create distinct foodstuffs. Fermentation was employed either for making fermented food such as oncom, making such as tauco. In Sundanese cuisine establishments, it is common to eat with ones hands and they usually serve kobokan, a bowl of tap water with a slice of lime in it to give a fresh scent. This bowl of water with lime in it should not to be consumed, however, it is used to ones hand before. Sundanese and Javanese traditional restaurant may feature a traditional style called lesehan. The dishes may be served on a short legged table or altogether served on the mat and this dine style is quite similar with Japanese traditional tatami dine style. The Sundanese traditional restaurant in rural village may also feature a saung style restaurant and it features several small eating pavilions that might be built near or over fresh water fish ponds. The fish ponds contains alive fresh water such as carp and gourami
6.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
7.
Tempeh
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Tempeh is a traditional soy product originating from Indonesia. It is made by a natural culturing and controlled fermentation process that binds soybeans into a cake form, tempeh is unique among major traditional soy foods in that it is the only one that did not originate from Greater Chinese cuisine. It originated in todays Indonesia, and is popular on the island of Java. Like tofu, tempeh is made from soybeans, but it is a soybean product with different nutritional characteristics. Tempehs fermentation process and its retention of the whole bean give it a higher content of protein, dietary fiber and it has a firm texture and an earthy flavor, which becomes more pronounced as it ages. Because of its value, tempeh is used worldwide in vegetarian cuisine. Tempeh originated in todays Indonesia, probably on the island of Java, soybean as the main tempeh ingredient has been recognized in Java and mentioned as kadêlê in an old Javanese manuscript Serat Sri Tanjung around the 12th to 13th century. The earliest known reference to tempeh appeared in 1815 in the Serat Centhini, the invention of tempeh is connected to tofu production in Java. The tofu-making industry was introduced to Java by Chinese immigrants circa the 17th century, three detailed, fully documented histories of tempeh, worldwide, have been written, all by Shurtleff and Aoyagi. Tempeh begins with whole soybeans, which are softened by soaking, specialty tempehs may be made from other types of beans, wheat, or may include a mixture of beans and whole grains. A mild acidulent, usually vinegar, may be added to lower the pH, a fermentation starter containing the spores of fungus Rhizopus oligosporus or Rhizopus oryzae is mixed in. The beans are spread into a layer and are allowed to ferment for 24 to 36 hours at a temperature around 30°C. In good tempeh, the beans are knitted together by a mat of white mycelium, traditional tempeh is often produced in Indonesia using Hibiscus tiliaceus leaves. The undersides of the leaves are covered in hairs to which the mold Rhizopus oligosporus can be found adhering in the wild. Soybeans are pressed into the leaf, and stored, in particular, the tempeh undergoes salt-free aerobic fermentation. Under conditions of temperature, or higher ventilation, gray or black patches of spores may form on the surface—this is not harmful. This sporulation is normal on fully mature tempeh, a mild ammonia smell may accompany good tempeh as it ferments, but it should not be overpowering. In Indonesia, ripe tempeh is considered a delicacy and this old tempeh is commonly called tempe semangit in Java or tempe kemarin, has slightly pungent aroma, and usually used to add taste in Javanese sayur lodeh dish
8.
Fermentation in food processing
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Fermentation in food processing is the process of converting carbohydrates to alcohol or organic acids using microorganisms—yeasts or bacteria—under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation usually implies that the action of microorganisms is desired, the science of fermentation is known as zymology or zymurgy. The term fermentation sometimes refers specifically to the conversion of sugars into ethanol, producing alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer. However, similar processes take place in the leavening of bread, other widely consumed fermented foods include vinegar, olives, and cheese. More localised foods prepared by fermentation may also be based on beans, grain, vegetables, fruit, honey, dairy products, fish, meat, since ancient times, humans have exploited the fermentation process. Seven-thousand-year-old jars containing the remains of wine, now on display at the University of Pennsylvania, were excavated in the Zagros Mountains in Iran. There is strong evidence that people were fermenting alcoholic drinks in Babylon c.3000 BC, ancient Egypt c.3150 BC, pre-Hispanic Mexico c.2000 BC, the French chemist Louis Pasteur founded zymology, when in 1856 he connected yeast to fermentation. When studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Pasteur concluded that the fermentation was catalyzed by a force, called ferments. The ferments were thought to only within living organisms. Alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells, nevertheless, it was known that yeast extracts can ferment sugar even in the absence of living yeast cells. In 1907 he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his research, one year earlier, in 1906, ethanol fermentation studies led to the early discovery of NAD+. Food fermentation is the conversion of sugars and other carbohydrates into alcohol or preservative organic acids, all three products have found human uses. The production of carbon dioxide is used to leaven bread, the production of organic acids is exploited to preserve and flavor vegetables and dairy products. It has more cases of botulism than any state in the United States of America. The World Health Organization has classified pickled foods as possibly carcinogenic, other research found that fermented food contains a carcinogenic by-product, ethyl carbamate. A2009 review of the studies conducted across Asia concluded that regularly eating pickled vegetables roughly doubles a persons risk for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Science aid, Fermentation - Process and uses of fermentation Fermented cereals, a global perspective - FAO1999
9.
Mold
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A mold or mould is a fungus that grows in the form of multicellular filaments called hyphae. In contrast, fungi that can adopt a single-celled growth habit are called yeasts, molds are a large and taxonomically diverse number of fungal species in which the growth of hyphae results in discoloration and a fuzzy appearance, especially on food. The network of these tubular branching hyphae, called a mycelium, is considered a single organism, the hyphae are generally transparent, so the mycelium appears like very fine, fluffy white threads over the surface. Cross-walls may delimit connected compartments along the hyphae, each containing one or multiple, the dusty texture of many molds is caused by profuse production of asexual spores formed by differentiation at the ends of hyphae. The mode of formation and shape of spores is traditionally used to classify molds. Many of these spores are colored, making the much more obvious to the human eye at this stage in its life-cycle. Molds are considered to be microbes and do not form a taxonomic or phylogenetic grouping. In the past, most molds were classified within the Deuteromycota, molds cause biodegradation of natural materials, which can be unwanted when it becomes food spoilage or damage to property. They also play important roles in biotechnology and food science in the production of foods, beverages, antibiotics, pharmaceuticals. There are thousands of species of molds, which have diverse life-styles including saprotrophs, mesophiles, psychrophiles and thermophiles. They all require moisture for growth and some live in aquatic environments, like all fungi, molds derive energy not through photosynthesis but from the organic matter on which they live, utilising heterotrophy. Typically, molds secrete hydrolytic enzymes, mainly from the hyphal tips and these enzymes degrade complex biopolymers such as starch, cellulose and lignin into simpler substances which can be absorbed by the hyphae. In this way molds play a role in causing decomposition of organic material. Many molds also synthesise mycotoxins and siderophores which, together with lytic enzymes, molds can also grow on stored food for animals and humans, making the food unpalatable or toxic and are thus a major source of food losses and illness. Many strategies for food preservation are to prevent or slow growth as well as growth of other microbes. Molds reproduce by producing large numbers of spores, which may contain a single nucleus or be multinucleate. Mold spores can be asexual or sexual, many species can produce both types, other mold spores have slimy sheaths and are more suited to water dispersal. Mold spores are spherical or ovoid single cells, but can be multicellular
10.
Okara (food)
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Okara, soy pulp, or tofu dregs is a pulp consisting of insoluble parts of the soybean which remains after pureed soybeans are filtered in the production of soy milk and tofu. It is generally white or yellowish in color and it is part of the traditional cuisines of Japan, Korea, and China, and since the 20th century has also been used in the vegetarian cuisines of Western nations. It is called dòuzhā or dòufuzhā in Chinese, okara in Japanese, Okara is the oldest of three basic types of soy fiber. The other two are soy bran, and soy cotyledon/isolate fiber, Okara is a food by-product from tofu and soy milk production. In 1983 it was estimated that the yield for okara in Japan was approximately 70,000 metric tons. Due to its moisture and nutrient content, okara is highly prone to putrefaction. Okara that is firmly packed consists of 3.5 to 4. 0% protein,76 to 80% moisture and 20 to 24% of solids. When moisture free, the gritty okara contains 8 to 15% fats,12 to 14. 5% crude fiber and 24% protein and it also contains potassium, calcium, niacin. Okara contains some antinutritional factors, trypsin inhibitors, saponins, and hemagglutinin, fermentation of okara is not only conducive to digestion and absorption of okara nutrients, but also further improves the nutritional value. It can eliminate the sense of smell, increase the amount of edible fiber, free amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, vitamin B12, vitamin B2. Most okara worldwide is used as feed for livestock - especially hogs, most of the rest is used as a natural fertilizer or compost, which is fairly rich in nitrogen. A small amount is used in cookery, while relatively flavourless when eaten on its own, it can be used in stews such as the Korean biji-jjigae or in porridges. Its also used as an addition to baked goods such as breads, cookies and muffins, in Japan it is used in a side dish called unohana which consists of okara cooked with soy sauce, mirin, sliced carrots, burdock root and shiitake mushrooms. Okara is also eaten in the Shandong cuisine of eastern China by steaming a wet mixture of okara that has formed into blocks of zha doufu also known as xiao doufu or cai doufu. The product is used as an ingredient in vegetarian burger patties. Additional uses include processing into a product, as an ingredient in soysage. Most okara is used as feed, especially for farms in vicinity of soy milk or tofu factories. The product is used as an ingredient in pet foods
11.
Tofu
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Tofu, also known as bean curd, is a food made by coagulating soy milk and then pressing the resulting curds into soft white blocks. It is a component in East Asian and Southeast Asian cuisines, Tofu can be soft, firm, or extra firm. Tofu has a flavor and can be used in savory. It is often seasoned or marinated to suit the dish, tofu-making was first recorded during the Chinese Han dynasty some 2,000 years ago. Chinese legend ascribes its invention to prince Liu An, Tofu and its production technique were introduced into Korea and then Japan during the Nara period. Some scholars believe tofu arrived in Vietnam during the 10th and 11th century and it spread into other parts of Southeast Asia as well. This spread probably coincided with the spread of Buddhism because it is an important source of protein in the diet of East Asian Buddhism. Li Shizhen in the Ming Dynasty described a method of making tofu in the Compendium of Materia Medica, Tofu has a low calorie count and relatively large amounts of protein. It is high in iron, and depending on the used in manufacturing. The term tofu is used by extension for similarly textured curdled dishes that do not use soy products, such as tofu, tamago-dōfu, goma-dōfu. The English term comes from Japanese tōfu, borrowed from the original Chinese equivalent transcribed tou4-fu3 or dòufu, a reference to the word towfu exists in a letter dated 1770 from the English merchant James Flint to United States statesman and scientist Benjamin Franklin. This is believed to be the first documented usage of the word in English, the term bean curd for tofu has been used in the United States since at least 1840. It is not frequently used, however, in the United Kingdom, the typical tofu making procedures are cleaning, soaking, grinding beans in water, filtering, boiling, coagulation, and pressing. Coagulation of the protein and oil suspended in the soy milk is the most important step in the production of tofu. This process is accomplished with the aid of coagulants, in the case of salts, the positively charged ion in the particular salt reacts with the various protein in the milk causing the proteins to precipitate with the oil to form a curd. Two types of coagulants are used commercially, calcium sulfate, The traditional and most widely used coagulant to produce Chinese-style tofu, it produces a tofu that is tender but slightly brittle in texture. The coagulant itself has no perceivable taste, Also known as gypsum, calcium sulfate is quarried from geological deposits and no chemical processing or refining is needed, making it the cheapest coagulant used in tofu production. When used in production, the reaction is slower due to its low solubility, forming a smooth, more gelatinous network with relatively high water content
12.
Peanut
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The peanut, also known as the groundnut and the goober and taxonomically classified as Arachis hypogaea, is a legume crop grown mainly for its edible seeds. It is widely grown in the tropics and subtropics, being important to small and large commercial producers. It is classified as both a grain legume and, because of its oil content, an oil crop. World annual production of shelled peanuts was 42 million tonnes in 2014, atypically among crop plants, peanut pods develop underground rather than aboveground. It is this characteristic that the botanist Linnaeus used to assign the specific name hypogaea, as a legume, the peanut belongs to the botanical family Fabaceae, this is also known as Leguminosae, and commonly known as the bean, or pea, family. Like most other legumes, peanuts harbor symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules and this capacity to fix nitrogen means peanuts require less nitrogen-containing fertilizer and improve soil fertility, making them valuable in crop rotations. Peanuts are similar in taste and nutritional profile to tree nuts such as walnuts and almonds, the botanical definition of a nut is a fruit whose ovary wall becomes very hard at maturity. Using this criterion, the peanut is not a true nut, however, for culinary purposes and in common English language usage, peanuts are usually referred to as nuts. Cultivated peanut arose from a hybrid between two species of peanut, thought to be A. duranensis and A. ipaensis. The initial hybrid would have been sterile, but spontaneous chromosome doubling restored its fertility, the process of domestication through artificial selection made A. hypogaea dramatically different from its wild relatives. The domesticated plants are bushier and more compact, and have a different pod structure, the initial domestication may have taken place in northwestern Argentina, or in southeastern Bolivia, where the peanut landraces with the most wild-like features are grown today. From this primary center of origin, cultivation spread and formed secondary and tertiary centers of diversity in Peru, Ecuador, Brazil, Paraguay, over time, thousands of peanut landraces evolved, these are classified into six botanical varieties and two subspecies. Subspecies A. h. fastigiata types are more upright in their habit and have shorter crop cycles. Subspecies A. h. hypogaea types spread more on the ground and have longer crop cycles, the oldest known archeological remains of pods have been dated at about 7,600 years old. These may be pods from a species that was in cultivation. They were found in Peru, where dry conditions are favorable to the preservation of organic material. Almost certainly, peanut cultivation antedated this at the center of origin where the climate is moister, many pre-Columbian cultures, such as the Moche, depicted peanuts in their art. Cultivation was well established in Mesoamerica before the Spanish arrived, there, the conquistadors found the tlalcacahuatl being offered for sale in the marketplace of Tenochtitlan
13.
Press cake
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A press cake or oil cake is the solids remaining after pressing something to extract the liquids. Their most common use is in animal feed, other common press cakes come from flax seed, cottonseed, and sunflower seeds. However, some specific kinds may be toxic, and are used as fertilizer, for example cottonseed contains a toxic pigment, gossypol. In Nepal the oil cake of the Persian walnut is used for culinary purposes, in some regions it is used as boiler fuel as a means of reducing energy costs, for which it is quite suitable
14.
Oil
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An oil is any neutral, nonpolar chemical substance that is a viscous liquid at ambient temperatures and is both hydrophobic and lipophilic. Oils have a carbon and hydrogen content and are usually flammable. The general definition of oil includes classes of compounds that may be otherwise unrelated in structure, properties. Oils may be animal, vegetable, or petrochemical in origin and they are used for food, fuel, medical purposes, lubrication, and the manufacture of many types of paints, plastics, and other materials. Specially prepared oils are used in religious ceremonies and rituals as purifying agents. First attested in English 1176, the oil comes from Old French oile, from Latin oleum, which in turn comes from the Greek ἔλαιον, olive oil, oil. The earliest attested forms of the word are the Mycenaean Greek
15.
Oil pressing
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Expeller pressing is a mechanical method for extracting oil from raw materials trademarked by Anderson International Corp. Mr. Valerius D. Anderson founded the V. D. Anderson Company in Cleveland, in 1900, Mr. V. D. Anderson created the first successful continuously operated Expeller® press. The raw materials are squeezed under high pressure in a single step, when used for the extraction of food oils, typical raw materials are nuts, seeds and algae, which are supplied to the press in a continuous feed. As the raw material is pressed, friction causes it to heat up, an expeller press is a screw-type machine that mainly presses oil seeds through a caged barrel-like cavity. Other materials used with an expeller press include but are not limited to meat by-products, synthetic rubber, raw materials enter one side of the press and waste products exit the other side. The machine uses friction and continuous pressure from the drives to move. The oil seeps through small openings that do not allow seed fiber solids to pass through, afterward, the pressed seeds are formed into a hardened cake, which is removed from the machine. Pressure involved in expeller pressing creates heat in the range of 140–210 °F, some companies claim that they use a cooling apparatus to reduce this temperature to protect certain properties of the oils being extracted. Expeller processing cannot remove every last trace of liquid from the raw material, a significant amount remains trapped inside of the cake left over after pressing. Some raw materials, however, do not release oil by simple expelling, in order to remove oil from commodities that do not respond to expelling or to extract the final traces of oil after expelling, it is necessary to use solvent extraction. The earliest expeller presses utilized a continuous screw design, the compression screws were much like the screws of a screw conveyor—that is, the helicoid flighting started at one end and ended at the other. Valerius Anderson invented the interrupted screw design and patented it in the year 1900 and he wrote that brewers slops, slaughterhouse refuse and other soft and mushy materials dewater poorly in continuous screw presses. His invention consisted of putting interruptions in the flighting of a compression screw and it was much like having a hanger bearing in a screw conveyor, there is no flighting on the shaft at that point, so material tends to stop moving and pile up. It is only after solids accumulate in the gap that the downstream flighting catches material, when this happens, material is forced along its way. The result is better dewatering and thus a more consistent press cake, after the 1900 patent, a major improvement was made with the addition of resistor teeth. Fitted into the gaps where there is no flighting, these increase the agitation within the press. As the years went by, applications of the interrupted screw design were expanded beyond slippery and this took place because competing continuous screw presses worked best only under conditions of constant feed, at constant consistency. If either the consistency or the flow rate diminished, squeezing would diminish until it was inadequate for proper moisture removal, at the same time, if the consistency increased, the press could jam
16.
Cassava
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Manihot esculenta is a woody shrub native to South America of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. It is extensively cultivated as a crop in tropical and subtropical regions for its edible starchy tuberous root. Though it is often called yuca in Spanish and in the United States, it differs from the yucca, Cassava, when dried to a powdery extract, is called tapioca, its fermented, flaky version is named garri. Cassava is the third-largest source of carbohydrates in the tropics, after rice. Cassava is a staple food in the developing world, providing a basic diet for over half a billion people. It is one of the most drought-tolerant crops, capable of growing on marginal soils, Nigeria is the worlds largest producer of cassava, while Thailand is the largest exporter of dried cassava. Cassava is classified as sweet or bitter. Like other roots and tubers, both bitter and sweet varieties of cassava contain antinutritional factors and toxins, with the bitter varieties containing much larger amounts, the more toxic varieties of cassava are a fall-back resource in times of famine or food insecurity in some places. Farmers often prefer the bitter varieties because they deter pests, animals, the cassava root is long and tapered, with a firm, homogeneous flesh encased in a detachable rind, about 1 mm thick, rough and brown on the outside. Commercial cultivars can be 5 to 10 cm in diameter at the top, a woody vascular bundle runs along the roots axis. The flesh can be chalk-white or yellowish, Cassava roots are very rich in starch and contain small amounts of calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin C. However, they are poor in protein and other nutrients, in contrast, cassava leaves are a good source of protein, but deficient in the amino acid methionine and possibly tryptophan. Forms of the domesticated species can also be found growing in the wild in the south of Brazil. By 4,600 BC, manioc pollen appears in the Gulf of Mexico lowlands, the oldest direct evidence of cassava cultivation comes from a 1, 400-year-old Maya site, Joya de Cerén, in El Salvador. With its high potential, it had become a staple food of the native populations of northern South America, southern Mesoamerica. Cassava was a food of pre-Columbian peoples in the Americas and is often portrayed in indigenous art. The Moche people often depicted yuca in their ceramics, spaniards in their early occupation of Caribbean islands did not want to eat cassava or maize, which they considered insubstantial, dangerous, and not nutritious. They much preferred foods from Spain, specifically wheat bread, olive oil, red wine, and meat, for these Christians in the New World, cassava was not suitable for communion since it could not undergo transubstantiation and become the body of Christ
17.
Starch
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Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as an energy store and it is the most common carbohydrate in human diets and is contained in large amounts in staple foods such as potatoes, wheat, maize, rice, and cassava. Pure starch is a white, tasteless and odorless powder that is insoluble in water or alcohol. It consists of two types of molecules, the linear and helical amylose and the branched amylopectin, depending on the plant, starch generally contains 20 to 25% amylose and 75 to 80% amylopectin by weight. Glycogen, the store of animals, is a more branched version of amylopectin. In industry, starch is converted into sugars, for example by malting and it is processed to produce many of the sugars used in processed foods. Dissolving starch in water gives wheatpaste, which can be used as a thickening, stiffening or gluing agent. The biggest industrial non-food use of starch is as an adhesive in the papermaking process, starch can be applied to parts of some garments before ironing, to stiffen them. The word starch is from a Germanic root with the strong, stiff. Amylum for starch is from the Greek αμυλον, amylon which means not ground at a mill, the root amyl is used in biochemistry for several compounds related to starch. Starch grains from the rhizomes of Typha as flour have been identified from grinding stones in Europe dating back to 30,000 years ago, starch grains from sorghum were found on grind stones in caves in Ngalue, Mozambique dating up to 100,000 years ago. Pure extracted wheat starch paste was used in Ancient Egypt possibly to glue papyrus, the extraction of starch is first described in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder around AD 77–79. Romans used it also in cosmetic creams, to powder the hair, persians and Indians used it to make dishes similar to gothumai wheat halva. Rice starch as surface treatment of paper has been used in production in China. In addition to starchy plants consumed directly,66 million tonnes of starch were being produced per year world-wide by 2008. In the EU this was around 8.5 million tonnes, with around 40% being used for applications and 60% for food uses. Most green plants use starch as their energy store, an exception is the family Asteraceae, where starch is replaced by the fructan inulin. In photosynthesis, plants use light energy to produce glucose from carbon dioxide, the glucose is used to make cellulose fibers, the structural component of the plant, or is stored in the form of starch granules, in amyloplasts
18.
Tapioca
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Tapioca is a starch extracted from cassava root. This species is native to the North Region of Brazil but spread throughout South America, the plant was carried by Portuguese and Spanish explorers to most of the West Indies, and the continents of Africa and Asia, including the Philippines and Taiwan. Its a shrubby, tropical, perennial plant that is common in the temperate zone. Tapioca thrives better in poor soils than any other major food plant, as a result, fertilization is rarely necessary Around the world, Tapioca is a vital staple food for about 500 million people. Tapiocas starchy roots produce more energy per unit of land than any other staple crop. Its leaves, commonly eaten as a vegetable in parts of Asia and Africa, provide vitamins, nutritionally, the Tapioca is comparable to potatoes, except that it has twice the fiber content and a higher level of potassium. Its used as an agent in various foods. Tapioca is derived from the word tipióka, its name in the Tupí language spoken by natives when the Portuguese first arrived in the Northeast Region of Brazil around 1707 and this Tupí word refers to the process by which the cassava starch is made edible. Tapioca is one of the purest forms of food. The cassava plant has red or green branches with blue spindles on them. The root of the green-branched variant requires treatment to remove linamarin, a cyanogenic glycoside occurring naturally in the plant, konzo is a paralytic disease associated with several weeks of almost exclusive consumption of insufficiently processed bitter cassava. In the north and northeast of Brazil, traditional community-based production of tapioca is a by-product of manioc flour production from cassava roots, in this process, the manioc is ground to a pulp with a small hand- or diesel-powered mill. This masa is then squeezed to dry it out, the wet masa is placed in a long woven tube called a tipiti. This liquid is collected and the water allowed to evaporate, leaving behind a fine-grained tapioca powder similar in appearance to corn starch, commercially, the starch is processed into several forms, hot soluble powder, meal, pre-cooked fine/coarse flakes, rectangular sticks, and spherical pearls. Pearls are the most widely available shape, sizes range from about 1 mm to 8 mm in diameter, flakes, sticks, and pearls must be soaked well before cooking, in order to rehydrate, absorbing water up to twice their volume. After rehydration, tapioca products become leathery and swollen, processed tapioca is usually white, but sticks and pearls may be colored. Traditionally, the most common color applied to tapioca has been brown, Tapioca pearls are generally opaque when raw, but become translucent when cooked in boiling water. Brazil in South America, Thailand in Asia, and Nigeria in Africa are the worlds largest producers of cassava, currently, Thailand accounts for about 60 percent of worldwide exports
19.
Coconut
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The coconut tree is a member of the family Arecaceae and the only species of the genus Cocos. The term coconut can refer to the coconut palm or the seed, or the fruit. The spelling cocoanut is a form of the word. The term is derived from the 16th-century Portuguese and Spanish word coco meaning head or skull, coconuts are known for their great versatility, as evidenced by many traditional uses, ranging from food to cosmetics. They form a part of the diets of many people in the tropics and subtropics. Coconuts are distinct from other fruits for their quantity of water. When mature, they can be used as seed nuts or processed to give oil from the kernel, charcoal from the hard shell, the endosperm is initially in its nuclear phase suspended within the coconut water. As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the coconut, when dried, the coconut flesh is called copra. The oil and milk derived from it are used in cooking and frying, as well as in soaps. The husks and leaves can be used as material to make a variety of products for furnishing and decorating, the coconut also has cultural and religious significance in certain societies, particularly in India, where it is used in Hindu rituals. Cocos nucifera is a palm, growing up to 30 m tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m long. Coconuts are generally classified into two types, tall and dwarf. On fertile soil, a coconut palm tree can yield up to 75 fruits per year. Given proper care and growing conditions, coconut palms produce their first fruit in six to ten years, botanically, the coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut. Like other fruits, it has three layers, the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, the exocarp and mesocarp make up the husk of the coconuts. Coconuts sold in the shops of nontropical countries often have had the exocarp removed, the mesocarp is composed of a fiber, called coir, which has many traditional and commercial uses. The shell has three germination pores or eyes that are visible on its outside surface once the husk is removed. A full-sized coconut weighs about 1.44 kg and it takes around 6,000 full-grown coconuts to produce a tonne of copra
20.
Coconut milk
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Coconut milk is the liquid that comes from the grated meat of a mature coconut. The opacity and rich taste of milk are attributed to its high oil content. Coconut milk is a food ingredient used in Southeast Asia, the Caribbean. Coconut milk is distinguished from water by its thicker consistency. Unlike coconut water, which is the liquid found directly inside a coconut, coconut milk is the result of combining coconut water with coconut meat. The grating process can be carried out manually or by comminution, Coconut milk exists in two grades, thick and thin. Thick coconut milk contains 20-22% fat while thin coconut milk contains 5-7% fat, thick milk is prepared by directly squeezing grated coconut meat through cheesecloth. Thin milk is produced by soaking the squeezed coconut meat in water and further squeezing the meat until a thinner liquid forms, thick milk contains soluble, suspended solids, which makes it a good ingredient for desserts and rich and dry sauces. Because thin milk does not contain these soluble solids, it is used in general cooking. Coconut milk has a fat content of 24%, depending on the fat level of the coconut meat, when refrigerated and left to set, coconut cream will rise to the top and separate out from the milk. To avoid this in commercial coconut milk, an emulsifier and a stabiliser have to be used, manufacturers of canned coconut milk typically combine diluted and comminuted milk with the addition of water as a filler. Some brands sold in Western countries add thickening agents or emulsifiers to prevent the milk from separating inside the can, Coconut milk can be consumed on its own or as a milk substitute in tea, coffee, and baking. It is an ingredient in many tropical and Asian cuisines for curries or other seasonings, meats, vegetables. Coconut rice is a rice cooked in coconut milk consumed in Southeastern Asia, nasi lemak is a Malaysian version of coconut rice, while the same dish is called nasi uduk in Indonesia. Coconut milk is used throughout Asia for making traditional serabi. In Brazil, coconut milk is used in northeastern cuisine, generally with seafood stews. In Colombia and Panama, the flesh of coconut and coconut milk are used to make sweet titoté. In Venezuela, meat dishes are prepared with milk and shredded fish in a dish called mojito en coco
21.
Food industry
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The Food Industry is a complex, global collective of diverse businesses that supplies most of the food consumed by the world population. Only subsistence farmers, those who survive on what they grow, the food Industry includes, Agriculture, raising of crops and livestock, and seafood Manufacturing, agrichemicals, agricultural construction, farm machinery and supplies, seed, etc. The Food Standards Agency, a government body in India, describes it thus. the whole food industry – from farming and food production, packaging and distribution, to retail and catering. The Economic Research Service of the USDA uses the food system to describe the same thing, The U. S. food system is a complex network of farmers. Those links include makers of farm equipment and chemicals as well as firms that provide services to agribusinesses, such as providers of transportation and financial services. The system also includes the marketing industries that link farms to consumers, and which include food and fiber processors, wholesalers, retailers. The term food industries covers a series of activities directed at the processing, conversion, preparation, preservation. Many food industries depend almost entirely on agriculture or fishing. Agriculture is the process of producing food, feeding products, fiber and other desired products by the cultivation of certain plants, the practice of agriculture is also known as farming. Scientists, inventors, and others devoted to improving farming methods,1 in 3 people worldwide are employed in agriculture, yet it only contributes 3% to global GDP. Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, fibre, agronomy encompasses work in the areas of plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology, and soil science. Agronomy is the application of a combination of sciences, agronomists today are involved with many issues including producing food, creating healthier food, managing environmental impact of agriculture, and extracting energy from plants. Food processing includes the methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food for human consumption, Food processing takes clean, harvested or slaughtered and butchered components and uses them to produce marketable food products. There are several different ways in which food can be produced, one off production, This method is used when customers make an order for something to be made to their own specifications, for example a wedding cake. The making of products could take days depending on how intricate the design is. Batch production, This method is used when the size of the market for a product is not clear, a certain number of the same goods will be produced to make up a batch or run, for example a bakery may bake a limited number of cupcakes. This method involves estimating consumer demand, mass production, This method is used when there is a mass market for a large number of identical products, for example chocolate bars, ready meals and canned food. The product passes from one stage of production to another along a production line, just-in-time, This method of production is mainly used in restaurants
22.
Cholesterol
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Cholesterol, from the Ancient Greek chole- and stereos followed by the chemical suffix -ol for an alcohol, is an organic molecule. Cholesterol enables animal cells to dispense with a wall, thereby allowing animal cells to change shape rapidly. In addition to its importance for cell structure, cholesterol also serves as a precursor for the biosynthesis of steroid hormones, bile acid. Cholesterol is the principal sterol synthesized by all animals, in vertebrates, hepatic cells typically produce the greatest amounts. It is absent among prokaryotes, although there are exceptions, such as Mycoplasma. François Poulletier de la Salle first identified cholesterol in solid form in gallstones in 1769, however, it was not until 1815 that chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul named the compound cholesterine. Furthermore, it can be absorbed directly from animal-based foods, a human male weighing 68 kg normally synthesizes about 1 gram per day, and his body contains about 35 g, mostly contained within the cell membranes. Typical daily cholesterol dietary intake for a man in the United States is 307 mg, most ingested cholesterol is esterified, and esterified cholesterol is poorly absorbed. The body also compensates for any absorption of cholesterol by reducing cholesterol synthesis. For these reasons, cholesterol in food, seven to ten hours after ingestion, has little and it is also important to recognize, however, that the concentrations measured in the samples of blood plasma vary with the measurement methods used. Cholesterol is recycled in the body, the liver excretes it in a non-esterified form into the digestive tract. Typically, about 50% of the excreted cholesterol is reabsorbed by the small intestine back into the bloodstream, plants make cholesterol in very small amounts. Plants manufacture phytosterols, which can compete with cholesterol for reabsorption in the intestinal tract, when intestinal lining cells absorb phytosterols, in place of cholesterol, they usually excrete the phytosterol molecules back into the GI tract, an important protective mechanism. Cholesterol, given that it composes about 30% of all cell membranes, is required to build. The membrane remains stable and durable without being rigid, allowing cells to change shape. In this structural role, cholesterol also reduces the permeability of the membrane to neutral solutes, hydrogen ions. Within the cell membrane, cholesterol also functions in intracellular transport, cell signaling, cholesterol is essential for the structure and function of invaginated caveolae and clathrin-coated pits, including caveola-dependent and clathrin-dependent endocytosis. The role of cholesterol in endocytosis of these types can be investigated by using methyl beta cyclodextrin to remove cholesterol from the plasma membrane, in multiple layers, cholesterol and phospholipids, both electrical insulators, can facilitate speed of transmission of electrical impulses along nerve tissue
23.
Rhizopus oligosporus
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Rhizopus oligosporus is a fungus of the family Mucoraceae and is a widely used starter culture for the production of tempeh at home and industrially. As the mold grows it produces fluffy, white mycelia, binding the beans together to create a cake of partly catabolized soybeans. The domestication of the microbe is thought to have occurred in Indonesia several centuries ago, R. oligosporus is the preferred starter culture for tempeh production for several reasons. R. oligosporus is at present considered to be a form of Rhizopus microsporus. Rhizopus oligosporus is a fungus that belongs to the class Zygomycetes, Rhizopus oligosporus belongs to the Rhizopus microsporus group. This group is made of taxa with similar morphology that are associated with undesired metabolite production, pathogenesis, although other varieties in Rhizopus microscopus may be harmful, Rhizopus oligosporus is not associated with production of potentially harmful metabolites. It is not found in nature and is used by humans. Rhizopus oligosporus strains have a large and irregular spores with the most variable sizes and this is, for instance, reflected as high values in the spore volume. Rhizopus oligosporus has large, subglobose to globose spores, and high proportion irregular spores. In order to create tempeh, soybeans must first be soaked in water at a similar to the environment it is placed in. The soybean’s outer covering is then removed and the beans are partially cooked, lactic acid bacteria, like Lactococcus and Lb. casei species, play a major role in the fermentation of tempeh. For the tempeh to ferment, there needs to be a suitable, also, spores with a tendency for fast germinability are needed, as well. In order for the tempeh to attain its characteristic compact ‘cake’ form after fermentation, rapidly growing mycelia helps speed up the growth of this fungus. Because mycelia are quite sensitive to dehydration and adverse temperatures, preserving tempeh for extended periods of time can be challenging, when the soybeans are bound together by the white mycelium, the fungus releases enzymes that make this heavily protein-rich product more digestible for humans. Tempeh-like foods can also be created from cereal grains such as wheat, many times, a good inoculum for this new fermentation actually comes from tiny pieces of old tempeh that have already been fermented. Tempeh has the potential to be used in many high-protein foods due to its mild flavor when fried in vegetable oil, containing more than 40% protein, tempeh is often used as a meat-substitute. This product is used in soups or can simply be sliced and seasoned, even after it is consumed, Rhizopus oligosporous produces an antibiotic that limits gram-positive bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis. Thus, people who eat tempeh tend to have fewer intestinal infections, beneficial effects of tempeh include inhibiting tumor development, lowering cholesterol and decreasing diarrhea issues, iron-defficient anaemia, lipid oxidation and hypertension. This fungus can also treat waste and wastewater, produce enzymes and ferment other substrates like other legumes
24.
Bacteria
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Bacteria constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods, Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only half of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology, There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. There are approximately 5×1030 bacteria on Earth, forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants, Bacteria are vital in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of bodies and bacteria are responsible for the putrefaction stage in this process. In March 2013, data reported by researchers in October 2012, was published and it was suggested that bacteria thrive in the Mariana Trench, which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest known part of the oceans. Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2.6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, You can find microbes everywhere—theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, the vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system, though many are beneficial particularly in the gut flora. However several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy. The most common fatal diseases are respiratory infections, with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people per year. In developed countries, antibiotics are used to treat infections and are also used in farming, making antibiotic resistance a growing problem. Once regarded as constituting the class Schizomycetes, bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and these evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea. The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, for about 3 billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life. In 2008, fossils of macroorganisms were discovered and named as the Francevillian biota, however, gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny, and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal/eukaryotic lineage. Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence, that of the archaea, here, eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into endosymbiotic associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells, which were themselves possibly related to the Archaea
25.
Fungus
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A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants, a characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria and some protists, is chitin in their cell walls. Similar to animals, fungi are heterotrophs, they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, growth is their means of mobility, except for spores, which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems and this fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes and oomycetes. The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology, in the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants. Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the size of their structures. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and they may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform a role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, the fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans, losses of crops due to fungal diseases or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies. The fungus kingdom encompasses a diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies. However, little is known of the biodiversity of Kingdom Fungi. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, phylogenetic studies published in the last decade have helped reshape the classification within Kingdom Fungi, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla. The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus, used in the writings of Horace, a group of all the fungi present in a particular area or geographic region is known as mycobiota, e. g. the mycobiota of Ireland. Like plants, fungi grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms, form conspicuous fruit bodies. The fungi are now considered a kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago. Fungi have membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria, sterol-containing membranes and they have a characteristic range of soluble carbohydrates and storage compounds, including sugar alcohols, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
26.
Aspergillus flavus
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Aspergillus flavus is a saprotrophic and pathogenic fungus with a cosmopolitan distribution. It is best known for its colonization of cereal grains, legumes, postharvest rot typically develops during harvest, storage, and/or transit. A. flavus infections can occur while hosts are still in the field, in addition to causing preharvest and postharvest infections, many strains produce significant quantities of toxic compounds known as mycotoxins, which, when consumed, are toxic to mammals. A. flavus is also a human and animal pathogen. A. flavus is found globally as a saprophyte in soils, common hosts of the pathogen are cereal grains, legumes, and tree nuts. Specifically, A. flavus infection causes ear rot in corn, infection can be present in the field, preharvest, postharvest, during storage, and during transit. It is common for the pathogen to originate while host crops are still in the field, however, symptoms, a. flavus has the potential to infect seedlings by sporulation on injured seeds. In grains, the pathogen can invade seed embryos and cause infection, the pathogen can also discolor embryos, damage seedlings, and kill seedlings, which reduces grade and price of the grains. The incidence of A. flavus infection increases in the presence of insects, stresses include stalk rot, drought, severe leaf damage, and/or less than ideal storage conditions. Generally, excessive moisture conditions and high temperatures of storage grains, in mammals, the pathogen can cause liver cancer through consumption of contaminated feed or aspergillosis through invasive growth. A. flavus colonies are commonly powdery masses of spores on the upper surface. In both grains and legumes, infection is minimized to small areas, and discoloration and dullness of affected areas is often seen, growth is rapid and colonies appear downy or powdery in texture. Hyphal growth usually occurs by thread-like branching and produces mycelia, once established, the mycelium secretes degradative enzymes or proteins which can break down complex nutrients. Individual hyphae strands are not typically seen by the eye, however. The conidiospores are asexual spores produced by A. flavus during reproduction, the conidiophores of A. flavus are rough and colorless. Phialides are both uniseriate and biseriate, recently, Petromyces was identified as the sexual reproductive stage of A. flavus, where the ascospores develop within sclerotia. The sexual state of this heterothallic fungus arises when strains of opposite mating type are cultured together, sexual reproduction occurs between sexually compatible strains belonging to different vegetative compatibility groups. A. flavus is complex in its morphology and can be classified into two based on the size of sclerotia produced
27.
Aflatoxin
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Aflatoxins are poisonous and cancer-causing chemicals that are produced by certain molds which grow in soil, decaying vegetation, hay, and grains. When contaminated food is processed, aflatoxins enter the food supply where they have been found in both pet and human foods, as well as in feedstocks for agricultural animals. Animals fed contaminated food can pass aflatoxin transformation products into eggs, milk products, for example, contaminated poultry feed is suspected in the findings of high percentages of samples of aflatoxin contaminated chicken meat and eggs in Pakistan. Children are particularly affected by exposure, which leads to stunted growth, delayed development, liver damage. Adults have a tolerance to exposure, but are also at risk. Aflatoxins are among the most carcinogenic substances known, after entering the body, aflatoxins may be metabolized by the liver to a reactive epoxide intermediate or hydroxylated to become the less harmful aflatoxin M1. Aflatoxins are most commonly ingested, but the most toxic type of aflatoxin, B1, the United States Food and Drug Administration action levels for aflatoxin present in food or feed is 20 to 300 ppb. The FDA has had occasion to declare both human and pet food recalls as a measure to prevent exposure. The term aflatoxin is derived from the name of one of the molds that produce it and it was coined around 1960 after its discovery as the source of Turkey X disease. Aflatoxins form one of the groupings of mycotoxins. At least 14 different aflatoxins are produced in nature, Aflatoxin B1 is considered the most toxic and is produced by both Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxin M1 is present in the broth of Aspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxin B1 and B2, produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus Aflatoxin G1 and G2, the presence of those molds does not always indicate that harmful levels of aflatoxin are present, but does indicate a significant risk. The molds can colonize and contaminate food before harvest or during storage, especially following prolonged exposure to a high-humidity environment, favorable conditions include high moisture content and high temperature. Aflatoxins have been isolated from all major crops, and from sources as diverse as peanut butter. Aflatoxin transformation products are found in eggs, milk products. A study conducted in Kenya and Mali found that the predominant practices for drying, organic crops which are not treated with fungicides may be more susceptible to contamination with aflatoxins. No animal species is immune to the toxic effects of aflatoxins
28.
Burkholderia gladioli
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Burkholderia gladioli is a species of aerobic gram-negative rod-shaped bacteria that causes disease in both humans and plants. It can also live in symbiosis with plants and fungi and is found in soil, water, the rhizosphere and it was formerly known as Pseudomonas marginata. One pathovariety, growing on coconut pulp, produces the respiratory toxin bongkrek acid which can cause poisoning in humans. The members of the genus Burkholderia were formerly classified as Pseudomonas, Burkholderia gladioli is closely related to, and often mistaken for, a member of the Burkholderia cepacia complex. This includes ten closely related species, which are all plant pathogens, Burkholderia gladioli is divided into three pathovars, gladioli, allicola, and agaricicola. They are aerobic, catalase positive, urease positive, nonsporeformers and they grow on MacConkey agar, but do not ferment the lactose. Burkholderia gladioli can be distinguished from the other Burkholderia because it is oxidase negative B. gladioli is indole negative, nitrate negative, on the molecular level, PCR can be used to distinguish between the different Burkholderia species. All members of the Burkholderia genus have multireplicon genomes and they are able to keep essential housekeeping genes on the largest chromosome This largest chromosome has a single origin of replication. The gene order and GC composition is conserved as well, members of the Burkholderia genus are able to capture and retain foreign DNA. The foreign DNA can be detected by looking for atypical GC context areas, one of the first foreign DNA segments detected this way encoded for virulence. Burkholderia gladioli has been identified as a plant pathogen in onions, gladiolus, iris and it was originally described to have caused rot of gladiolus corms. The bulbs can become water soaked and decay, some other common symptoms of infected plants can be seen in the leaves. The leaves contain brown legions, and they may become watersoaked, other symptoms are the wilting and/or rot of roots, stems, and petals. B. gladioli has also identified as the causative agent in leaf-sheath browning in gladiolas. One widespread plant disease caused by Burkholderia gladioli is called scab and it can be seen on Gladiolus corms as water-soaked brown spots, outlined in yellow. Eventually, they can become hollow and surrounded by scabs, if the scabs fall off, they leave behind cavities or lesions. Burkholderia gladioli in humans is a pathogen that is an important agent for hospital-associated infections. It has recently appeared as a pathogen in patients with cystic fibrosis
29.
Soybean
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Glycine max, commonly known as soybean in North America or soya bean, is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean which has numerous uses. The plant, classed as a rather than a pulse by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization. Fat-free soybean meal is a significant and cheap source of protein for animal feeds, for example, soybean products, such as textured vegetable protein, are ingredients in many meat and dairy substitutes. The beans contain significant amounts of acid, dietary minerals. Soy vegetable oil, used in food and industrial applications, is product of processing the soybean crop. Traditional non-fermented food uses of soybeans include soy milk from which tofu and tofu skin are made, fermented soy foods include soy sauce, fermented bean paste, natto and tempeh. The main countries growing soybeans are the United States, Brazil, the English words soy and soya are ultimately derived from the Japanese pronunciation of shōyu, the Sino-Japanese word for soy sauce, by way of the Dutch adaptation of the same word, soja. The genus Glycine Willd. is divided two subgenera, Glycine and Soja. Includes the cultivated soybean, Glycine max Merr. and the wild soybean, Glycine soja is the wild ancestor of Glycine max, and grows wild in China, Japan, Korea and Russia. The subgenus Glycine consists of at least 25 wild perennial species, for example, Glycine canescens F. J. Herm. and G. tomentella Hayata, perennial soybean originated in Africa and is now a widespread pasture crop in the tropics. Like some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty. It is a variety with a very large number of cultivars. Like most plants, soybeans grow in distinct morphological stages as they develop from seeds into fully mature plants, the first stage of growth is germination, a process that first becomes apparent as a seeds radicle emerges. This is the first stage of growth and occurs within the first 48 hours under ideal growing conditions. The first photosynthetic structures, the cotyledons, develop from the hypocotyl and these cotyledons both act as leaves and as a source of nutrients for the immature plant, providing the seedling nutrition for its first 7 to 10 days. The first true leaves develop as a pair of single blades, subsequent to this first pair, mature nodes form compound leaves with three blades. Mature trifoliolate leaves, having three to four leaflets per leaf, are often between 6–15 cm long and 2–7 cm broad, under ideal conditions, stem growth continues, producing new nodes every four days. Before flowering, roots can grow 1.9 cm per day, if rhizobia are present, root nodulation begins by the time the third node appears
30.
Indonesian cuisine
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Indonesian cuisine is one of the most vibrant and colourful cuisines in the world, full of intense flavour. Many regional cuisines exist, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences, Indonesia has around 5,350 traditional recipes, with 30 of them considered the most important. Indonesia cuisine may include rice, noodle and soup dishes in local modest shops to street-side snacks, rendang top the list as the number one, followed closely by nasi goreng in number two, and satay in number fourteen. Indonesian cuisine varies greatly by region and has different influences. The cuisines of Eastern Indonesia are similar to Polynesian and Melanesian cuisine, elements of Chinese cuisine can be seen in Indonesian cuisine, foods such as noodles, meat balls, and spring rolls have been completely assimilated. Throughout its history, Indonesia has been involved in due to its location. Additionally, Indonesia’s indigenous techniques and ingredients were influenced by India, the Middle East, China, Spanish and Portuguese traders brought New World produce even before the Dutch came to colonise most of the archipelago. The Indonesian islands The Moluccas, which are famed as the Spice Islands, also contributed to the introduction of native spices, such as cloves and nutmeg, to Indonesian, Indonesian cuisine often demonstrates complex flavour, acquired from certain ingredients and bumbu spices mixture. Indonesian dishes have rich flavours, most often described as savory, hot and spicy, seven main Indonesian cooking methods are frying, roasting, grilling, sautéing, roasted, boiling and steaming. Some popular Indonesian dishes such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, Satay, today, some popular dishes that originated in Indonesia are now common to neighbouring countries, Malaysia and Singapore. Indonesian dishes such as satay, beef rendang, and sambal are favoured in Malaysia, soy-based dishes, such as variations of tofu and tempeh, are also very popular. Tempeh is regarded as a Javanese invention, a adaptation of soy-based food fermentation and production. Another fermented food is oncom, similar in ways to tempeh but using a variety of bases, created by different fungi. Indonesian traditional meals usually consists of steamed rice as staple, surrounded by vegetables and soup, in a typical family meal, the family members gather around the table filled with steamed rice and several other dishes. Each dish is placed in a separate communal large plate or in bowls, each of these dishes has its own serving spoons, used only to take parts of the dishes from the communal plate into ones own personal plate. Each of the members has their own personal plate that is first filled with steamed rice. Usually the oldest family member or the husband has the right to initiate the meal, each of them take some portion of dishes from the communal plates into their own individual plates. On their personal plate, the rice will soon be surrounded by two, three or more dishes, vegetables and fish or meat, and maybe some fried dishes, sambal
31.
Ethnic groups in Indonesia
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There are over 300 ethnic groups in Indonesia. 95% of those are of Native Indonesian ancestry, the largest ethnic group in Indonesia is the Javanese who make up about 40% of the total population. The Javanese are concentrated on the island of Java but millions have migrated to other islands throughout the archipelago because of the transmigration program, the Sundanese, Malay, and Madurese are the next largest groups in the country. Many ethnic groups, particularly in Kalimantan and Papua, have only hundreds of members, most of the local languages belong to Austronesian language family, although a significant number, particularly in Papua, speak Papuan languages. The Tionghoa population makes up a less than 1% of the total Indonesian population according to the 2000 census. Some of these Indonesians of Chinese descent speak various Chinese dialects, most notably Hokkien and this is the same case with Baduy people that share many cultural similarities with the Sundanese people. Number and percentage of population of ethnic groups according to a 2010 census, the proportions of Indonesian ethnic groups according to the are as follows, The regions of Indonesia have some of their indigenous ethnic groups. Due to migration within Indonesia, there are significant populations of ethnic groups who reside outside of their traditional regions, Chinese, The most significant ethnic minority of foreign origin in Indonesia. Chinese began inhabiting Indonesia since the 15th century with significant waves in 18th and 19th century, mostly concentrated in pecinan in urban Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan cities with significant numbers in Jakarta, North Sumatra, Riau, Riau Islands, Bangka-Belitung Islands, and West Kalimantan. Arabs, Historically Arab traders were responsible for the spread of Islam in the Indonesian archipelago, spread throughout Indonesian cities, significant numbers can be found in Medan, Banda Aceh, Padang, Jakarta, Surabaya, Gresik and many coastal cities in Indonesia. Indian, Indian people also had settled the Indonesian archipelago, however, concentrated in urban centres with significant numbers around Pasar Baru in Jakarta, and Kampung Keling in Medan. Indos, Indos or Eurasians, of mixed ancestry between Indonesian native ethnic groups and European/Dutch ancestry, they emerged during the Dutch East Indies period, around one million Indonesians with various degrees of mixed ancestry today can trace their ancestry to Europeans. During the colonial period, their numbers were greater, but since Indonesian independence most chose to go to the Netherlands, eurasian Indonesians dwindle in number as an ethnic group since major emigration from Indonesia after World War II. Significant numbers of Japanese expatriates stay in Indonesia, especially in Jakarta, Korean, They are a recent addition of Indonesian foreign origin ethnicities, dated back only several decades ago. Mostly driven by the increase of Korean business and investment in Indonesia, and most are expatriates that still maintain their Korean citizenship
32.
Nasi goreng
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There is also another kind of nasi goreng which is made with ikan asin which is also popular across Indonesia. Nasi goreng is sometimes described as Indonesian stir-fried rice, although it is popular in Malaysia, Singapore. Beyond the Malay Archipelago, it has gained popularity through Indonesian influence in Sri Lanka and via Indonesian immigrant communities in Suriname, Nasi goreng has been called the national dish of Indonesia, though there are many other contenders. It can be enjoyed in simple versions from a tin plate at a food stall, eaten on porcelain in restaurants. In 2011 an online poll by 35,000 people held by CNN International chose Indonesian nasi goreng as the two of their World’s 50 Most Delicious Foods list after rendang. Nasi goreng had the beginnings as other versions of fried rice. Frying the rice could prevent the propagation of microbes, especially in pre-refrigeration technology Indonesia. Nasi goreng is traditionally served at home for breakfast and it is made out of leftover rice from the night before. Besides ingredients like shallot, tomato, pepper and chili, the rice is fried with scraps of chicken or beef, Nasi goreng is often described as Indonesias twist on fried rice. And as with other fried rice recipes in Asia, it has suggested that it can trace its origin from Southern Chinese fried rice. However, it is not clear when Indonesians began to adopt the Chinese fried rice, the trade between China and the Indonesian archipelago flourished from the era of Srivijaya around the 10th century and intensified in the Majapahit era around the 15th century. By that time Chinese immigrants had begun to settle in the archipelago, bringing along with them their culture, Chinese people usually favor freshly cooked hot food, and in their culture it is taboo to throw away uneaten foodstuffs. As a result, the previous days leftover rice was often recooked in the morning, previously, Indonesians probably simply sun-dried the leftover rice to make intip or rengginang, the dried rice also could be ground to make rice flour. The Chinese influences upon Indonesian cuisine can be seen in mie goreng that appeared simultaneously with the introduction of the frying technique that required the use of a Chinese wok. In China, the frying technique became increasingly popular during Ming dynasty. The introduction of stir frying technique, Chinese wok, and also soy sauce probably took place around or after this period, circa 17th century. The common soy sauce has its origin in 2nd century CE China, however, sweet soy sauce plus the addition of shrimp paste, those are the elements that differs Indonesian nasi goreng from Chinese fried rice. Other than Chinese influence, there is another suggested that nasi goreng was actually inspired by a Middle Eastern dish called pilaf
33.
Nasi campur
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Nasi campur refers to a dish of a scoop of nasi putih accompanied by small portions of a number of other dishes, which includes meats, vegetables, peanuts, eggs and fried-shrimp krupuk. Depending where it originates, a nasi campur vendor might served several side dishes, including vegetables, fish, a similar form called chanpurū exists in Okinawa. Nasi campur is a dish around Indonesia and as diverse as the archipelago itself. As a result, the question of origin or recipe is obscure, there are several local variations throughout Southeast Asia, from Java, Bali, Malay Peninsular, Borneo, Sulawesi and Indo colonial to Chinese Indonesian versions of nasi campur. A similar Minangkabau counterpart is called Nasi Padang and prominent especially in Sumatra region, in Bali the mixed rice called Nasi Campur Bali or simply Nasi Bali is a favorite among tourists. This Balinese version of nasi campur probably is the most internationally well-known version, mostly due to the Bali factor, the tastes are often distinctly local, punctuated by basa genep, the typical Balinese spice mix used as the base for many curry and vegetable dishes. The Balinese version of mixed rice may have grilled tuna, fried tofu, cucumber, spinach, tempe, beef cubes, vegetable curry, corn, mixed rice is often sold by street vendors, wrapped in a banana leaf. As a Hindu majority island, the Balinese version might add lawar, nevertheless, the halal version is available, with ayam betutu, sate lilit, and eggs to accompany the rice. In Java, nasi campur is often called nasi rames, one dish that usually found in a Javanese nasi campur is fried noodle. The combination known as nasi rames is a dish created in West Java during World War II by the Indo cook Truus van der Capellen, later she opened a restaurant in the Netherlands and made the dish equally popular there. This dish is served with simple Chinese chicken soup or sayur asin. However, a name for a similar dish does not exist in Mainland China, Singapore, Malaysia, in reality the usage of the name Nasi Campur here is only for marketing and convenience purposes for the locals, and should not be included in the category of Nasi Campur. This categorization of Nasi Campur makes as much sense as categorizing all buffets with rice in them as Rijsttafel just because of the presence of any rice, the name Nasi Campur Tionghoa is only a shortened version of nasi dengan daging campur cara Tionghoa. Furthermore, most Chinese vendors and food-court stalls in the region serve only one kind of meat with rice, hence, in most cases, those Chinese vendors menu refers to the specific meat accompanying plain rice, for example, Char Siew Rice, or Roast Pork Rice. The Nasi Campur Tionghoa in this respect, is the set menu of various Chinese barbecued meats. In most cases, Nasi Campur refers specifically to the Indonesian and Malaysian versions of rice with assortments of side dishes, in Indonesia it refer to any kind of rice surrounded by various dishes. In Malaysia it refer more specifically to Malay mixed rice, in Japan, United States and most of foreign countries, nasi campur often refer to the Balinese version, while in the Netherlands it is most often refer to Indo-colonial nasi rames. The side dishes itself might vary widely among regions and eating establishments, media related to Nasi campur at Wikimedia Commons
34.
Nasi kuning
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Nasi Kuning, or sometimes called Nasi Kunyit, is an Indonesian fragrant rice dish cooked with coconut milk and turmeric, hence the name nasi kuning. In Indonesian culture, nasi kuning has favorable symbolic meanings, Nasi kuning is quite widespread and commonly found in Indonesian culture. It can be found from Java to Sumatra, Bali and Sulawesi, however, it is most strongly associated with Javanese and Minahasa traditions. In Java, nasi kuning might come in the form of a cone called a tumpeng and is eaten during special events. The top of the tumpeng is given to the most senior person in attendance. One of the most popular nasi kuning variant is came from Manado of North Sulawesi, Nasi kuning is usually served with a variety of side dishes such as shredded omelette, serundeng, urap, teri kacang, sambal goreng, ayam goreng, balado udang, or perkedel. More elaborate nasi kuning might include fried cows brain, fried cows lung, beef and it is common to serve nasi kuning with kerupuk udang or emping chips and a decoratively cut cucumber and tomato. List of rice dishes Nasi bogana Nasi campur Nasi goreng Nasi kucing Nasi lemak Nasi liwet Nasi pecel Nasi tim Nasi uduk Nasi ulam Food portal Nasi Tumpeng - Its Meaning and Function
35.
Nasi bakar
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Nasi bakar refer to steamed rice seasoned with spices and ingredients and wrapped in banana leaf secured with lidi semat and later grilled upon charcoal fire. The burned banana leaf produced a unique aroma upon the rice, the banana leaf package is opened upon consumption. It is a newly developed Indonesian dish around the early 2000s. There are many variants of nasi bakar according to its ingredients, such as fried chicken, empal gepuk, anchovy, peda fish, milkfish, salted fish, shrimp, mushroom, tempeh, tofu, salted duck egg etc. Nasi liwet Nasi timbel Nasi uduk Nasi bogana Nasi lemak Nasi bakar chicken recipe
36.
Satay
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Satay, or sate in Indonesian and Malaysian spelling, is a dish of seasoned, skewered and grilled meat, served with a sauce. These are grilled or barbecued over a wood or charcoal fire, Satay can be served in various sauces, however most often they are served in a combination of soy and peanut sauce. Hence, peanut sauce are called as satay sauce. Satay originated in the Indonesian island of Java and it is available almost anywhere in Indonesia, where it has become a national dish. Satay is a popular delicacy in Indonesia, the countrys diverse ethnic groups culinary arts have produced a wide variety of satays. In Malaysia, satay is a popular dish—especially during celebrations—and can be throughout the country. In Southern Philippines it is known as satti, close analogues are yakitori from Japan, chuanr from China, shish kebab from Turkey and the Middle East, shashlik from the Caucasus and sosatie from South Africa. It is listed at number 14 on Worlds 50 most delicious foods readers poll compiled by CNN Go in 2011, although both Thailand and Malaysia claim it as their own, its Southeast Asian origin was in Java, Indonesia. There satay was developed from the Indian kebab brought by the Muslim traders, even India cannot claim its origin, for there it was a legacy of Middle Eastern influence. A dish with widespread popularity, the origins of satay are unclear, the word satay itself is thought to have been derived from Indonesian, sate and Malay, saté or satai, both perhaps of Tamil origin. Satay was supposedly invented by Javanese street vendors as an adaptation of Indian kebabs and this theory is based on the fact that satay has become popular in Java after the influx of Muslim Indian and Arabs immigrants to Dutch East Indies in the early 19th century. The satay meats used by Indonesians and Malaysians — mutton and beef — are also favoured by Arabs and are not as popular in China as are pork, during the same period, other goat-based food such as tongseng and gulai kambing spicy goat soup were also appeared in Java. Another theory states that the word satay is derived from the Southern Min words sa tae bak and this theory is discounted, however, as traditional satay often consists of four pieces of meat and the fact that four is considered to be an inauspicious number in Chinese culture. From Java, satay spread through the Malay Archipelago and, as a consequence, numerous variations of the dish have been developed, by the late 19th century, satay has crossed the Strait of Malacca into neighbouring Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. In the 19th century, the migrated, presumably with Malay immigrants from the Dutch East Indies, to South Africa. The Dutch also brought this dish as well as many other Indonesian specialties to the Netherlands, turmeric is a necessary ingredient used to marinate satay, which gives the dish its characteristic yellow color. Meat commonly used includes beef, lamb, goat, mutton, pork, venison, fish, shrimp, squid, chicken, rabbit, some have also used more exotic varieties of meat, such as turtle, crocodile, horse, lizard and snake meat. Mutton satay is served with kecap manis instead of peanut sauce
37.
Soto (food)
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Soto is a traditional Indonesian soup mainly composed of broth, meat and vegetables. Many traditional soups are called soto, whereas foreign and Western influenced soups are called sop, Soto is sometimes considered Indonesias national dish, as it is served from Sumatra to Papua, in a wide range of variations. Soto is omnipresent in Indonesia, available in many warungs and open-air eateries on many street corners, to fine dining restaurants, Soto, especially soto ayam, is an Indonesian equivalent of chicken soup. Because it is served warm with a tender texture, it is considered an Indonesian comfort food. Introduced to Suriname by Javanese migrants, it is part of the cuisine of that country as well. In the Indonesian archipelago, soto is known by different names, in the local Javanese dialect, it is called soto, while in Pekalongan it is called tauto, and the dish also reached Makassar where it is called coto. Soto is found to be most prevalent in Java, and suggested that the hearty soup was originated from that island, and over the years this dish branched off in an assorted array of soto varieties. Denys Lombard in his book Le Carrefour Javanais suggested that the origin of soto was a Chinese soup, caudo, popular in Semarang among Chinese immigrants during colonial VOC era, circa 17th century. Another scholar suggests that it was likely a mixture of cooking traditions in the region, namely Chinese, Indian. There are traces of Chinese influence such as the use of bihun, another example is soto betawi from Jakarta uses minyak samin, which indicates Arab or Muslim Indian influences. Another historian suggest that some soto recipe reflects the past condition of its people, the meat soup dish influenced various regions and each developed its own recipes, with the ingredients being highly localized according to available ingredients and local cooking traditions. As a result, rich variants of soto were developed across Indonesia, the spread of soto in Indonesian archipelago was followed by the localization of Sotos recipe, according to available ingredients and distinctive local taste. As the result, myriad soto recipes and variations can be found in Indonesia, the meat pieces are fried before being served or mixed. Padang soto – a beef broth soto with slices of fried beef, bihun, Pekalongan soto or tauto Pekalongan – spiced with tauco. Semarang soto – a chicken soto spiced with candlenut, mixed with rice, perkedel, tempe, Soto Semarang is also known as Soto Bangkong, named after Bangkong crossroad in Semarang. Tegal soto or Sauto Tegal, almost same with Pekalongan soto spiced with tauco, Sauto can be chicken soto, beef soto, or even beef offal. Some versions are prepared with cellophane noodles, Soto ceker is one of the popular street food in Jakarta, Bali, and most of major cities in Java. In street side warung or humble restaurants, soto ceker is usually offered as a variation of soto ayam, Soto babat – a cows or goats tripe, served in yellow spicy coconut milk soup with vermicelli, potato, and vegetables, usually eaten with rice
38.
Soto mie
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Soto mie, Soto mi, or Mee soto is a spicy noodle soup dish commonly found in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. Mie means noodle made of flour, salt and egg, while soto refer to Indonesian soup, in Indonesia it is called soto mie and considered as one variant of soto, while in Malaysia and Singapore it is called mee soto. There are some variations of soto mie, it can be made of beef, chicken, people may exchange noodles for rice or rice vermicelli according to their preference. A combination of either noodle or rice vermicelli along with slices of tomato, boiled potato, hard boiled egg, cabbages, peanut, bean sprout and beef, broth is then poured over this combination. This soup is made from beef or chicken stock and some other spices, Soto mie usually add condiments such as jeruk nipis, sambal, bawang goreng, vinegar, kecap manis, and emping. Yellow noodles served in soup is mainly known in two major different versions, the beef and chicken versions. The most popular soto mie in Indonesia comes from Bogor, West Java and it is a popular street food sold by travelling gerobak or cart vendor frequenting business and residential areas in cities and towns in Indonesia. The beef broth soup is spiced with shallot, garlic, candlenut, peppercorn, ground ebi, daun salam, lime leaves, bruised lemongrass and it is made of beef or cows trotters with noodles, slices of risole, tomato, cabbage, potato, and celery. The Jakarta version is similar to Bogor version, but prefer beef meat instead of cows trotters. In Singapore and Johor, Malaysia the most popular variant is mee soto ayam, Mee soto is a spicy noodle soup dish that combines the Indonesian chicken broth known as soto ayam with thick yellow Hokkien noodles. The chicken broth is spiced with spice paste made of ground peppercorns, coriander, garlic, candlenut, galangal, red onion, turmeric, bruised lemongrass, cardamom, cloves and it is a Javanese influenced dish, and quite popular in Singapore and Johor. Basically it is pretty similar with soto ayam commonly served in Indonesia, the origin of the soto ayam broth used for making mee soto can be traced to the Madurese migrant ethnic group who reside in the Indonesian city of Surabaya in East Java. The East Javanese immigrants from Madura and Lamongan has been settled in Johor and Singapore, bringing them the spicy soto ayam broth dish. Soto ayam Mie rebus Laksa List of Indonesian soups
39.
Oxtail soup
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Oxtail soup is made with beef tails. The use of the ox in this context is a legacy of nomenclature. It is believed by some that oxtail soup was invented in Spitalfields in London in the century by French Huguenot and Flemish immigrants. Different versions of oxtail soup exist, Korean, Chinese, a fried/barbecued oxtail combined with soup variation which is a dish in Indonesia where it is called as sop buntut. An ethnic dish of the American South which traces its lineage back to the war era. Creole oxtail soup is made from a base with oxtails, potatoes, green beans, corn, mirepoix, garlic. Though translated literally as oxtail soup, this version of the dish is somewhere between a soup and a stew. One of the characteristics of oxtail soup is that it contains a large mass of solid ingredients. Chunks of oxtail, potato, carrots, cabbage, tomato, and mushrooms are mixed in water, the mixture should be heated at a slow boil, to allow time for the ingredients to release their flavors. In particular, the tomatoes and potatoes should largely disintegrate into the water, giving the broth a reddish-orange coloration, as to be expected, oils from the oxtail lend most of the flavor. The soup is served all of the ingredients. In Indonesian cuisine, oxtail soup is a popular dish and it is made of slices of fried or barbecued oxtail, served in vegetable soup with rich but clear beef broth. It contains boiled potatoes, carrots, tomatoes, leek, celery, Indonesian sop buntut is seasoned with shallot, garlic and native spices such as black pepper, nutmeg, and clove. A relatively new variant is called Sop Buntut Goreng, where the oxtail is seasoned, fried and served dry, the dish is commonly eaten with rice and accompanied with sambal, sweet soy sauce and lime juice. Certain restaurant has specialized on oxtail soup, among a famous one is Bogor Café in Hotel Borobudur in Central Jakarta, Korean oxtail soup is called kkori gom tang. It is colloquially known as bone soup, the broth is made with raw oxtail, garlic, salt, black pepper, green onions and other typical Korean flavors. The soup must be simmered at low heat for hours to soften the meat. During this time, the layer of fat must be regularly skimmed from the surface of the pot, the final result is a rich beef broth with a garlic taste and bits of soft meat
40.
Semur (Indonesian stew)
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Semur is a type of meat stew, that is braised in thick brown gravy commonly found in Indonesian cuisine. The main ingredient used in semur gravy is kecap manis, shallots, onions, garlic, ginger, candlenut, nutmeg and cloves, sometimes pepper, coriander, cumin and cinnamon might be added. Soy sauce is the most important ingredient in the Semur-making process because it serves to strengthen the flavor, semur derived from the Dutch language Smoor, which means food that has been smothered with something, in this case tomatoes and onions. History shows that the dish of marinated boiled meat in Indonesia has been known since the 9th century CE in ancient Java. This can be seen some of the inscriptions, and reliefs of the temples in Java that tells Ganan, hadanan prana wdus or buffaloes. However, whether the buffalo and goat meat mentioned in records was the same dishes like stews today is still uncertain. For centuries Indonesia has attracted traders for its natural resources. Exotic flavors of Indonesian spices such as nutmeg, cloves and cinnamon have attracted traders, foreign traders and immigrants brought their culture, which gradually blended into everyday Indonesian culture. This assimilation has developed a blend of traditions of the archipelago, the European Dutch colonial believed to have brought the stew technique and combine it with local spices and local kecap manis. The particular flavor of Indonesian spices combined with a variety of food processing techniques has resulted in the creation of unique dishes such as semur. Centuries of interactions between the Netherlands and Indonesia have contributed to the development of the stews flavor, Javanese stew that in the earlier served as the main menu in the banquet of the Dutch is derived from the word smoor. Smoor in Dutch means food that has simmered with tomatoes and onions in a long cook process, one of the oldest and most cookbook recipes complete document in the Dutch East Indies, Groot Nieuw Oost-Indisch Volledig Kookboek published in 1902, contains six recipes stew. This book asserts that the later smoor stew was the cooking method developed in Dutch East Indies by the Eurasian. Over time, semur was incorporated into Indonesian tradition and served in a variety of traditional events, Javanese with their preference on sweet dishes has favoured semur and consider it as part of Javanese cuisine. Betawi people in Jakarta have adopted semur as part of their tradition that is served during Lebaran, weddings. At first, semur was associated to the beef that is processed in thick brown gravy. However it was developed into various ingredients and recipes, ox tongue, mutton, chicken, eggs, also for vegetable products, such as tofu, tempeh, eggplant. Semur has become a daily dishes served in Indonesian households and can be found in parts of Indonesia
41.
Tahu goreng
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Tahu goreng or Tauhu goreng is a dish of fried tofu commonly found in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. When preparing the dish, cakes of hard tofu are deep fried until golden brown, the bean curds are then cut diagonally in half and arranged on a plate garnished with bean sprouts, cucumber and scallion. A thick sauce is prepared with shallots, garlic, chili peppers, shrimp paste, soy sauce, in Indonesian and Malay language, tahu or tauhu refers to tofu and goreng indicates fried. Tofu was originated from China and brought to Southeast Asia by Chinese immigrants to the region, Tahu goreng is largely similar to the Japanese dish agedashi tofu where the latter is not spicy and uses fewer condiments, although both versions use generous servings of soy sauce. Tahu goreng is a name for any type of fried tofu in Indonesia, it can be mildly fried or deep fried. In Indonesia, tahu goreng is usually eaten with sambal kecap a kind of sambal hot condiment made from kecap manis and chopped chili peppers, some variant might uses peanut sauce with chili instead. Some variants are, Tahu isi, probably the most popular variant of tahu goreng in Indonesia, tofu filled with bean sprouts, carrots and sometimes minced meat is battered and it is commonly found in gorengan vendors. Tahu sumedang, the derived from Sumedang city, West Java. Pioneered by Tahu Bunkeng tofu store in Sumedang established by Chinese immigrants in 1917, Tahu gejrot, fried tofu in hot sweet and sour thin sauce with shallots and chilies, originated from Cirebon city, West Java. Tahu taoge, stir fried diced tofu with beansprouts, Tahu campur, with beef slices, vegetables, beansprouts, and noodles or rice vermicelli, served in thin broth. The dish is common in East Javan cities, such as Malang, Surabaya, Tahu gunting, fried tofu in thick sweet and spicy peanut sauce, originated from Surabaya city, East Java. Tahu telur, with omelette, beansprout, peanuts, and lontong rice cake, served in thin sweet, also originated from Surabaya city, East Java. Tahu bulat or tahu bola also called bola-bola tahu, is a new variant of fried tofu from Tasikmalaya. The tofu is mixed with seasoning and shaped in balls or rounded form, kupat tahu, ketupat rice cake, beansprout, served in thick sweet and spicy peanut sauce, common throughout Java, however the most popular variant came from Kuningan, Magelang, Solo and Surabaya. Indonesian stuffed tofu recipe from SBS Australia Batagor Yong tau foo List of tofu dishes List of deep fried foods Indonesian cuisine Malaysian cuisine Singaporean cuisine Food portal
42.
Stir fried water spinach
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Stir fried water spinach is a common Asian vegetable dish of stir-fried water spinach. It is a popular Asian vegetable dish, commonly found throughout East and Southeast Asia, from Sichuan and Cantonese cuisine in China, to Vietnamese, kangkung and kangkong are water spinach. In Indonesian tumis kangkung means stir-fried water spinach, stir fried water spinach is one of the simplest, easiest, and also cheapest vegetable dishes in Asia, which contributes to its popularity. Water spinach thrives in the waterways, rivers, lakes and swamps of tropical Southeast Asia and Southern China. The garlic and shallots or onion are stir-fried in cooking oil, then the cleaned, the stir-frying lightly caramelizes the vegetables. The seasoning sauce is added according to preference and recipe. Some might add slices of red hot pepper for spicy tanginess. Other recipes might add diced tofu, the stir-fried water spinach might vary according to its seasonings. A stir-fried water spinach could be lightly seasoned in garlic, black pepper, fish sauce, soy sauce, oyster sauce, or in spicy chili pepper, tauco, shrimp paste or other sauce. The Vietnamese version seems to favour fish sauce for seasoning, while the Indonesian and Malaysian version seems to favour shrimp paste, the Southern Chinese recipe might favour oyster sauce or fermented tofu seasoning. In West Java, the Chinese Indonesian version however, favours the use of tauco fermented soybeans paste as seasoning, a specific stir-fried water spinach seasoned with shrimp paste is called kangkung belacan, kangkong belacan or cah kangkung terasi. In Malay kangkong belacan means water spinach in shrimp paste seasoning and it is a popular vegetable dish in Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia
43.
Gado-gado
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Gado-gado, also known as lotek, is an Indonesian salad of slightly boiled, blanched or steamed vegetables and hard-boiled eggs, fried tofu and tempeh, and lontong, served with a peanut sauce dressing. The term gado or the verb means to consume something without rice. Gado-gado is different from lotek atah or karedok which uses raw vegetables, another similar dish is the Javanese pecel. Gado-gado is widely sold in almost every part of Indonesia, with each area having its own modifications and it is thought to have originally been a Sundanese dish, as it is most prevalent in Western parts of Java. The Javanese have their own slightly similar version of a dish called pecel which is more prevalent in Central. Gado-gado is widely available from hawkers carts, stalls and restaurants and hotels in Indonesia, though it is customarily called a salad, the peanut sauce is a larger component of gado-gado than is usual for the dressings in Western-style salads, the vegetables should be well coated with it. Some eating establishments use different mixtures of peanut sauce, such as adding cashew nuts for taste, in Jakarta, some eating establishment boast gado-gado as their signature dish, some of which have been in business for decades and have developed faithful clientele. Gado-Gado Boplo restaurant chain for example has been around since 1970, the key to a delicious gado-gado is the sauce made of fried crushed savory peanuts, sweet palm sugar, garlic, chilies, salt, tamarind and a squeeze of lime. However, particularly in the West, gado-gado sauce is often prepared ahead of time, gado-gado sauce is also available in dried form, which simply needs to be rehydrated by adding hot water. Gado-gado sauce is not to be confused with satay sauce, which is also a peanut sauce, most of flavours in gado-gado are acquired from the mixture of its bumbu kacang or peanut salad dressing. Gado-gado perfectly combines a slightly sweet, spicy and savory tastes, the dry ingredients are ground first, then the tamarind liquids is added to achieve the desired consistency. Sliced - boiled potatoes uncooked - sliced cucumber peeled and sliced boiled eggs sliced - fried tofu and tempeh Outside Indonesia, it is usual to improvise with whatever vegetables are available. All the ingredients are blanched or lightly boiled, including vegetables, potatoes and bean sprouts, except for the tempeh and tofu, which is fried, the blanched vegetables and other ingredients are mixed well with the peanut sauce. In Indonesia gado-gado is commonly served mixed with chopped lontong or ketupat and it is nearly always served with krupuk, e. g. tapioca crackers or emping, Indonesian style fried crackers, which are made from melinjo. A common garnish is bawang goreng a finely-chopped fried shallot sprinkles, Gado gado recipe Gado gado Surabaya recipe Gado gado recipe Recipe for Gado Gado with Beef
44.
Sambal
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Sambal is an Indonesian loan-word of Javanese origin. It is native to the cuisines of Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Brunei and it has also spread through overseas Indonesian populations to the Netherlands and Suriname. Various recipes of sambals usually are served as hot and spicy condiments for dishes, such as lalab, ikan bakar, ikan goreng, ayam goreng, ayam penyet, iga penyet, traditional sambals are freshly made using traditional tools, such as a stone pestle and mortar. Sambal can be served raw or cooked, the chili pepper, garlic, shallot and tomato are often freshly ground using a mortar, while the terasi or belacan is fried or burned first to kill its pungent smell as well as to release its aroma. Sambal might be prepared in bulk, as it can be stored in a well-sealed glass jar in the refrigerator for a week to be served with meals as a condiment. However, some households and restaurants insist on making freshly-prepared sambal just a few prior to consuming in order to ensure its freshness and flavor. Nevertheless, in most warung and restaurants, most sambal is prepared daily in bulk and offered as a hot, today some brands of prepared, prepacked, instant, or ready-to-use sambal are available in warung, traditional markets, supermarkets and convenience stores. Most are bottled sambal, with a few available in plastic or aluminum sachet packaging. Traditionally made sambals ground in a pestle and mortar usually have a coarse texture, the most common kinds of peppers used in sambal are, Adyuma, also known as habanero, a very spicy, yellow, and block-shaped pepper. Cayenne pepper, a shiny, red, and elongated pepper, Madame Jeanette, a yellow–light green, elongated, irregularly-shaped pepper. Birds eye chili, also known as cabe rawit in Javanese, Chili peppers known as lombok in Javanese, a mild, green–red, elongated pepper. Green chili peppers are milder than red ones, in the Indonesian archipelago, there are as many as 300 varieties of sambal. The intensity ranges from mild to very hot, some varieties include, Sambal andaliman Similar to sambal lado mudo but with the addition of andaliman pepper. Sambal asam This is similar to sambal terasi with an addition of tamarind concentrate, asam means tamarind or sour in Indonesian. Chili fried with oil, garlic, terasi, candlenuts and other condiments and this is darker and richer in flavor than sambal asam. Chili pepper or green chili is blended together with garlic, shallot, red or green tomato, salt and lemon or lime juice, Sambal buah specialty of Palembang, made from the mixture of chili, shrimp paste, kemang and pineapple. Sambal cibiuk a sambal recipe specialty of Cibiuk village, Garut Regency and it consist of coarsely chopped and ground green birds eye chili, green raw tomato, shallot, galangal, lemon basil, shrimp paste and salt. Sambal colo-colo From Ambon, it consists of Indonesian kecap manis, chili, tomatoes bits, shallots and it is suitable for barbecue dishes
