1.
UNIX System V
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UNIX System V is one of the first commercial versions of the Unix operating system. It was originally developed by AT&T and first released in 1983, four major versions of System V were released, numbered 1,2,3, and 4. It was the source of common commercial Unix features. System V is sometimes abbreviated to SysV, as of 2012, the Unix market is divided between three System V variants, IBMs AIX, Hewlett-Packards HP-UX and Oracles Solaris. System V was the successor to 1982s UNIX System III, while AT&T sold their own hardware that ran System V, most customers instead ran a version from a reseller, based on AT&Ts reference implementation. A standards document called the System V Interface Definition outlined the default features, in the 1980s and early-1990s, System V was considered one of the two major versions of UNIX, the other being the Berkeley Software Distribution. Historically, BSD was also commonly called BSD Unix or Berkeley Unix, the dispute had several levels, some technical and some cultural. The divide was roughly between longhairs and shorthairs, programmers and technical people tended to line up with Berkeley and BSD, more business-oriented types with AT&T and System V. While HP, IBM and others chose System V as the basis for their Unix offerings, other such as Sun Microsystems. Throughout its development, though, System V was infused with features from BSD, since the early 1990s, due to standardization efforts such as POSIX and the commercial success of Linux, the division between System V and BSD has become less important. System V, known inside Bell Labs as Unix 5.0, there was never an external release of Unix 4.0, which would have been System IV. This first release of System V was developed by AT&Ts UNIX Support Group, System V also included features such as the vi editor and curses from 4.1 BSD, developed at the University of California, Berkeley, it also improved performance by adding buffer and inode caches. It also added support for communication using messages, semaphores. SVR1 ran on DEC PDP-11 and VAX minicomputers, System V Release 2 was released in April,1984. It added shell functions and the SVID, new kernel features included record and file locking, demand paging, and copy on write. The concept of the base was formalized, and the DEC VAX-11/780 was chosen for this release. The porting base is the original version of a release. Educational source licenses for SVR2 were offered by AT&T for US$800 for the first CPU, a commercial source license was offered for $43,000, with three months of support, and a $16,000 price per additional CPU
2.
Pizza Hut
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Pizza Hut is an American restaurant chain and international franchise, known for its Italian-American cuisine menu including pizza and pasta, as well as side dishes and desserts. The company has over 15,000 locations worldwide as of 2015, Brands, Inc. one of the worlds largest restaurant companies. Pizza Hut was founded in June 1958 by two Wichita State University students, brothers Dan and Frank Carney, as a location in Wichita. PepsiCo acquired Pizza Hut in 1977, before closing in 2015, the oldest continuously operating Pizza Hut was in Manhattan, Kansas, in a shopping and tavern district known as Aggieville near Kansas State University. The first Pizza Hut restaurant east of the Mississippi was opened in Athens, Ohio in 1966 by Lawrence Berberick, Pizza Hut was one of the first American franchises to open in Iraq. The company announced a rebrand that began on November 19,2014, the rebrand was an effort to increase sales, which dropped in the previous two years. The menu was expanded to various items such as crust flavors. Work uniforms for employees were also refreshed, in 2017, Pizza Hut was listed by UK-based company Richtopia at number 24 in the list of 200 Most Influential Brands in the World. Some full-size Pizza Hut locations have a buffet, with all-you-can-eat pizza, salad, bread sticks. Pizza Hut has other business concepts different from the type, Pizza Hut Bistro locations are Red Roofs which have an expanded menu. An upscale concept was unveiled in 2004, called Pizza Hut Italian Bistro, at 50 U. S. locations, the Bistro is similar to a traditional Pizza Hut, except the menu features new, Italian-themed dishes such as penne pasta, chicken pomodoro, and toasted sandwiches. Instead of black, white, and red, Bistro locations feature a burgundy, Pizza Hut Bistros still serve the chains traditional pizzas and sides. In some cases, Pizza Hut has replaced a Red Roof location with the new concept, Pizza Hut Express and The Hut locations are fast food restaurants. They offer a menu with many products not seen at a traditional Pizza Hut. Vintage Red Roof locations, designed by architect Richard D. Burke, can be found in the United States and Canada, several exist in the UK, Australia, and Mexico. These buildings rarely show up in architectural journals, yet they have some of the most numerous and conspicuous in the United States today. This building style was common in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the name Red Roof is somewhat anachronistic now, since many locations have brown roofs. Dozens of Red Roofs have closed or been relocated or rebuilt, many Red Roof branches have beer if not a full bar, music from a jukebox, and sometimes an arcade
3.
Unix
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Among these is Apples macOS, which is the Unix version with the largest installed base as of 2014. Many Unix-like operating systems have arisen over the years, of which Linux is the most popular, Unix was originally meant to be a convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmer users. The system grew larger as the system started spreading in academic circles, as users added their own tools to the system. Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time-sharing configuration and these concepts are collectively known as the Unix philosophy. By the early 1980s users began seeing Unix as a universal operating system. Under Unix, the system consists of many utilities along with the master control program. To mediate such access, the kernel has special rights, reflected in the division between user space and kernel space, the microkernel concept was introduced in an effort to reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a system in which most tasks were completed by smaller utilities. In an era when a standard computer consisted of a disk for storage and a data terminal for input and output. However, modern systems include networking and other new devices, as graphical user interfaces developed, the file model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as those generated by a mouse. In the 1980s, non-blocking I/O and the set of inter-process communication mechanisms were augmented with Unix domain sockets, shared memory, message queues, and semaphores. In microkernel implementations, functions such as network protocols could be moved out of the kernel, Multics introduced many innovations, but had many problems. Frustrated by the size and complexity of Multics but not by the aims and their last researchers to leave Multics, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, M. D. McIlroy, and J. F. Ossanna, decided to redo the work on a much smaller scale. The name Unics, a pun on Multics, was suggested for the project in 1970. Peter H. Salus credits Peter Neumann with the pun, while Brian Kernighan claims the coining for himself, in 1972, Unix was rewritten in the C programming language. Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are referred to as Research Unix. In 1975, the first source license for UNIX was sold to faculty at the University of Illinois Department of Computer Science, UIUC graduate student Greg Chesson was instrumental in negotiating the terms of this license. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to adoption of Unix by commercial startups, including Sequent, HP-UX, Solaris, AIX. In the late 1980s, AT&T Unix System Laboratories and Sun Microsystems developed System V Release 4, in the 1990s, Unix-like systems grew in popularity as Linux and BSD distributions were developed through collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers
4.
Point of sale
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The point of sale or point of purchase is the time and place where a retail transaction is completed. It is also the point at which a customer makes a payment to the merchant in exchange for goods or after provision of a service. After receiving payment, the merchant may issue a receipt for the transaction, which is usually printed, to calculate the amount owed by a customer, the merchant may use any of a variety of aids available, such as weighing scales, barcode scanners, and cash registers. To make a payment, payment terminals, touch screens, the point of sale is often referred to as the point of service because it is not just a point of sale but also a point of return or customer order. Additionally, current POS terminal software may include features to cater for different functionality, such as inventory management, CRM, financials. Businesses are increasingly adopting POS systems and one of the most obvious, selling prices are linked to the product code of an item when adding stock, so the cashier merely needs to scan this code to process a sale. If there is a change, this can also be easily done through the inventory window. Other advantages include ability to implement various types of discounts, a loyalty scheme for customers, retailers and marketers will often refer to the area around the checkout instead as the point of purchase when they are discussing it from the retailers perspective. This is particularly the case when planning and designing the area as well as considering a marketing strategy. Nevertheless, it is the term POS system rather than retail management system that is in vogue among both end-users and vendors, early electronic cash registers were controlled with proprietary software and were limited in function and communication capability. This system was the first commercial use of technology, peer-to-peer communications, local area network simultaneous backup. By mid-1974, it was installed in Pathmark stores in New Jersey, one of the first microprocessor-controlled cash register systems was built by William Brobeck and Associates in 1974, for McDonalds Restaurants. It used the Intel 8008, an early microprocessor. By pressing the button, a second or third order could be worked on while the first transaction was in progress, when the customer was ready to pay, the button would calculate the bill, including sales tax for almost any jurisdiction in the United States. This made it accurate for McDonalds and very convenient for the servers, up to eight devices were connected to one of two interconnected computers so that printed reports, prices, and taxes could be handled from any desired device by putting it into Manager Mode. In addition to the memory, accuracy was enhanced by having three copies of all important data with many numbers stored only as multiples of 3. Should one computer fail, the other could handle the entire store, in 1986, Gene Mosher introduced the first graphical point of sale software featuring a touchscreen interface under the ViewTouch trademark on the 16-bit Atari 520ST color computer. It featured a color touchscreen widget-driven interface that allowed configuration of widgets representing menu items without low level programming, the ViewTouch point of sale software was first demonstrated in public at Fall Comdex,1986, in Las Vegas Nevada to large crowds visiting the Atari Computer booth
5.
McDonald's
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McDonalds is an American hamburger and fast food restaurant chain. It was founded in 1940 as a restaurant operated by Richard. In 1948, they reorganized their business as a hamburger stand, the first McDonalds franchise using the arches logo opened in Phoenix, Arizona in 1953. Businessman Ray Kroc joined the company as an agent in 1955. Based in Oak Brook, Illinois, McDonalds confirmed plans to move its headquarters to Chicago by early 2018. Today, McDonalds is one of the worlds largest restaurant chains, McDonalds primarily sells hamburgers, cheeseburgers, chicken products, french fries, breakfast items, soft drinks, milkshakes, wraps, and desserts. In response to changing tastes, the company has expanded its menu to include salads, fish, wraps, smoothies. A McDonalds restaurant is operated by either a franchisee, an affiliate, the McDonalds Corporation revenues come from the rent, royalties, and fees paid by the franchisees, as well as sales in company-operated restaurants. According to a BBC report published in 2012, McDonalds is the second largest private employer,1.5 million of whom work for franchises. The business began in 1940, with a restaurant opened by brothers Richard and Maurice McDonald at 1398 North E Street at West 14th Street in San Bernardino, the first McDonalds with the arches opened in Phoenix, Arizona in March 1953. The original mascot of McDonalds was a man with a hat on top of a hamburger-shaped head whose name was Speedee. In 1962, the Golden Arches replaced Speedee as the company symbol, a new mascot, Ronald McDonald was introduced in 1965. The clown-like man having puffed out costume legs served advertising aimed at children. On May 4,1961, McDonalds first filed for a U. S. trademark on the name McDonalds with the description Drive-In Restaurant Services, on September 13,1961, the company filed for a trademark on a new logo—an overlapping, double-arched M symbol. By September 6,1962, this M-symbol was temporarily disfavored, although the Golden Arches logo appeared in various forms, the present version as a letter M did not appear until November 18,1968, when the company applied for a U. S. trademark. Kroc later purchased the McDonald brothers equity in the company and led its expansion. Kroc was also noted for aggressive business practices, compelling the McDonald brothers to leave the fast-food industry, Kroc and the McDonald brothers feuded over control of the business, as documented in Krocs autobiography. The San Bernardino restaurant was demolished in 1976 and the site was sold to the Juan Pollo restaurant chain and this area now serves as headquarters for the Juan Pollo chain, as well as a McDonalds and Route 66 museum
6.
Taco Bell
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Taco Bell is an American chain of fast-food restaurants based in Irvine, California. Brands, Inc. they serve a variety of Tex-Mex foods, including tacos, burritos, quesadillas, nachos, other specialty items, and a variety of value menu items. Taco Bell serves more than 2 billion customers each year in 7,000 restaurants, Taco Bell was founded by Glen Bell, who first opened a hot dog stand called Bells Drive-In in San Bernardino, California in 1946 when he was 23 years old. In 1950, he opened Bells Hamburgers and Hot Dogs in San Bernardinos West Side barrio, in late 1951 or early 1952, he took what he had learned and opened a new stand, this time selling tacos under the name of Taco-Tia. Over the next few years, Bell owned and operated a number of restaurants in southern California including four called El Taco, Bell sold the El Tacos to his partner and built the first Taco Bell in Downey in 1962. On the night of Nov.19,2015, the original Taco Bell building in Downey was moved to the Taco Bell Corporate Headquarters in Irvine, CA. Kermit Becky, a former Los Angeles police officer, bought the first Taco Bell franchise from Glen Bell in 1964, the company grew rapidly, and by 1967, the 100th restaurant opened at 400 South Brookhurst in Anaheim. In 1968, its first franchise location east of the Mississippi River opened in Springfield, in 1970, Taco Bell went public with 325 restaurants. In 1978, PepsiCo purchased Taco Bell from Glen Bell, several locations in the Midwestern United States were converted from Zantigo, a Minneapolis, Minnesota-based Mexican chain which PepsiCo acquired in 1986. In 1991, Taco Bell opened the first Taco Bell Express in San Francisco and this concept is a reduced-size restaurant with a limited menu, meant to emphasize volume. Taco Bell Express locations operate primarily inside convenience stores, truck stops, shopping malls, Taco Bell began co-branding with KFC in 1995 when the first such co-brand opened in Clayton, North Carolina. The chain has since co-branded with Pizza Hut and Long John Silvers as well, in 1997, PepsiCo experimented with a new fresh grill concept, opening at least one Border Bell restaurant in Mountain View, California on El Camino Real. Close to the time that PepsiCo spun off its restaurant business in 1997, the menu will consist of tacos with American fillings, and will not sell food sold in Taco Bell restaurants such as burritos. It was launched in Huntington Beach, California in August 2014, Taco bell plans to have a wider roll out of this functionality in the coming months. In September 2000, up to $50 million worth of Taco Bell-branded shells were recalled from supermarkets, the shells contained genetically modified corn that was not approved for human consumption. It was the recall of genetically modified food. Corn was not segregated at grain elevators and the miller in Texas did not order that type, in 2001, Tricon Global Restaurants, 20% owners of Taco Bell at the time, announced a $60 million settlement with the suppliers. They stated that it would go to Taco Bell franchisees and TGR would not take any of it, in March 2005, the Coalition of Immokalee Workers won a landmark victory in its national boycott of Taco Bell for human rights
7.
Costco
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As of 2016, Costco was the worlds no.1 retailer of choice and prime beef, organic foods, rotisserie chicken, and wine. Costcos worldwide headquarters are in Issaquah, Washington, but the company opened its first warehouse in nearby Seattle in 1983, through mergers, Costcos overall corporate history dates back to 1976, when its former competitor Price Club was founded in San Diego, California. As of 9 February 2017, Costco had a total of 727 warehouses, spread throughout the United States, Canada, Mexico, United Kingdom, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Australia, and Spain. Costco is known for offering low-price, limited-selection retail treasure hunts with expensive luxury goods next to cheap bulk goods, Costco opened its first warehouse in Seattle, Washington, on September 15,1983, by James Sinegal and Jeffrey H. Brotman. In 1993, Costco and Price Club agreed to merge operations themselves after Price declined an offer from Sam Walton and Walmart to merge Price Club with their warehouse store chain, Sams Club. Costcos business model and size were similar to those of Price Club, the combined company took the name PriceCostco, and memberships became universal, meaning that a Price Club member could use their membership to shop at Costco and vice versa. PriceCostco boasted 206 locations generating $16 billion in annual sales, in 1997, the company changed its name to Costco Wholesale Corporation and all remaining Price Club locations were rebranded as Costco. In 2014, Costco was the third largest retailer in the United States and that year Costco announced plans to open an online store in China using Alibaba Group. Costco today In the United States, Costcos main competitors operating membership warehouses are Sams Club, Costco employs about 174,000 full and part-time employees. In 2016, Costco had 85 million members, Costco was the first company to grow from zero to $3 billion in sales in under six years. For the fiscal year ending on August 31,2012, the companys sales totaled $97.062 billion, Costco is 18th on the 2015 Fortune 500. The ACSI named Costco number one in the specialty retail store industry with a score of 84 in 2014. As of December 2013, Costcos board of directors is chaired by co-founder Jeffrey H. Brotman, Costco focuses on selling products at low prices, often at very high volume. These goods are usually bulk-packaged and marketed primarily to families and businesses. Furthermore, Costco does not carry multiple brands or varieties where the item is essentially the same except when it has a brand to sell. This results in a volume of sales from a vendor, allowing further reductions in price. A typical Costco warehouse carries only 3,700 distinct products, if Costco management feels the wholesale price of a product is too high, they will refuse to stock the product. For example, on November 16,2009, Costco announced that it would stop selling Coca-Cola products because the soft-drink maker refused to lower its wholesale prices, Costco resumed selling Coca-Cola products on December 14,2009
8.
Toronto Stock Exchange
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Toronto Stock Exchange is one of the worlds largest stock exchanges. It is the ninth largest exchange in the world by market capitalization, based in Toronto, it is owned by and operated as a subsidiary of the TMX Group for the trading of senior equities. A broad range of businesses from Canada and abroad are represented on the exchange, in addition to conventional securities, the exchange lists various exchange-traded funds, split share corporations, income trusts and investment funds. More mining and oil and gas companies are listed on Toronto Stock Exchange than any other stock exchange, the Toronto Stock Exchange likely descended from the Association of Brokers, a group formed by Toronto businessmen on July 26,1852. No records of the transactions have survived. On October 25,1861, twenty-four men gathered at the Masonic Hall to create the Toronto Stock Exchange, the exchange was incorporated by an act of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in 1878. The TSX grew continuously in size and in shares traded, save for a period in 1914 when the exchange was shut down for fear of financial panic due to World War I. In 1934, the Toronto Stock Exchange merged with its key competitor, the merged markets kept the Toronto Stock Exchange name. The TSX opened its new trading floor and headquarters in an Art Deco building on Bay Street in 1937, in 1977, the TSX introduced CATS, an automated trading system, and began to use it for the quotation of less liquid equities. In 1983, the TSX vacated its Art Deco headquarters on Bay Street, the old TSX building later became the Design Exchange, a museum and education centre. On April 23,1997, the TSXs trading floor closed, making it the second-largest stock exchange in North America to choose a floorless, in 1999, the Toronto Stock Exchange announced the appointment of Barbara G. Stymiest to the position of President & Chief Executive Officer. Through a realignment plan, Toronto Stock Exchange became Canadas sole exchange for the trading of senior equities, the Canadian Dealing Network, Winnipeg Stock Exchange, and equities portion of the Montreal Exchange later merged with CDNX. In 2000, the Toronto Stock Exchange became a for-profit company, in 2001, the Toronto Stock Exchange acquired the Canadian Venture Exchange, which was renamed the TSX Venture Exchange in 2002, this resulted in the creation of a parent to the TSX, the TSX Group. This ended 123 years of the usage of TSE as a Canadian stock exchange, on May 11,2007, the S&P/TSX Composite, the main index of the Toronto Stock Exchange, traded above the 14,000 point level for the first time ever. On December 17,2008, the TSX for the first time in history was closed for a trading day due to a technical glitch.9 trillion. Xavier Rolet, who is CEO of the LSE Group, would head the new enlarged company, based on data from December 30,2010 the new stock exchange would have been the second largest in the world with a market cap 48% greater than the Nasdaq. 8 of the 15 board members of the entity will be appointed by LSE. The provisional name for the group would be LTMX Group plc
9.
Banco do Brasil
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Banco do Brasil S. A. is the Second largest Brazilian and Latin American bank by assets. The bank, headquartered in Brasília, was founded in 1808 and is the oldest active bank in Brazil and it is not the countrys central bank. Banco do Brasil is controlled by the Brazilian government but its stock is traded at the São Paulo Stock Exchange, as a mixed institution under state control, the Banco do Brasil served as a commercial bank, the governments fiscal agent, and Brazils first bank of issue. It went bankrupt two times in history, one at independence in 1821, when John VI returned to Portugal taking with him some of the assets. Such tasks were given to other governmental institutions, mainly with the creation of the Central Bank of Brazil in 1964. From 1992 onwards it was restructured as a bank, using its huge geographic distribution. In the process, tens of thousands of workers were laid off, after decades of losses financed by the public treasury, the bank became very profitable and is one of the key structures used by the government to finance public programs, like DRS. In November 2013, The Banker ranked Banco de Brasil as the top bank in Brazil based on Tier 1 capital, the current logo has been in use since the sixties, when the standard colors changed from brown and yellow to blue-grey-and yellow. Since the early eighties the bank has sponsored several sports competitions and it is the official sponsor for Robert Scheidt, Gustavo Kuerten, and the Brazilian national beach soccer, volleyball and futsal teams. The bank also sponsors other events such as plays through its organization CCBB. Supermodel Gisele Bündchen was chosen to front their first global ad campaign in 2012, the account holder may apply for international MasterCard and Visa debit cards which act as both a credit card on a loan account, and as a debit card on the checking account. Many merchants routinely accept account-to-account transfers as payment for goods, Banco do Brasil has a few branches in the United States and other countries. Banco do Brasil has been expanding its presence and currently has more than 44 points of service abroad, divided into branches, sub-branches. Banco do Brasil is not the only Brazilian bank with high interest rates, interest rates have decreased slowly, despite the Brazilian Central Bank recent policy of dropping standard interest rates. Traditionally the CEO is appointed by the Brazilian president but usually picked from a list of career directors, a few CEOs were taken from outside the financial industry. Banco do Brasil has the monopoly of a number of government funding programs, like Pronaf, DRS, Fome Zero, PASEP, and others, and is the bank of choice for most municipal and state governments. Being public-owned, Banco do Brasil must recruit workers through a public process, known as Concurso Público. Due to the security which the draft process provides working for Banco do Brasil is considered a desirable job in most of Brazil
10.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
11.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
12.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
