1.
TNT equivalent
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TNT equivalent is a convention for expressing energy, typically used to describe the energy released in an explosion. The ton of TNT is a unit of energy defined by convention to be 4.184 gigajoules. The convention intends to compare the destructiveness of an event with that of conventional explosives, the kiloton is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 terajoules. The megaton is a unit of equal to 4.184 petajoules. The kiloton and megaton of TNT have traditionally used to describe the energy output. The TNT equivalent appears in various nuclear weapon control treaties, and has used to characterize the energy released in such other highly destructive events as an asteroid impact. A gram of TNT releases 2673–6702 J upon explosion, the energy liberated by one gram of TNT was arbitrarily defined as a matter of convention to be 4184 J, which is exactly one kilocalorie. The measured, pure heat output of a gram of TNT is only 2724 J, alternative TNT equivalency can be calculated as a function of when in the detonation the value is measured and which property is being compared. A kiloton of TNT can be visualized as a cube of TNT8.46 metres on a side, the RE factor is the relative mass of TNT to which an explosive is equivalent, the greater the RE, the more powerful the explosive. This enables engineers to determine the proper masses of different explosives when applying blasting formulas developed specifically for TNT. For example, if a timber-cutting formula calls for a charge of 1 kg of TNT, then based on octanitrocubanes RE factor of 2.38, using PETN, engineers would need 1. 0/1.66 kg to obtain the same effects as 1 kg of TNT. With ANFO or ammonium nitrate, they would require 1. 0/0.74 kg or 1. 0/0.42 kg, *, TBX or EBX, in a small, confined space, may have over twice the power of destruction. The total power of aluminized mixtures strictly depends on the condition of explosions, guide for the Use of the International System of Units. National Institute of Standards and Technology, nuclear Weapons FAQ Part 1.3 Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb, cooper, Paul W. Explosives Engineering, New York, Wiley-VCH, ISBN 0-471-18636-8 HQ Department of the Army, Field Manual 5-25, Explosives and Demolitions, Washington, D. C. Pentagon Publishing, pp. 83–84, ISBN 0-9759009-5-1 Explosives - Compositions, Alexandria, VA, thermobaric Explosives, Advanced Energetic Materials,2004. THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS, nap. edu, retrieved September 2004
2.
Operation Fishbowl
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Operation Dominic was a series of 31 nuclear test explosions with a 38.1 Mt total yield conducted in 1962 by the United States in the Pacific. This test series was scheduled quickly, in order to respond in kind to the Soviet resumption of testing after the tacit 1958–1961 test moratorium, most of these shots were conducted with free-fall bombs dropped from B-52 bomber aircraft. Twenty of these shots were to test new designs, six to test weapons effects. The Thor missile was used to lift warheads into near-space to conduct high-altitude nuclear explosion tests. Operation Dominic occurred during a period of high Cold War tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, since the Cuban Bay of Pigs Invasion had occurred not long before, president John F. Kennedy responded by authorizing Operation Dominic. The operation was undertaken by Joint Task Force 8, Operation Dominic at Carey Sublettes NuclearWeaponArchive. org More info on U. S. testing The short film Operation DOMINIC Nuclear Tests 1962 is available for free download at the Internet Archive
3.
Nuclear weapons testing
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Nuclear weapons tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness, yield, and explosive capability of nuclear weapons. Throughout the twentieth century, most nations that developed nuclear weapons tested them, the first nuclear device was detonated as a test by the United States at the Trinity site on July 16,1945, with a yield approximately equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT. The first thermonuclear weapon technology test of engineer device, codenamed Mike, was tested at the Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands on November 1,1952, also by the United States. The largest nuclear weapon ever tested was the Tsar Bomba of the Soviet Union at Novaya Zemlya on October 30,1961, with the largest yield ever seen, the treaty permitted underground nuclear testing. France continued atmospheric testing until 1974, and China continued until 1980, underground tests in the United States continued until 1991, the Soviet Union until 1990, the United Kingdom until 1991, and both China and France until 1996. Non-signatories India and Pakistan last tested nuclear weapons in 1998, North Korea conducted nuclear tests in 2006,2009,2013, and 2016. The most recent confirmed nuclear test occurred in September 2016 in North Korea, Nuclear weapons tests have historically been divided into four categories reflecting the medium or location of the test. Atmospheric testing designates explosions that take place in the atmosphere, Nuclear explosions close enough to the ground to draw dirt and debris into their mushroom cloud can generate large amounts of nuclear fallout due to irradiation of the debris. This definition of atmospheric is used in the Limited Test Ban Treaty, underground testing refers to nuclear tests conducted under the surface of the earth, at varying depths. True underground tests are intended to be contained and emit a negligible amount of fallout. Unfortunately these nuclear tests do occasionally vent to the surface, producing from nearly none to considerable amounts of debris as a consequence. In 1976, the United States and the USSR agreed to limit the maximum yield of underground tests to 150 kt with the Threshold Test Ban Treaty. Underground testing also falls into two categories, tunnel tests in generally horizontal tunnel drifts, and shaft tests in vertically drilled holes. Exoatmospheric testing refers to tests conducted above the atmosphere. The test devices are lifted on rockets, underwater testing results from nuclear devices being detonated underwater, usually moored to a ship or a barge. Tests of this nature have usually been conducted to evaluate the effects of weapons against naval vessels. Another way to nuclear tests are by the number of explosions that constitute the test.1 second. The USSR has exploded up to eight devices in a single salvo test, Pakistans second, almost all lists in the literature are lists of tests, in the lists in Wikipedia, the lists are of explosions
4.
Pacific Proving Grounds
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The U. S. tested a nuclear weapon on Bikini Atoll on 30 June 1946. This was followed by Baker on July 24,1946, on July 18,1947, the United States secured an agreement with the United Nations to govern the islands of Micronesia as the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, a strategic trusteeship territory. This is the only such trusteeship ever granted by the United Nations, the Trust Territory comprised about 2,000 islands spread over 3,000,000 square miles of the North Pacific Ocean. Five days later, the United States Atomic Energy Commission established the Pacific Proving Grounds, the United States conducted 105 atmospheric and underwater nuclear tests in the Pacific, many of which were of extremely high yield. While the Marshall Islands testing composed 14% of all U. S. tests, through the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act of 1990, at least $759 million has been paid to Marshall Islanders as compensation for their exposure to U. S. nuclear testing. Following the Castle Bravo accident, the U. S. paid $15.3 million to Japan, scientists have calculated that the residents of the Marshall Islands during their lifetimes will be diagnosed with an added 1. 6% cancers attributable to fallout-related radiation exposures. This was the only trust ever granted by the U. N, the directive stated that the United States should promote the economic advancement and self-sufficiency of the inhabitants, and to this end shall. Protect the inhabitants against the loss of their lands and resources, despite the promise to protect the inhabitants, from July 1946 through July 1947, the residents of Bikini Atoll who had been relocated to Rongerik Atoll were starving for lack of food. A team of U. S. investigators concluded in late 1947 that the islanders must be moved immediately, press from around the world harshly criticized the U. S. Navy for ignoring the people. Harold Ickes, a syndicated columnist, wrote The natives are actually and literally starving to death, the islanders were later moved again to Kili Island, which is not surrounded by a reef. The island does not support the traditional way of life. Since 1956, the U. S. has paid at least $759 million to Marshall Islanders as compensation for their exposure to U. S. nuclear testing. Following the Castle Bravo accident on March 1,1954, the U. S. paid $15.3 million to Japan, in June 1983, the U. S. and the Marshall islanders signed the Compact of Free Association, which gave the Marshall Islands independence. The Compact became effective in 1986 and was modified by the Amended Compact that became effective in 2004. It also established the Nuclear Claims Tribunal, which was given the task of adjudicating compensation for victims, section 177 of the compact provided for reparations to the Bikini islanders and other northern atolls for damages. It included $150 million to be paid over a 15-year period ending in 2001, during that time, payments averaging about $18 million per year were made to the peoples of Bikini, Enewetak, Rongelap, and Utrik for medical and radiological monitoring, and in response to claims. The payments began in 1987 with $2.4 million paid annually to the entire Bikini population and this trust is intended to exist in perpetuity and to provide the islanders a 5% payment from the trust annually. On 5 March 2001, the Nuclear Claims Tribunal ruled against the United States for damages done to the islands, the Nuclear Claims Tribunal awarded the islanders a total of $563,315,500 after deducting past awards
5.
Boeing B-52 Stratofortress
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The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress is an American long-range, subsonic, jet-powered strategic bomber. The B-52 was designed and built by Boeing, which has continued to provide support and it has been operated by the United States Air Force since the 1950s. The bomber is capable of carrying up to 70,000 pounds of weapons, the B-52 took its maiden flight in April 1952. Built to carry weapons for Cold War-era deterrence missions, the B-52 Stratofortress replaced the Convair B-36. A veteran of wars, the B-52 has dropped only conventional munitions in combat. The B-52s official name Stratofortress is rarely used, informally, the aircraft has become referred to as the BUFF. The B-52 has been in service with the USAF since 1955. As of December 2015,58 were in service with 18 in reserve. The B-52 completed sixty years of service with its original operator in 2015. After being upgraded between 2013 and 2015, it is expected to serve into the 2040s, the aircraft was to have a crew of five or more turret gunners, and a six-man relief crew. It was required to cruise at 300 mph at 34,000 feet with a radius of 5,000 miles. The armament was to consist of a number of 20 mm cannon and 10,000 pounds of bombs. On 13 February 1946, the Air Force issued bid invitations for these specifications, with Boeing, Consolidated Aircraft, and Glenn L. Martin Company submitting proposals. On 5 June 1946, Boeings Model 462, an aircraft powered by six Wright T35 turboprops with a gross weight of 360,000 pounds. On 28 June 1946, Boeing was issued a letter of contract for US$1.7 million to build a full-scale mock-up of the new XB-52 and do preliminary engineering and testing. However, by October 1946, the air began to express concern about the sheer size of the new aircraft. In response, Boeing produced Model 464, a smaller version with a 230,000 pound gross weight. Boeing responded with two powered by the T-35 turboprops
6.
Thor (rocket family)
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Thor was an American space launch vehicle derived from the PGM-17 Thor intermediate-range ballistic missile. The Thor rocket was the first in a family of space launch vehicles that came to be known as Delta. A derivative of the Thor was still in service as of 2014, the first type of space launch mission Thor was asked to perform was testing of the warhead reentry vehicle for the Atlas missile. For these three tests a Thor core stage was topped by a stage named Able using the Aerojet AJ-10-40 engine from the Vanguard second stage. The first such launch,116, was lost April 23,1958 due to a failure in the main engine. The recovery of the vehicles on the succeeding two attempts were not successful. Three mice, one on each vehicle, died in these tests, the Able stage from the Atlas reentry vehicle tests was upgraded with a third stage consisting of an unguided Altair X-248 solid rocket motor. A Thor Able I was used in an attempt to place the 84 lb Pioneer 0 spacecraft into lunar orbit where it would take pictures of the surface with a TV camera. The mission ended prematurely at 73.6 seconds after launch on August 17,1958, on August 7,1959 a Thor-Able was used to successfully launch Explorer 6, the first satellite to transmit pictures of Earth taken from orbit. Ablestar was a rocket stage burning hypergolic propellants fed from gas-pressurized propellant tanks. It was used as the stage, and provided improved performance. On April 13,1960 a Thor-Ablestar launched Transit 1B, the first experimental satellite to demonstrate the feasibility of using satellites as navigation aids, on June 22,1960, a Thor-Ablestar launched the first Galactic Radiation and Background electronic intelligence satellite for the United States Navy. These now-declassified satellites, operated under a cover story of providing solar radiation data, gRAB-1 was thus the worlds first successful reconnaissance satellite, preceding the first Corona mission to return film by almost two months. On 1961-06-29 the Ablestar stage used to launch Transit 4A became the first object to explode in space. Thor formed the core of the Thor-Agena vehicle used to launch the early Corona satellites from Vandenberg AFB and these were the first photographic spy satellites, used for photographic surveillance of the Soviet Union, China and other areas. Thor-Agenas were used as vehicles for Corona satellites from June 1959 through May 1963. A fourth modification to Thor for space launch purposes, the Thor-Delta, has proven to be the longest-lasting of all Thor-derived rockets, members of the Delta rocket family derived from the Thor-Delta continue to launch satellites and space probes. By 1969 the Thor core was being used both in Delta vehicles and in the USAF Standard Space Launch Vehicle, with thrust augmentation
7.
High-altitude nuclear explosion
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High-altitude nuclear explosions are the result of nuclear weapons testing. Several such tests were performed at high altitudes by the United States, the strong electromagnetic pulse that results has several components. In the first few tens of nanoseconds, about a tenth of a percent of the weapon yield appears as powerful gamma rays with energies of one to three mega-electron volts. The gamma rays penetrate the atmosphere and collide with air molecules, depositing their energy to produce quantities of positive ions. The impacts create MeV-energy Compton electrons that then accelerate and spiral along the Earths magnetic field lines, the resulting transient electric fields and currents that arise generate electromagnetic emissions in the radio frequency range of 15 to 250 megahertz. This high-altitude EMP occurs between 30 and 50 kilometers above the Earths surface, the potential as an anti-satellite weapon became apparent in August 1958 during Hardtack Teak. The radius for an effective satellite kill for the various prompt radiations produced by such a weapon in space was determined to be roughly 80 km. Further testing to this end was carried out, and embodied in a Department of Defense program, Program 437, there are problems with nuclear weapons carried over to testing and deployment scenarios, however. Because of the large radius associated with nuclear events, it was nearly impossible to prevent indiscriminate damage to other satellites. Starfish Prime produced an artificial radiation belt in space that soon destroyed three satellites, in general, nuclear effects in space have a qualitatively different display. The visual effects of a high-altitude or space-based explosion may last longer than atmospheric tests, the Soviets detonated four high-altitude tests in 1961 and three in 1962. During the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, both the US and the USSR detonated several high-altitude nuclear explosions as a form of saber-rattling. The worst effects of a Soviet high-altitude test occurred on 22 October 1962, the Partial Test Ban Treaty was passed the following year, ending atmospheric and exoatmospheric nuclear tests. The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 banned the stationing and use of weapons in space. The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty of 1996 prohibits all kinds of nuclear explosions, whether over- or underground, underwater or in the atmosphere
8.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
9.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
10.
Bay of Pigs Invasion
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The Bay of Pigs Invasion was a failed military invasion of Cuba undertaken by the CIA-sponsored paramilitary group Brigade 2506 on 17 April 1961. Launched from Guatemala and Nicaragua, the force was defeated within three days by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces, under the direct command of Prime Minister Fidel Castro. The Presidential coup of 1952 led by General Fulgencio Batista, against President Carlos Prio, President Prios exile was the reason for the 26th July Movement led by Fidel Castro. The movement, which did not succeed until after the Cuban Revolution of December 31,1958, severed the countrys formerly strong links with the US after nationalizing American economic assets. It was after the Cuban Revolution of 1959, that Fidel Castro forged strong links with the Soviet Union, with whom, at the time. US President Dwight D. Eisenhower was very concerned at the direction Castros government was taking, the CIA proceeded to organize the operation with the aid of various Cuban counter-revolutionary forces, training Brigade 2506 in Guatemala. Eisenhowers successor John F. Kennedy approved the invasion plan on 4 April 1961. Over 1,400 paramilitaries, divided into five battalions and one paratrooper battalion. Two days later, on 15 April, eight CIA-supplied B-26 bombers attacked Cuban airfields, on the night of 16 April, the main invasion landed at a beach named Playa Girón in the Bay of Pigs. It initially overwhelmed a local revolutionary militia, the Cuban Armys counter-offensive was led by José Ramón Fernández, before Castro decided to take personal control of the operation. As the US involvement became apparent to the world, Kennedy decided against providing further air cover for the invasion, as a result, the operation only had half the forces the CIA had deemed necessary. The original plan devised during Eisenhowers presidency had required both air and naval support, on 20 April, the invaders surrendered after only three days, with the majority being publicly interrogated and put into Cuban prisons. The failed invasion helped to strengthen the position of Castros leadership, made him a national hero and it also strengthened the relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union. This eventually led to the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, the invasion was a major failure for US foreign policy, Kennedy ordered a number of internal investigations across Latin America. Cuban forces under Castros leadership clashed directly with US forces during the Invasion of Grenada over 20 years later, for centuries, Cuba was home of the Spanish Empire. The US subsequently invaded the island, and forced the Spanish army out, subsequently, large numbers of US settlers and businessmen arrived in Cuba, and by 1905, 60% of rural properties were owned by non-Cuban North Americans. Between 1906 and 1909,5,000 US Marines were stationed across the island, many opponents of the Batista regime took to armed rebellion in an attempt to oust the government, sparking the Cuban Revolution. Another was the Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil, which had been founded by the Federation of University Students President José Antonio Echevarría, however, the best known of these anti-Batista groups was the 26th of July Movement, founded by a lawyer named Fidel Castro
11.
Nikita Khrushchev
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Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev was a politician who led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War. He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, Khrushchevs party colleagues removed him from power in 1964, replacing him with Leonid Brezhnev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Premier. Khrushchev was born in the village of Kalinovka in 1894, close to the border between Russia and Ukraine. He was employed as a metalworker in his youth, and during the Russian Civil War was a political commissar, with the help of Lazar Kaganovich, he worked his way up the Soviet hierarchy. He supported Joseph Stalins purges, and approved thousands of arrests, in 1938, Stalin sent him to govern Ukraine, and he continued the purges there. During what was known in the Soviet Union as the Great Patriotic War, Khrushchev was again a commissar, Khrushchev was present at the bloody defense of Stalingrad, a fact he took great pride in throughout his life. After the war, he returned to Ukraine before being recalled to Moscow as one of Stalins close advisers, in the power struggle triggered by Stalins death in 1953, Khrushchev, after several years, emerged victorious. On 25 February 1956, at the 20th Party Congress, he delivered the Secret Speech, denouncing Stalins purges and his domestic policies, aimed at bettering the lives of ordinary citizens, were often ineffective, especially in agriculture. Hoping eventually to rely on missiles for defense, Khrushchev ordered major cuts in conventional forces. Despite the cuts, Khrushchevs rule saw the most tense years of the Cold War, flaws in Khrushchevs policies eroded his popularity and emboldened potential opponents, who quietly rose in strength and deposed the premier in October 1964. However, he did not suffer the fate of previous losers of Soviet power struggles, and was pensioned off with an apartment in Moscow. His lengthy memoirs were smuggled to the West and published in part in 1970, Khrushchev died in 1971 of heart disease. Khrushchev was born on 15 April 1894, in Kalinovka, a village in what is now Russias Kursk Oblast and his parents, Sergei Khrushchev and Ksenia Khrushcheva, were poor peasants of Russian origin, and had a daughter two years Nikitas junior, Irina. Sergei Khrushchev was employed in a number of positions in the Donbas area of far eastern Ukraine, working as a railwayman, as a miner, and laboring in a brick factory. Wages were much higher in the Donbas than in the Kursk region, Kalinovka was a peasant village, Khrushchevs teacher, Lydia Shevchenko, later stated that she had never seen a village as poor as Kalinovka had been. Nikita worked as a herdsboy from an early age and he was schooled for a total of four years, part in the village parochial school and part under Shevchenkos tutelage in Kalinovkas state school. She urged Nikita to seek education, but family finances did not permit this. In 1908, Sergei Khrushchev moved to the Donbas city of Yuzovka, fourteen-year-old Nikita followed later that year, while Ksenia Khrushcheva and her daughter came after
12.
Tsar Bomba
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Tsar Bomba was the Western nickname for the Soviet RDS-220 hydrogen bomb, the most powerful nuclear weapon ever detonated. Its test on October 30,1961 remains the most powerful human-made explosion in history and it was also referred to as Kuzkina mat, possibly referring to Nikita Khrushchevs promise to show the United States a Kuzkina mat at a 1960 session of United Nations General Assembly. Developed by the Soviet Union, the bomb had a yield of 57 megaton TNT, in theory, the bomb had a maximum yield of 100 megatons if it were to have included a U-238 tamper, but because only one bomb was built, this was never demonstrated. The single bomb was detonated at the Sukhoy Nos cape of Severny Island, the remaining bomb casings are located at the Russian Atomic Weapon Museum in Sarov and the Museum of Nuclear Weapons, All-Russian Research Institute of Technical Physics, at Snezhinsk. Many names are attributed to the Tsar Bomba, Project 7000, product code 202, article designations RDS-220, RDS-202, RN202, AN602, codename Vanya, nicknames Big Ivan, Kuzkina mat. The name Tsar Bomba was coined in an analogy with other massive Russian objects, the CIA designated the test as JOE111. The Tsar Bomba was a bomb with Trutnev-Babaev second and third stage design. There is evidence that the Tsar Bomba had several third stages rather than a very large one. To limit fallout, the stage and possibly the second stage had a lead tamper instead of a uranium-238 fusion tamper. This eliminated fast fission by the neutrons, so that approximately 97% of the total yield resulted from thermonuclear fusion alone. There was an incentive for this modification since most of the fallout from a test of the bomb would likely have ended up on populated Soviet territory. The components were designed by a team of physicists headed by academician Yulii Borisovich Khariton and including Andrei Sakharov, Victor Adamsky, Yuri Babayev, Yuri Smirnov, and Yuri Trutnev. Shortly after the Tsar Bomba was detonated, Sakharov began speaking out against nuclear weapons, the Tsar Bomba was flown to its test site by a specially modified Tu-95V release plane, flown by Major Andrei Durnovtsev. Taking off from an airfield in the Kola Peninsula, the plane was accompanied by a Tu-16 observer plane that took air samples. Both aircraft were painted with a reflective white paint to limit heat damage. Despite this effort, Durnovtsev and his crew were assigned only a 50% chance of surviving the test, the bomb, weighing 27 metric tons, was so large that the Tu-95V had to have its bomb bay doors and fuselage fuel tanks removed. The bomb was attached to an 800 kilogram parachute, which gave the release, when detonation occurred, the Tu-95V dropped one kilometer in the air because of the shock wave, but was able to land safely. The Tsar Bomba detonated at 11,32 Moscow Time on October 30,1961, over the Mityushikha Bay nuclear testing range, north of the Arctic Circle over the Novaya Zemlya archipelago in the Arctic Ocean
13.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade
14.
Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
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The impetus for the test ban was provided by rising public anxiety over the magnitude of nuclear tests, particularly tests of new thermonuclear weapons, and the resulting nuclear fallout. A test ban was also seen as a means of slowing nuclear proliferation, though the PTBT did not halt proliferation or the arms race, its enactment did coincide with a substantial decline in the concentration of radioactive particles in the atmosphere. The PTBT was signed by the governments of the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, the treaty formally went into effect on 10 October 1963. Since then,123 other states have become party to the treaty, ten states have signed but not ratified the treaty. In 1952–53, the US and Soviet Union detonated their first thermonuclear weapons, in 1954, the US Castle Bravo test at Bikini Atoll had a yield of 15 megatons of TNT, more than doubling the expected yield. In the same year, a Soviet test sent radioactive particles over Japan, around the same time, victims of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima visited the US for medical care, which attracted significant public attention. Between 1951 and 1958, the US conducted 166 atmospheric tests, the Soviet Union conducted 82, in 1945, Britain and Canada made an early call for an international discussion on controlling atomic power. At the time, the US had yet to formulate a policy or strategy on nuclear weapons. Taking advantage of this was Vannevar Bush, who had initiated and administered the Manhattan Project, as a first step in this direction, Bush proposed an international agency dedicated to nuclear control. Truman to help construct US nuclear weapons policy, a version of the Acheson-Lilienthal plan was presented to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission as the Baruch Plan in June 1946. The Baruch Plan proposed that an International Atomic Development Authority would control all research on and material, the Soviet Union dismissed the Baruch Plan as a US attempt to secure its nuclear dominance, and called for the US to halt weapons production and release technical information on its program. The Acheson–Lilienthal paper and Baruch Plan would serve as the basis for US policy into the 1950s, between 1947 and 1954, the US and Soviet Union discussed their demands within the United Nations Commission for Conventional Disarmament. A series of events in 1954, including the Castle Bravo test and spread of fallout from a Soviet test over Japan, additionally, by 1954, both US and Soviet Union had assembled large nuclear stockpiles, reducing hopes of complete disarmament. Interest in nuclear control and efforts to stall proliferation of weapons to other states grew as the Soviet Unions nuclear capabilities increased, in the same year, the British Labour Party, then led by Clement Attlee, called on the UN to ban testing of thermonuclear weapons. 1955 marks the beginning of negotiations, as Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev first proposed talks on the subject in February 1955. On 10 May 1955, the Soviet Union proposed a test ban before the UN Disarmament Commissions Committee of Five, the May 1955 proposal is now seen evidence of Khrushchevs new approach to foreign policy, as Khrushchev sought to mend relations with the West. The proposal would serve as the basis of the Soviet negotiating position through 1957, Eisenhower had supported nuclear testing after World War II. In 1947, he rejected arguments by Stafford L. Warrens arguments were lent credence in the scientific community, everybody seems to think that were skunks, saber-rattlers and warmongers
15.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
16.
Universal Time
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Universal Time is a time standard based on Earths rotation. It is a continuation of Greenwich Mean Time, i. e. the mean solar time on the Prime Meridian at Greenwich, London. In fact, the expression Universal Time is ambiguous, as there are versions of it. All of these versions of UT, except for UTC, are based on Earths rotation relative to distant celestial objects, UTC is based on International Atomic Time, with leap seconds added to keep it within 0.9 second of UT1. Prior to the introduction of time, each municipality throughout the civilized world set its official clock, if it had one. Greenwich Mean Time, where all clocks in Britain were set to the time, was established to solve this problem. Chronometers or telegraphy were used to synchronize these clocks, Standard time, as originally proposed by Scottish-Canadian Sir Sandford Fleming in 1879, divided the world into twenty-four time zones, each one covering 15 degrees of longitude. All clocks within each zone would be set to the time as the others. This location was chosen because by 1884 two-thirds of all nautical charts, the conference did not adopt Flemings time zones because they were outside the purpose for which it was called, which was to choose a basis for universal time. During the period between 1848 and 1972, all of the countries adopted time zones based on the Greenwich meridian. The term Greenwich Mean Time persists, however, in usage to this day in reference to civil timekeeping. Based on the rotation of the Earth, time can be measured by observing celestial bodies crossing the meridian every day. Astronomers found that it was accurate to establish time by observing stars as they crossed a meridian rather than by observing the position of the Sun in the sky. Nowadays, UT in relation to International Atomic Time is determined by Very Long Baseline Interferometry observations of distant quasars, the rotation of the Earth and UT are monitored by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service. The International Astronomical Union also is involved in setting standards, the rotation of the Earth is somewhat irregular, and is very gradually slowing due to tidal acceleration. Furthermore, the length of the second was determined from observations of the Moon between 1750 and 1890. All of these cause the mean solar day, on the average, to be slightly longer than the nominal 86,400 SI seconds. As UT is slightly irregular in its rate, astronomers introduced Ephemeris Time, thus, civil broadcast standards for time and frequency usually follow International Atomic Time closely, but occasionally step in order to prevent them from drifting too far from mean solar time
17.
Elevation
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GIS or geographic information system is a computer system that allows for visualizing, manipulating, capturing, and storage of data with associated attributes. GIS offers better understanding of patterns and relationships of the landscape at different scales, tools inside the GIS allow for manipulation of data for spatial analysis or cartography. A topographical map is the type of map used to depict elevation. In a Geographic Information System, digital models are commonly used to represent the surface of a place. Digital terrain models are another way to represent terrain in GIS, USGS is developing a 3D Elevation Program to keep up with growing needs for high quality topographic data. 3DEP is a collection of enhanced elevation data in the form of high quality LiDAR data over the conterminous United States, Hawaii, there are three bare earth DEM layers in 3DEP which are nationally seamless at the resolution of 1/3,1, and 2 arcseconds. This map is derived from GTOPO30 data that describes the elevation of Earths terrain at intervals of 30 arcseconds and it uses color and shading instead of contour lines to indicate elevation. Hypsography is the study of the distribution of elevations on the surface of the Earth, the term originates from the Greek word ὕψος hypsos meaning height. Most often it is used only in reference to elevation of land, related to the term hypsometry, the measurement of these elevations of a planets solid surface are taken relative to mean datum, except for Earth which is taken relative to the sea level. In the troposphere, temperatures decrease with altitude and this lapse rate is approximately 6.5 °C/km. S
18.
Nuclear weapon yield
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An explosive yield of one terajoule is 0.239 kt of TNT. The yield-to-weight ratio is the amount of weapon yield compared to the mass of the weapon, the practical maximum yield-to-weight ratio for fusion weapons has been estimated to six megatons of TNT per metric ton of bomb mass. Yields of 5.2 megatons/ton and higher have been reported for large weapons constructed for use in the early 1960s. Most artificial non-nuclear explosions are considerably smaller than even what are considered to be very small nuclear weapons, the yield-to-weight ratio is the amount of weapon yield compared to the mass of the weapon. According to nuclear-weapons designer Ted Taylor, the practical maximum yield-to-weight ratio for fusion weapons is about 6 megatons of TNT per metric ton. The Taylor limit is not derived from first principles, and weapons with yields as high as 9.5 megatons per metric ton have been designed and built. The 25 Mt yield option reported for the B41 would give it a ratio of 5.1 megatons of TNT per metric ton. This results in the B41 still retaining the record for the highest Yield-to-weight weapon ever designed, in 1963 DOE declassified statements that the U. S. had the technological capability of deploying a 35 Mt warhead on the Titan II, or a 50-60 Mt gravity bomb on B-52s. Neither weapon was pursued, but either would require yield-to-weight ratios superior to a 25 Mt Mk-41, for current smaller US weapons, yield is 600 to 2200 kilotons of TNT per metric ton. By comparison, for the very small devices such as the Davy Crockett it was 0.4 to 40 kilotons of TNT per metric ton. For historical comparison, for Little Boy the yield was only 4 kilotons of TNT per metric ton, and for the largest Tsar Bomba, the yield was 2 megatons of TNT per metric ton. The largest pure-fission bomb ever constructed Ivy King had a 500 kiloton yield, however, there is no known upper yield limit for a fusion bomb. For example, the Mk-36 bomb as built had a ratio of 1.25 megatons of TNT per metric ton. Delivery size limits can be estimated to ascertain limits to delivery of high yield weapons. If the full 250 metric ton payload of the Antonov An-225 aircraft could be used, likewise, the maximum limit of a missile-delivered weapon is determined by the missile gross payload capacity. The large Russian SS-18 ICBM has a capacity of 7,200 kg. A Saturn V-scale missile could deliver over 120 tons, giving a maximum yield of about 700 megatons. The following list is of nuclear explosions
19.
Nuclear fallout
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It commonly refers to the radioactive dust and ash created when a nuclear weapon explodes, but such dust can also originate from a damaged nuclear plant. Fallout may get entrained with the products of a pyrocumulus cloud and this radioactive dust, usually consisting of fission products mixed with bystanding atoms that are neutron activated by exposure, is a highly dangerous kind of radioactive contamination. An air burst can eventually produce worldwide fallout, a ground burst can produce possibly much more severe, local fallout. These particles may be drawn up into the stratosphere, particularly if the explosive yield exceeds 10 kt. Initially little was known about the dispersion of nuclear fallout on a global scale, the AEC assumed that fallout would be dispersed evenly across the globe by atmospheric winds and gradually settle to the Earths surface after weeks, months, and even years as worldwide fallout. This hazard is less pertinent than local fallout, which is of much greater immediate operational concern, in a land or water surface burst, heat vaporizes large amounts of earth or water, which is drawn up into the radioactive cloud. This material becomes radioactive when it condenses with fission products and other radiocontaminants that have become neutron-activated, the table below summarizes the abilities of common isotopes to form fallout. Some radiation taints large amounts of land and drinking water causing formal mutations throughout animal and human life. The larger particles spill out of the stem and cascade down the outside of the fireball in a downdraft even as the cloud rises, more than half the total bomb debris lands on the ground within about 24 hours as local fallout. Chemical properties of the elements in the control the rate at which they are deposited on the ground. Severe local fallout contamination can extend far beyond the blast and thermal effects, the ground track of fallout from an explosion depends on the weather from the time of detonation onwards. In stronger winds, fallout travels faster but takes the time to descend, so although it covers a larger path. Thus, the width of the pattern for any given dose rate is reduced where the downwind distance is increased by higher winds. The total amount of activity deposited up to any time is the same irrespective of the wind pattern. But thunderstorms can bring down activity as rain more rapidly than dry fallout, particularly if the cloud is low enough to be below, or mixed with. There are two considerations for the location of an explosion, height and surface composition. A nuclear weapon detonated in the air, called an air burst, in case of water surface bursts, the particles tend to be rather lighter and smaller, producing less local fallout but extending over a greater area. The particles contain mostly sea salts with some water, these can have a cloud seeding effect causing local rainout and areas of high local fallout
20.
W59
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The W59 was an American thermonuclear warhead used on some Minuteman I ICBM missiles from 1962-1969, and planned to be used on the cancelled GAM-87 Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile. The W59 was 16.3 inches in diameter and 47.8 inches long and it had a design yield of 1 megaton, with a yield-to-weight ratio of 4 kiloton per kilogram. A total of 150 W59 warheads were produced during its lifetime, the W59 was one of five nuclear weapon designs identified by researcher Chuck Hansen as using the common design Tsetse primary or first fission bomb stage. Hansens research indicates that the Tsetse primary was used in the US B43 nuclear bomb, W44 nuclear warhead, W50 nuclear warhead, B57 nuclear bomb, and W59. Historical evidence indicates that these shared a reliability problem, which Hansen attributes to miscalculation of the reaction cross section of Tritium in fusion reactions. The weapons were not tested as extensively as some prior models due to a nuclear test moratorium. This problem was shared by the Python primary designs
21.
W47
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The W47 was an American thermonuclear warhead used on the Polaris A-1 sub-launched ballistic missile system. Various models were in service from 1960 through the end of 1974, the warhead was developed by the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory between 1957 and 1960. The W47 was 18 in in diameter and 47 in long, the Y1 model had design yield of 600 kilotons and the Y2 model had a doubled design yield of 1.2 megatons. The W47 was the first warhead with a new, miniaturized pit, the aerodynamic flare at the base provided stability of orientation during descent. Two small rocket motors were used to spin the warhead for better stability, the W47 is the only US ICBM or SLBM warhead to have been live fired in an atmospheric missile and warhead test, on May 6,1962. This event took place during shot Frigate Bird which was part of the Dominic test series, while stationed off Johnston Island, the American submarine USS Ethan Allen fired a Polaris-A2 missile at an open ocean target point in the vicinity of Palmyra Atoll, south of Hawaii. The missile traveled a distance of 1,020 nmi, the test was observed by two submerged US submarines stationed approximately 30 miles from the target point, the USS Carbonero and the USS Medregal. The missile warhead detonated at 23,30 GMT on May 6,1962, approximately 2 km from the target point. The detonation was successful and had the design yield of approximately 600 kilotons. The shot was designed to improve confidence in the US ballistic missile systems and this was partly because it was revealed that the warhead selected for the test had undergone modifications before testing and was not necessarily representative of the stockpile. The history of the W47 warhead had a series of reliability problems with the warhead design. 300 of the EC-47 production prototype model were produced from April 1960 through June 1960, production of Y1 and Y2 models then proceeded in 1960 through 1964. A total of 1060 Y1 and Y2 models were produced, in 1966, 75% of the stockpiled Y2 warheads were thought to be defective and unusable. Repair programs continued for some time, a number of the Polaris warheads were replaced in the early 1960s, when corrosion of the pits was discovered during routine maintenance. Failures of the W45, W47, and W52 warheads are still a part of the debate about the reliability of the US nuclear weapons force moving into the future. A one-point safety test performed on the W47 warhead just prior the 1958 moratorium failed, unfortunately, this wire had a tendency to become brittle during storage, and break or get stuck during arming, which prevented complete removal and rendered the warhead a dud. It was estimated that 50-75% of warheads would fail and this required a complete rebuild of the W47 primaries. The oil used for lubricating the wire also promoted corrosion of the pit, uGM-27 Polaris List of nuclear weapons Dominic nuclear test series, including Frigate Bird Polaris/W47 flight test
22.
Mark 15 nuclear bomb
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The Mark 15 nuclear bomb, or Mk-15, was a 1950s American thermonuclear bomb, the first relatively lightweight thermonuclear bomb created by the United States. A total of 1,200 Mark 15 bombs were produced from 1955 to 1957, there were three production variants, Mod 1, Mod 2, and Mod 3. The design was in service from 1955 to 1965, the Mark 15 is widely described as a transitional design between fission and thermonuclear weapons. The Mark 15 was a weapon that used radiation implosion from a fission nuclear primary to implode a secondary stage. Unlike most modern thermonuclear bombs, most of the Mark 15s destructive energy came from fission reactions, the secondary was made primarily of highly enriched uranium around a thermonuclear core. The implosion created fusion reactions whose neutrons increased the yield of the HEU fission reactions, some later bombs used depleted uranium fusion stage tampers, and neutrons from the fusion would fission some of the tamper, but half or more of the energy was released from the fusion reaction. The HEU secondary tamper concept may have used in the most modern nuclear weapons. All three models were physically similar, weight of around 7,600 lb /3,450 kg, diameter of 34.4 to 35 inches. The Mod 1 corresponds to the Castle Nectar test of the Zombie weapon prototype and this test had a yield of 1.69 megatons. The Mod 2 corresponds to the Redwing Cherokee nuclear test of the TX-15-X1 test model, Redwing Cherokee was the first US thermonuclear bomb airdrop test. The Mod 3 also appears to have had a 3.8 megaton yield, a missile warhead variant of the Mark 15, the W15 Warhead, was an ongoing project in the mid 1950s. It was canceled in early 1957, before cancellation, it had been intended for use on the SM-62 Snark missile. Instead, the Snark ended up using the W39, the W39 nuclear warhead and B39 nuclear bomb used a common nuclear physics package which was derived from the Mark 15. The experimental W39 devices were tested as the TX-15-X3. On 5 February 1958, during a mission flown by a B-47. List of nuclear weapons Operation Castle Operation Redwing Tybee Bomb Allbombs. html list of all US nuclear warheads at nuclearweaponarchive. org tybeebomb. com—information regarding lost nuclear bombs
23.
RUR-5 ASROC
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The RUR-5 ASROC is an all-weather, all sea-conditions anti-submarine missile system. The ASROC has been deployed on scores of warships of other navies, including Canada, Germany, Italy, Japan. In addition, the goal was to take advantage of modern sonars with a larger detection range. An extended range torpedo delivered by parachute from the air would allow warships the stand-off capability to attack submarines with very little advance notice to the hostile submarine. The RAT program came in three phases, RAT-A, RAT-B and RAT-C, RAT-A were efforts to develop a compact and economical stand-off ASW for smaller warships, but were found to be either unreliable or had too short a range. RAT-C was a program to develop a stand-off ASW weapon that used a depth charge. This would require a range of at least 8,000 yards to escape potential damage from the underwater blast, unlike the original RAT program rockets, the RAT-C was considerably larger to accomplish the extended range needed and was to be fitted to larger warships. With the failure of both the RAT-A and RAT-B programs, RAT-C was redesigned from a stand-off nuclear ASW weapon to one that could use not only a depth charge. To obtain the accuracy needed, the RAT-C rocket launcher had to be redesigned with larger side fins and this program finally combined reliability and accuracy, along with the necessary stand-off range. However, before RAT-C reached initial operational status in 1960 aboard the large US Navy destroyer leader USS Norfolk, the first ASROC system using the MK-112 Matchbox launcher, was developed in the 1950s and installed in the 1960s. This system was phased out in the 1990s and replaced with the RUM-139 Vertical Launch ASROC, after a surface ship, patrol plane or anti-submarine helicopter detects an enemy submarine by using sonar or other sensors, it could relay the subs position to an ASROC-equipped ship for attack. The attacking ship would fire an ASROC missile carrying an acoustic homing torpedo or a W44 Nuclear Depth Bomb onto an unguided ballistic trajectory toward the target. Water entry activates the torpedo, which is guided by its own sonar system, the W44 nuclear depth charge entered service in 1961, but was never used beyond one or two tests before the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty banning underwater nuclear tests went into effect. A total of 575 weapons were produced, the W44 weighed 170 pounds with a diameter of 13.75 inches and length of 25.3 inches. Following payload separation, the unguided W44 sank quickly to a depth where the 10-kiloton warhead detonated. The nuclear-armed ASROC was never used in combat, w44-armed ASROC missiles were retired by 1989, when all types of nuclear depth bombs were removed from deployment. The 31 U. S. Navy Spruance-class destroyers were all built with the Mark 16 Mod 7 ASROC Launching Group and these had one standard Mark 112 octuple ASROC launcher, located immediately above a reload system holding an additional 16 assembled rounds. Thus, each Spruance-class destroyer originally carried a total of 24 ASROC
24.
B43 nuclear bomb
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The B43 was a United States air-dropped variable yield nuclear weapon used by a wide variety of fighter bomber and bomber aircraft. The B43 was developed from 1956 by Los Alamos National Laboratory and it entered service in April 1961. Total production was 2,000 weapons, ending in 1965, some variants were parachute-retarded and featured a ribbon parachute. The B43 was built in two variants, Mod 1 and Mod 2, each with five yield options, depending on version, the B43 was 18 inches in diameter, and length was between 12 ft 6 in and 13 ft 8 in. The various versions weighed between 2,060 lb and 2,125 lb and it could be delivered at altitudes as low as 300 ft, with fuzing options for airburst, ground burst, free fall, contact, or laydown delivery. Explosive yield varied from 70 kilotons of TNT to 1 megaton of TNT, the B43 used the Tsetse primary design for its fission stage, as did several mid- and late-1950s designs. The B43 was one of four thermonuclear gravity bombs carried by Canadian CF-104 jets while serving in Germany between June 1964 and 1972, the B43 was also supplied for delivery by Royal Air Force Canberra and Valiant aircraft assigned to NATO under the command of SACEUR. The Skyhawk was being rolled from the number 2 hangar bay to the number 2 elevator when it was lost, the pilot LTJG D. M. Webster, airframe, and the bomb were never found. No public mention was made of the incident at the time, japan then asked for details of the incident. The B43 was phased out in the 1980s, and the last B43 weapons were retired in 1991 in favor of the newer B61 and B83 weapons. B83 nuclear bomb B61 nuclear bomb List of nuclear weapons Tsetse primary Allbombs. html data page at nuclearweaponarchive. org Video showing shipboard handling procedures for the B43 bomb
25.
Fizzle (nuclear explosion)
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In nuclear weapons, a fizzle occurs when the testing of a nuclear bomb grossly fails to meet its expected yield. The reason for the failure can be linked to improper design, poor construction. All countries that have had a weapons testing program have experienced some fizzles. A fizzle can spread radioactive material throughout the area, involve a partial fission reaction of the fissile material. For practical purposes, a fizzle can still have considerable explosive yield when compared to conventional weapons. Such fizzles can have high yields, as in the case of Castle Koon, where a device with a 1 megaton design yield underwent a fusion fizzle. This is known as a fission weapon. Buster Able Considered to be the first known failure of any nuclear device, upshot–Knothole Ruth Testing a uranium hydride bomb. The test failed to declassify the site as it left the third of the 300-foot shot tower still standing. Upshot–Knothole Ray Similar test conducted the following month, allegedly a shorter 100-foot tower was chosen, to ensure that the tower would be completely destroyed. 2006 North Korean nuclear test Russia claimed to have measured 5–15 kt yield, whereas the United States, France and this North Korean debut test was weaker than all other countries initial tests by a factor of 20, and the smallest initial test in history. Castle Koon A thermonuclear device whose fusion secondary did not ignite, the test was still considered successful. Another bomb dropped during Grapple 1, Purple Granite, was hoped to give an improved yield over Short Granite, one month after the September 11,2001 attacks, a CIA informant known as Dragonfire reported that al-Qaeda had smuggled a low-yield nuclear weapon into New York City. Although the report was found to be false, concerns were expressed that a bomb capable of yielding a fraction of the known 10 kiloton weapons could cause “horrific” consequences. A detonation in New York City would mean thousands of civilian casualties, list of nuclear tests Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents Uranium hydride bomb Dirty bomb Not a bomb or a dud but a fizzle Ian Hoffman, Oakland Tribune, October 9,2006. Nuclear Weapons, howthingswork. virginia. edu MILNET, Nuclear Weapon Detonation
26.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
27.
Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
28.
Operation Argus
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Operation Argus was a series of United States nuclear weapons tests and missile tests secretly conducted during August and September 1958 over the South Atlantic Ocean. They were performed by the Defense Nuclear Agency, in conjunction with the Explorer 4 space mission, Operation Argus was conducted between the nuclear test series Operation Hardtack I and Operation Hardtack II. Contractors from Lockheed Aircraft Corporation as well as a few personnel, atomic Energy Commission were on hand as well. Such belts would be similar in effect to the Van Allen radiation belts, such radiation belts were viewed as having possible tactical use in war. Prior to Argus, Hardtack Teak had shown disruption of communications from a nuclear blast. Argus was implemented rapidly after inception due to forthcoming bans on atmospheric and exoatmospheric testing, consequently, the tests were conducted within a mere half year of conception. Two missiles, with warheads 136–227 kg to be launched one month of each other. The missiles were to be detonated at altitudes of 200–1,000 mi, both detonations should occur near the geomagnetic equator. Satellites were to be placed in equatorial and polar orbits, with perigees of roughly 322 kilometres and apogees of roughly 2,900 kilometres or greater. These satellites were to be used to measure electron density over time, measurements were to be taken before the shots to determine a baseline, as well as during and after the events. Sounding rockets, fired from appropriate ground locations, were to carry the same instrumentation as the satellites, ground stations to be used to study effects on radio astronomy and radar probing as well as auroral measurements. Originally Argus was designated Hardtack-Argus, and later Floral, for reasons of security, both names were dropped in favor of the independent name Argus. Funding was provided by the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, the predecessor of todays Defense Threat Reduction Agency, total funds allotted for the project were US$9,023,000. The United States Navy Task Force 88, was formed April 28,1958, TF-88 was organized solely to conduct Operation Argus. Once Argus was completed, the force was dissolved. Some of these records have been destroyed or lost in the time period. Of particular note among the documents were the film records. This has proved contentious due to the number of leukemia claims among TF-88 participants to the Veterans Administration
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Operation Castle
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Operation Castle was a United States series of high-yield nuclear tests by Joint Task Force 7 at Bikini Atoll beginning in March 1954. It followed Operation Upshot–Knothole and preceded Operation Teapot, Operation Castle was considered by government officials to be a success as it proved the feasibility of deployable dry fuel designs for thermonuclear weapons. There were technical difficulties with some of the tests, one device had a much lower than predicted. Public reaction to the tests and an awareness of the effects of nuclear fallout has been attributed as being part of the motivation for the Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963. Bikini Atoll had previously hosted nuclear testing in 1946 as part of Operation Crossroads where the fourth and fifth atomic weapons were detonated in Bikini Lagoon. Since then, US nuclear weapons testing had moved to Enewetok Atoll to take advantage of larger islands. Both Atolls were part of the US Pacific Proving Grounds, the extremely high yields of the Castle weapons caused concern within the AEC that potential damage to the limited infrastructure already established at Enewetak would delay other operations. The Ivy Mike test was the worlds first hydrogen bomb, producing a full-scale thermonuclear or fusion explosion, the Ivy Mike device used liquid deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen, making it a wet bomb. The complex dewar mechanisms needed to store the liquid deuterium at cryogenic temperatures made the three stories tall and 82 tons in total weight, far from being a deliverable weapon. The final result incorporated lithium deuteride as the fuel in the Teller-Ulam design, vastly reducing size and weight. Operation Castle was charted to test four dry fuel designs, two wet bombs, and one smaller device, approval for Operation Castle was communicated to JTF-7 by Major General Kenneth D. Nichols, General Manager of the AEC, on 21 January 1954. Operation Castle was organized into seven experiments, all but one of which were to place at Bikini Atoll. Below is the original test schedule, Operation Castle was intended to test lithium deuteride as a thermonuclear fusion fuel. A solid at room temperature, LiD, if it worked, the same Teller-Ulam principle would be used as in the Ivy Mike Sausage device, but the fusion reactions were different. Ivy Mike fused deuterium with deuterium, but the LiD devices would fuse deuterium with tritium, the tritium was produced during the explosion by irradiating the lithium with fast neutrons. Bravo Yankee and Union used lithium enriched in the Li-6 isotope while Romeo, the first one started production in the fall of 1953. As a hedge, development of liquid deuterium weapons continued in parallel, the Ramrod and Jughead devices were liquid fuel designs greatly reduced in size and weight from their Ivy Mike Sausage predecessor. The Jughead device was ultimately weaponized and saw limited fielding in the inventory until the dry fuel weapons were common, Nectar was not a fusion weapon in the same sense as the rest of the Castle series
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Project Chariot
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The project originated as part of Operation Plowshare, a research project to find peaceful uses for nuclear explosives. The plan was championed by Edward Teller, who traveled throughout the state touting the harbor as an important economic development for Americas newest state, Alaskan political leaders, newspaper editors, the state universitys president, even church groups all rallied in support of the massive detonation. Congress had passed the Alaskan Statehood Act just a few weeks before, an editorial in the 24 July 1960 Fairbanks News-Miner said, We think the holding of a huge nuclear blast in Alaska would be a fitting overture to the new era which is opening for our state. Opposition came from the tiny Inupiat Eskimo village of Point Hope, a few scientists engaged in environmental studies under AEC contract, and a handful of conservationists. The grassroots protest soon was picked up by organizations with national reach, such as The Wilderness Society, the Sierra Club, and Barry Commoners Committee for Nuclear Information. In 1962, facing increased public uneasiness over the risk and the potential to disrupt the lives of the Eskimos. It has never been formally canceled, in addition to the objections of the local population, no practical use of such a harbor was ever identified. The investigations noted that radiation from world-wide fallout was moving with unusual efficiency up the chain in the Arctic, from lichen, to caribou. Material from a 1962 nuclear explosion at the Nevada Test Site was transported to the Chariot site in August 1962, used in several experiments, thirty years later, the disposal was discovered in archival documents by a University of Alaska researcher. State officials immediately traveled to the site and found low levels of radioactivity at a depth of two feet in the burial mound, outraged residents of the Inupiat village of Point Hope demanded the removal of the contaminated soil, which the government did at considerable expense. Sun in a Bottle, The Strange History of Fusion and the Science of Wishful Thinking, vandegraft, Douglas L Project Chariot, Nuclear Legacy of Cape Thompson. Proceedings of the U. S. William, and Charles Diters, bureau of Indian Affairs, Alaska Region regional archaeology report under the National Historic Preservation Act. Project Chariot, The Nuclear Legacy of Cape Thompson, Alaska
