1.
TNT equivalent
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TNT equivalent is a convention for expressing energy, typically used to describe the energy released in an explosion. The ton of TNT is a unit of energy defined by convention to be 4.184 gigajoules. The convention intends to compare the destructiveness of an event with that of conventional explosives, the kiloton is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 terajoules. The megaton is a unit of equal to 4.184 petajoules. The kiloton and megaton of TNT have traditionally used to describe the energy output. The TNT equivalent appears in various nuclear weapon control treaties, and has used to characterize the energy released in such other highly destructive events as an asteroid impact. A gram of TNT releases 2673–6702 J upon explosion, the energy liberated by one gram of TNT was arbitrarily defined as a matter of convention to be 4184 J, which is exactly one kilocalorie. The measured, pure heat output of a gram of TNT is only 2724 J, alternative TNT equivalency can be calculated as a function of when in the detonation the value is measured and which property is being compared. A kiloton of TNT can be visualized as a cube of TNT8.46 metres on a side, the RE factor is the relative mass of TNT to which an explosive is equivalent, the greater the RE, the more powerful the explosive. This enables engineers to determine the proper masses of different explosives when applying blasting formulas developed specifically for TNT. For example, if a timber-cutting formula calls for a charge of 1 kg of TNT, then based on octanitrocubanes RE factor of 2.38, using PETN, engineers would need 1. 0/1.66 kg to obtain the same effects as 1 kg of TNT. With ANFO or ammonium nitrate, they would require 1. 0/0.74 kg or 1. 0/0.42 kg, *, TBX or EBX, in a small, confined space, may have over twice the power of destruction. The total power of aluminized mixtures strictly depends on the condition of explosions, guide for the Use of the International System of Units. National Institute of Standards and Technology, nuclear Weapons FAQ Part 1.3 Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb, cooper, Paul W. Explosives Engineering, New York, Wiley-VCH, ISBN 0-471-18636-8 HQ Department of the Army, Field Manual 5-25, Explosives and Demolitions, Washington, D. C. Pentagon Publishing, pp. 83–84, ISBN 0-9759009-5-1 Explosives - Compositions, Alexandria, VA, thermobaric Explosives, Advanced Energetic Materials,2004. THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS, nap. edu, retrieved September 2004
2.
Operation Castle
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Operation Castle was a United States series of high-yield nuclear tests by Joint Task Force 7 at Bikini Atoll beginning in March 1954. It followed Operation Upshot–Knothole and preceded Operation Teapot, Operation Castle was considered by government officials to be a success as it proved the feasibility of deployable dry fuel designs for thermonuclear weapons. There were technical difficulties with some of the tests, one device had a much lower than predicted. Public reaction to the tests and an awareness of the effects of nuclear fallout has been attributed as being part of the motivation for the Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963. Bikini Atoll had previously hosted nuclear testing in 1946 as part of Operation Crossroads where the fourth and fifth atomic weapons were detonated in Bikini Lagoon. Since then, US nuclear weapons testing had moved to Enewetok Atoll to take advantage of larger islands. Both Atolls were part of the US Pacific Proving Grounds, the extremely high yields of the Castle weapons caused concern within the AEC that potential damage to the limited infrastructure already established at Enewetak would delay other operations. The Ivy Mike test was the worlds first hydrogen bomb, producing a full-scale thermonuclear or fusion explosion, the Ivy Mike device used liquid deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen, making it a wet bomb. The complex dewar mechanisms needed to store the liquid deuterium at cryogenic temperatures made the three stories tall and 82 tons in total weight, far from being a deliverable weapon. The final result incorporated lithium deuteride as the fuel in the Teller-Ulam design, vastly reducing size and weight. Operation Castle was charted to test four dry fuel designs, two wet bombs, and one smaller device, approval for Operation Castle was communicated to JTF-7 by Major General Kenneth D. Nichols, General Manager of the AEC, on 21 January 1954. Operation Castle was organized into seven experiments, all but one of which were to place at Bikini Atoll. Below is the original test schedule, Operation Castle was intended to test lithium deuteride as a thermonuclear fusion fuel. A solid at room temperature, LiD, if it worked, the same Teller-Ulam principle would be used as in the Ivy Mike Sausage device, but the fusion reactions were different. Ivy Mike fused deuterium with deuterium, but the LiD devices would fuse deuterium with tritium, the tritium was produced during the explosion by irradiating the lithium with fast neutrons. Bravo Yankee and Union used lithium enriched in the Li-6 isotope while Romeo, the first one started production in the fall of 1953. As a hedge, development of liquid deuterium weapons continued in parallel, the Ramrod and Jughead devices were liquid fuel designs greatly reduced in size and weight from their Ivy Mike Sausage predecessor. The Jughead device was ultimately weaponized and saw limited fielding in the inventory until the dry fuel weapons were common, Nectar was not a fusion weapon in the same sense as the rest of the Castle series
3.
Operation Wigwam
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Operation Wigwam involved a single test of the Mark 90 Betty nuclear bomb. It was conducted between Operation Teapot and Project 56 on May 14,1955, about 500 miles southwest of San Diego,6,800 personnel aboard 30 ships were involved in Wigwam. The purpose of Wigwam was to determine the vulnerability of submarines to deeply detonated nuclear weapons, the task force commander, Admiral John Sylvester, was embarked on the task force flagship USS Mount McKinley. The test device was suspended to a depth of 2,000 feet by cable attached to a barge, a 6-mile tow line connected the 205 ft. USS Tawasa and the shot barge itself. Suspended from the tow lines of other tugs were three miniature unmanned submarines named Squaws, each packed with cameras and telemetry instruments, the time of detonation was 1300 hrs Pacific Time. The test was carried out without incident, and government said radiation effects were negligible, three personnel received doses of over 0.5 rem. Other sailors on USS Cree were tasked with measuring radiation and said that the water boiled and churned. The sailors wore minimal protection of their cotton clothes only. One sailor on the Cree had three cornea transplants without any recognition by the U. S. government. The feeling on the feet of the sailors when it went off was like a hammer hitting the deck of the ship.83 seconds. The United States test series summary table is here, United States nuclear testing series, the detonations in the United States Wigwam series are listed below, List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States Operation Wigwam Test Report, DTRA
4.
Nuclear weapons testing
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Nuclear weapons tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness, yield, and explosive capability of nuclear weapons. Throughout the twentieth century, most nations that developed nuclear weapons tested them, the first nuclear device was detonated as a test by the United States at the Trinity site on July 16,1945, with a yield approximately equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT. The first thermonuclear weapon technology test of engineer device, codenamed Mike, was tested at the Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands on November 1,1952, also by the United States. The largest nuclear weapon ever tested was the Tsar Bomba of the Soviet Union at Novaya Zemlya on October 30,1961, with the largest yield ever seen, the treaty permitted underground nuclear testing. France continued atmospheric testing until 1974, and China continued until 1980, underground tests in the United States continued until 1991, the Soviet Union until 1990, the United Kingdom until 1991, and both China and France until 1996. Non-signatories India and Pakistan last tested nuclear weapons in 1998, North Korea conducted nuclear tests in 2006,2009,2013, and 2016. The most recent confirmed nuclear test occurred in September 2016 in North Korea, Nuclear weapons tests have historically been divided into four categories reflecting the medium or location of the test. Atmospheric testing designates explosions that take place in the atmosphere, Nuclear explosions close enough to the ground to draw dirt and debris into their mushroom cloud can generate large amounts of nuclear fallout due to irradiation of the debris. This definition of atmospheric is used in the Limited Test Ban Treaty, underground testing refers to nuclear tests conducted under the surface of the earth, at varying depths. True underground tests are intended to be contained and emit a negligible amount of fallout. Unfortunately these nuclear tests do occasionally vent to the surface, producing from nearly none to considerable amounts of debris as a consequence. In 1976, the United States and the USSR agreed to limit the maximum yield of underground tests to 150 kt with the Threshold Test Ban Treaty. Underground testing also falls into two categories, tunnel tests in generally horizontal tunnel drifts, and shaft tests in vertically drilled holes. Exoatmospheric testing refers to tests conducted above the atmosphere. The test devices are lifted on rockets, underwater testing results from nuclear devices being detonated underwater, usually moored to a ship or a barge. Tests of this nature have usually been conducted to evaluate the effects of weapons against naval vessels. Another way to nuclear tests are by the number of explosions that constitute the test.1 second. The USSR has exploded up to eight devices in a single salvo test, Pakistans second, almost all lists in the literature are lists of tests, in the lists in Wikipedia, the lists are of explosions
5.
Nevada Test Site
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Nuclear testing at the Nevada Test Site began with a 1-kiloton-of-TNT bomb dropped on Frenchman Flat on 27 January 1951. Many of the images of the nuclear era come from the NTS. During the 1950s, the clouds from the 100 atmospheric tests could be seen for almost 100 mi. The city of Las Vegas experienced noticeable seismic effects, and the distant mushroom clouds, St. George, Utah, received the brunt of the fallout of above-ground nuclear testing in the Yucca Flats/Nevada Test Site. Winds routinely carried the fallout of these tests directly through St. George, the vast majority—828 of the 928 total nuclear tests—were underground. Those arrested included the astronomer Carl Sagan and the actors Kris Kristofferson, Martin Sheen, the Nevada Test Site contains 28 areas,1,100 buildings,400 miles of paved roads,300 miles of unpaved roads, ten heliports, and two airstrips. The Nevada Test Site was established as a 680-square-mile area by President Harry Truman on December 18,1950, within the Nellis Air Force Gunnery, the Nevada Test Site was the primary testing location of American nuclear devices from 1951 to 1992,928 announced nuclear tests occurred there. The site is covered with subsidence craters from the testing, the NTS was the United States primary location for tests in the 500-to-1,000 kt range. 126 tests were conducted elsewhere, including most larger tests, many of these occurred at the Pacific Proving Grounds in the Marshall Islands. During the 1950s, the clouds from atmospheric tests could be seen for almost 100 mi. The city of Las Vegas experienced noticeable seismic effects, and the distant mushroom clouds, the last atmospheric test detonation at the Nevada Test Site was Little Feller I of Operation Sunbeam, on 17 July 1962. Although the United States did not ratify the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, it honors the articles of the treaty, subcritical tests not involving a critical mass continue. It created a crater 1,280 feet wide and 320 feet deep that can still be seen today, the site was scheduled to be used to conduct the testing of a 1, 100-ton conventional explosive in an operation known as Divine Strake in June 2006. The bomb is an alternative to nuclear bunker busters. After objections from Nevada and Utahs members of Congress, the operation was postponed until 2007, on 22 February 2007, the Defense Threat Reduction Agency officially canceled the experiment. On December 7,2012 the most-recent explosion was conducted, an underground sub-critical test of the properties of plutonium, NTS also performed piggyback testing of effects of nuclear detonation during the above-ground tests. Vehicles, shelters, utility stations, and other structures were placed at distances from the Ground Zero detonation point of each weapon. Homes and commercial buildings were built to typical of American and European cities
6.
Nuclear weapons delivery
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Nuclear weapons delivery is the technology and systems used to place a nuclear weapon at the position of detonation, on or near its target. Several methods have developed to carry out this task. Strategic nuclear weapons are used primarily as part of a doctrine of deterrence by threatening large targets, weapons meant for use in limited military maneuvers, such as destroying specific military, communications, or infrastructure targets, are known as tactical nuclear weapons. In terms of yields, nowadays the former have much larger yield than the latter. The bombs that destroyed Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 were weaker than many of todays tactical weapons, historically, the first method of delivery, and the method used in the only two nuclear weapons actually used in warfare, was a gravity bomb dropped by a plane. S. Nuclear warheads are represented in bombs, although some are in the form of missiles, gravity bombs are designed to be dropped from planes, which requires that the weapon be able to withstand vibrations and changes in air temperature and pressure during the course of a flight. Early weapons often had a core for safety, known as in flight insertion cores. They had to meet safety conditions, to prevent accidental detonation or dropping, a variety of types also had to have a fuse to initiate detonation. US nuclear weapons that met these criteria are designated by the letter B followed, without a hyphen, the B61, for example, was the primary bomb in the US arsenal for decades. Various air-dropping techniques exist, including bombing, parachute-retarded delivery. The early gravity nuclear bombs could only be carried by the B-29 Superfortress, most ballistic missiles exit the Earths atmosphere and re-enter it in their sub-orbital spaceflight. Placement of nuclear missiles on the low Earth orbit has been banned by the Outer Space Treaty as early as 1967. An ICBM is more than 20 times as fast as a bomber and more than 10 times as fast as a plane, and also flying at a much higher altitude. ICBMs can also be fired quickly in the event of a surprise attack, early ballistic missiles carried a single warhead, often of megaton-range yield. Because of the accuracy of the missiles, this kind of high yield was considered necessary in order to ensure a particular targets destruction. Since the 1970s modern ballistic weapons have seen the development of far more accurate targeting technologies and this set the stage for smaller warheads in the hundreds-of-kilotons-range yield, and consequently for ICBMs having multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles. Advances in technology have enabled a single missile to launch a payload containing several warheads, the number of independent warheads capable of deployment from ballistic missiles depends on the weapons platform the missile is launched from. For example, one D5 Trident missile carried by an Ohio-class submarine is capable of launching eight independent warheads, MIRV has a number of advantages over a missile with a single warhead
7.
Universal Time
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Universal Time is a time standard based on Earths rotation. It is a continuation of Greenwich Mean Time, i. e. the mean solar time on the Prime Meridian at Greenwich, London. In fact, the expression Universal Time is ambiguous, as there are versions of it. All of these versions of UT, except for UTC, are based on Earths rotation relative to distant celestial objects, UTC is based on International Atomic Time, with leap seconds added to keep it within 0.9 second of UT1. Prior to the introduction of time, each municipality throughout the civilized world set its official clock, if it had one. Greenwich Mean Time, where all clocks in Britain were set to the time, was established to solve this problem. Chronometers or telegraphy were used to synchronize these clocks, Standard time, as originally proposed by Scottish-Canadian Sir Sandford Fleming in 1879, divided the world into twenty-four time zones, each one covering 15 degrees of longitude. All clocks within each zone would be set to the time as the others. This location was chosen because by 1884 two-thirds of all nautical charts, the conference did not adopt Flemings time zones because they were outside the purpose for which it was called, which was to choose a basis for universal time. During the period between 1848 and 1972, all of the countries adopted time zones based on the Greenwich meridian. The term Greenwich Mean Time persists, however, in usage to this day in reference to civil timekeeping. Based on the rotation of the Earth, time can be measured by observing celestial bodies crossing the meridian every day. Astronomers found that it was accurate to establish time by observing stars as they crossed a meridian rather than by observing the position of the Sun in the sky. Nowadays, UT in relation to International Atomic Time is determined by Very Long Baseline Interferometry observations of distant quasars, the rotation of the Earth and UT are monitored by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service. The International Astronomical Union also is involved in setting standards, the rotation of the Earth is somewhat irregular, and is very gradually slowing due to tidal acceleration. Furthermore, the length of the second was determined from observations of the Moon between 1750 and 1890. All of these cause the mean solar day, on the average, to be slightly longer than the nominal 86,400 SI seconds. As UT is slightly irregular in its rate, astronomers introduced Ephemeris Time, thus, civil broadcast standards for time and frequency usually follow International Atomic Time closely, but occasionally step in order to prevent them from drifting too far from mean solar time
8.
Operation Teapot
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Operation Teapot was a series of fourteen nuclear test explosions conducted at the Nevada Test Site in the first half of 1955. It was preceded by Operation Castle, and followed by Operation Wigwam, Wigwam was, administratively, a part of Teapot, but it is usually treated as a class of its own. The aims of the operation were to establish military tactics for ground forces on a nuclear battlefield, the United States test series summary table is here, United States nuclear testing series. An augmented test unit from the United States Marine Corps participated in shot Bee during the March 1955 exercises and it produced a yield of 22kt, but significantly less than the expected amount. Since it was an effects test, the DoD specified that the device should have a calibrated yield within 10% of ratings. However, weapon designers at Los Alamos substituted the experimental core without notifying the DoD, the unexpected lower yield, 33% less than the DoD expected, ruined many of the militarys tests. The Civil Defense Apple-2 shot on 5 May 1955 was intended to test various building types in a nuclear blast. An assortment of buildings, including houses and electrical substations, were constructed at the site nicknamed Survival Town. The buildings were populated with mannequins, and stocked with different types of canned and packaged foods, not all of the buildings were destroyed in the blast, and some of them still stand at Area 1, Nevada Test Site. A short film about the blast, referred to as Operation Cue, was distributed by the Federal Civil Defense Administration. The houses are still standing at 37. 04476°N116. 07416°W /37.04476, -116.07416 and they are stops on the Nevada National Security Site tour. From Declassified documents, dated February to May 1956, The Apple-2 shot, as part of Operation Teapot Project 35
9.
Mark 6 nuclear bomb
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The Mark 6 nuclear bomb was an American nuclear bomb based on the earlier Mark 4 nuclear bomb and its predecessor, the Mark 3 Fat Man nuclear bomb design. The Mark 6 was in production from 1951 to 1955 and saw service until 1962, seven variants and versions were produced, with a total production run of all models of 1100 bombs. The basic Mark 6 design was 61 inches in diameter and 128 inches long, various models of the Mark 6 were roughly 25% lighter than either the Mark 4 or Fat Man, and weighed 7,600 to 8,500 pounds. Early models of the Mark 6 utilized the same 32-point implosion system design concept as the earlier Mark 4 and Mark 3, various models and pit options gave nuclear yields of 8,26,80,154, and 160 kilotons for Mark 6 models. A Mark 6 casing is on display in the Cold War Gallery of the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, another is on display at the Museum of Aviation. The Mark 13 was cancelled in August 1954 and the W13 cancelled September 1954, Mark 18 bombs were eventually recycled into Mark 6 Mod 6 bombs after thermonuclear weapons were deployed in quantity. The Mark 18 was tested once in Operation Ivy King, list of nuclear weapons Allbombs. html list of all US nuclear warheads at nuclearweaponarchive. org
10.
Desert Rock exercises
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Desert Rock was the code name of a series of exercises conducted by the US military in conjunction with atmospheric nuclear tests. They were carried out at the Nevada Proving Grounds between 1951 and 1957 and their purpose was to train troops and gain knowledge of military maneuvers and operations on the nuclear battlefield. They included observer programs, tactical maneuvers, and damage effects tests, Camp Desert Rock was established in 1951,1.5 miles south of Camp Mercury. The site was used to billet troops and stage equipment, the camp was discontinued as an Army installation in 1964. Observer programs were conducted at shots Dog, Sugar, and Uncle, tactical maneuvers were conducted after shot Dog. Damage effects tests were conducted at shots Dog, Sugar, and Uncle to determine the effects of a nuclear detonation on military equipment, observer programs were conducted at shots Charlie, Dog, Fox, and George. Tactical maneuvers were conducted after shots Charlie, Dog, and George, psychological tests were conducted at shots Charlie, Fox, and George to determine the troops reactions to witnessing a nuclear detonation. Exercise Desert Rock V included troop orientation and training, a volunteer officer observer program, tactical maneuvers, operational helicopter tests. Observer programs were conducted at shots Wasp, Moth, Tesla, Turk, Bee, Ess, Apple 1, tactical maneuvers were conducted after shots Bee and Apple 2. Technical studies were conducted at shots Wasp, Moth, Tesla, Turk, Bee, Ess, Apple 1, Wasp Prime, Met, and Apple 2. A test of a task force, RAZOR, was conducted at shot Apple 2 to demonstrate the capability of a reinforced tank battalion to seize an objective immediately after a nuclear detonation. Tactical maneuvers were conducted after shots Hood, Smoky, and Galileo, at shot Hood, the Marine Corps conducted a maneuver involving the use of a helicopter airlift and tactical air support. At shot Smoky, Army troops conducted an assault, and at shot Galileo. Totskoye nuclear exercise of 1954, a somewhat comparable series of Soviet exercises
11.
Nuclear weapon design
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Nuclear weapon designs are physical, chemical, and engineering arrangements that cause the physics package of a nuclear weapon to detonate. There are three existing basic design types, in many existing designs, the explosive energy of deployed devices is derived primarily from nuclear fission, not fusion. Pure fission weapons were the first nuclear weapons built and have so far been the type ever used in warfare. Implosion, a mass of either material is surrounded by high explosives that compress the mass. The implosion method can use either uranium or plutonium as fuel, the gun method only uses uranium. Boosted fission weapons improve on the implosion design, the high pressure and temperature environment at the center of an exploding fission weapon compresses and heats a mixture of tritium and deuterium gas. The hydrogen fuses to form helium and free neutrons, boosting can more than double the weapons fission energy release. Staged thermonuclear weapons are essentially a chain of fusion-boosted fission weapons, the secondary stage is imploded by x-ray energy from the first stage, called the primary. This radiation implosion is much more effective than the high-explosive implosion of the primary, consequently, the secondary can be many times more powerful than the primary, without being bigger. The secondary can be designed to maximize fusion energy release, but in most designs fusion is employed only to drive or enhance fission, as it is in the primary. More stages could be added and conceptual designs incorporating up to seven have been produced, pure fusion weapons have not been invented. Such weapons, though, would produce far less radioactive fallout than current designs, pure fission weapons historically have been the first type to be built by a nation state. Most known innovations in nuclear weapon design originated in the United States, although some were developed independently by other states. In early news accounts, pure fission weapons were called atomic bombs or A-bombs, Weapons involving fusion were called hydrogen bombs or H-bombs, also a misnomer since their energy comes mostly from fission. Practitioners favored the terms nuclear and thermonuclear, respectively, the term thermonuclear refers to the high temperatures required to initiate fusion. It omits the equally important factor of radiation pressure, which was considered secret at the time the term became widespread, many nuclear weapon terms similarly obfuscate because of their origin in a classified environment. Nuclear fission separates or splits heavier atoms to form lighter atoms, Nuclear fusion combines together lighter atoms to form heavier atoms. In some ways, fission and fusion are opposite and complementary reactions, to understand how nuclear weapons are designed, it is useful to know the important similarities and differences between fission and fusion
12.
W25 (nuclear warhead)
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The W25 was a small nuclear warhead developed by the United States Air Force and Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory for air-defense use. It was a bomb with a nominal yield of 1.5 kt. Development of the began in 1954 at the behest of Douglas Aircraft for use against enemy bombers. The W25 was used for the MB-1 Ding Dong, an unguided rocket used by the Northrop F-89 Scorpion, F-101B. The MB-1 entered service in 1957, and was redesignated the AIR-2 Genie. User was Canada, whose CF-101 Voodoos carried Genies until 1984 via a nuclear sharing arrangement. Limited numbers were used for Air National Guard F-106 aircraft until December 1984. The W25 is 17.4 inches in diameter and 26.6 inches long, the W25 was described as a composite pit, unboosted, and the first US sealed pit design. A sealed pit means that a metal barrier is formed around the pit or nuclear material components inside a nuclear weapon. This protects the nuclear materials from environmental degradation and helps reduce the chances of their release in case of a fire or minor explosion
13.
Civil defense
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Civil defense, civil defence or civil protection is an effort to protect the citizens of a state from military attacks and natural disasters. It uses the principles of operations, prevention, mitigation, preparation, response, or emergency evacuation. Programs of this sort were initially discussed at least as early as the 1920s and were implemented in some countries during the 1930s as the threat of war and it became widespread after the threat of nuclear weapons was realized. Since the end of the Cold War, the focus of civil defense has largely shifted from military attack to emergencies, in some countries, civil defense is seen as a key part of total defense. For example, in Sweden, the Swedish word totalförsvar refers to the commitment of a range of resources of the nation to its defense - including to civil protection. Respectively, some countries may have or have had military-organized civil defense units as part of their armed forces or as a paramilitary service, the advent of civil defence was stimulated by the experience of the bombing of civilian areas during the First World War. The bombing of the United Kingdom began on 19 January 1915 when German zeppelins dropped bombs on the Great Yarmouth area, German bombing operations of the First World War were surprisingly effective, especially after the Gotha bombers surpassed the zeppelins. The most devastating raids inflicted 121 casualties for each ton of bombs dropped, the Committee produced figures estimating that in London there would be 9,000 casualties in the first two days and then a continuing rate of 17,500 casualties a week. It was believed there would be total chaos and panic. To control the population harsh measures were proposed, bringing London under almost military control, a different government department proposed setting up camps for refugees for a few days before sending them back to London. A special government department, the Civil Defence Service, was established by the Home Office in 1935 and its remit included the pre-existing ARP as well as wardens, firemen, fire watchers, rescue, first aid post, stretcher party and industry. Over 1.9 million people served within the CD, nearly 2,400 lost their lives to enemy action, the organisation of civil defence was the responsibility of the local authority. Volunteers were ascribed to different units depending on experience or training, each local civil defence service was divided into several sections. Wardens were responsible for reconnaissance and reporting, and leadership, organisation, guidance. Wardens would also advise survivors of the locations of rest and food centres, Rescue Parties were required to assess and then access bombed-out buildings and retrieve injured or dead people. In addition they would turn off gas, electricity and water supplies, medical services, including First Aid Parties, provided on the spot medical assistance. The expected stream of information that would be generated during an attack was handled by Report, a local headquarters would have an ARP controller who would direct rescue, first aid and decontamination teams to the scenes of reported bombing. If local services were deemed insufficient to deal with the incident then the controller could request assistance from surrounding boroughs
14.
Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
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The impetus for the test ban was provided by rising public anxiety over the magnitude of nuclear tests, particularly tests of new thermonuclear weapons, and the resulting nuclear fallout. A test ban was also seen as a means of slowing nuclear proliferation, though the PTBT did not halt proliferation or the arms race, its enactment did coincide with a substantial decline in the concentration of radioactive particles in the atmosphere. The PTBT was signed by the governments of the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, the treaty formally went into effect on 10 October 1963. Since then,123 other states have become party to the treaty, ten states have signed but not ratified the treaty. In 1952–53, the US and Soviet Union detonated their first thermonuclear weapons, in 1954, the US Castle Bravo test at Bikini Atoll had a yield of 15 megatons of TNT, more than doubling the expected yield. In the same year, a Soviet test sent radioactive particles over Japan, around the same time, victims of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima visited the US for medical care, which attracted significant public attention. Between 1951 and 1958, the US conducted 166 atmospheric tests, the Soviet Union conducted 82, in 1945, Britain and Canada made an early call for an international discussion on controlling atomic power. At the time, the US had yet to formulate a policy or strategy on nuclear weapons. Taking advantage of this was Vannevar Bush, who had initiated and administered the Manhattan Project, as a first step in this direction, Bush proposed an international agency dedicated to nuclear control. Truman to help construct US nuclear weapons policy, a version of the Acheson-Lilienthal plan was presented to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission as the Baruch Plan in June 1946. The Baruch Plan proposed that an International Atomic Development Authority would control all research on and material, the Soviet Union dismissed the Baruch Plan as a US attempt to secure its nuclear dominance, and called for the US to halt weapons production and release technical information on its program. The Acheson–Lilienthal paper and Baruch Plan would serve as the basis for US policy into the 1950s, between 1947 and 1954, the US and Soviet Union discussed their demands within the United Nations Commission for Conventional Disarmament. A series of events in 1954, including the Castle Bravo test and spread of fallout from a Soviet test over Japan, additionally, by 1954, both US and Soviet Union had assembled large nuclear stockpiles, reducing hopes of complete disarmament. Interest in nuclear control and efforts to stall proliferation of weapons to other states grew as the Soviet Unions nuclear capabilities increased, in the same year, the British Labour Party, then led by Clement Attlee, called on the UN to ban testing of thermonuclear weapons. 1955 marks the beginning of negotiations, as Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev first proposed talks on the subject in February 1955. On 10 May 1955, the Soviet Union proposed a test ban before the UN Disarmament Commissions Committee of Five, the May 1955 proposal is now seen evidence of Khrushchevs new approach to foreign policy, as Khrushchev sought to mend relations with the West. The proposal would serve as the basis of the Soviet negotiating position through 1957, Eisenhower had supported nuclear testing after World War II. In 1947, he rejected arguments by Stafford L. Warrens arguments were lent credence in the scientific community, everybody seems to think that were skunks, saber-rattlers and warmongers
15.
Mushroom cloud
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A mushroom cloud is a distinctive pyrocumulus mushroom-shaped cloud of debris/smoke and usually condensed water vapor resulting from a large explosion. The effect is most commonly associated with an explosion. They can be caused by conventional weapons, like vacuum bombs, including the ATBIP. Some volcanic eruptions and impact events can produce natural mushroom clouds, mushroom clouds result from the sudden formation of a large volume of lower-density gases at any altitude, causing a Rayleigh–Taylor instability. The stabilization altitude depends strongly on the profiles of the temperature, dew point, although the term appears to have been coined at the start of the 1950s, mushroom clouds generated by explosions were being described centuries before the atomic era. The Times published a report on 1 October 1937 of a Japanese attack on Shanghai in China which generated a great mushroom of smoke, the 1917 Halifax Explosion also produced one. During World War II, descriptions of mushroom clouds were relatively common, the atomic bomb cloud over Nagasaki, Japan was described in The Times of London of 13 August 1945 as a huge mushroom of smoke and dust. He wrote of the bomb producing a pillar of purple fire, later in 1946, the Operation Crossroads nuclear bomb tests were described as having a cauliflower cloud, but a reporter present also spoke of the mushroom, now the common symbol of the atomic age. Mushrooms have traditionally been associated both with life and death, food and poison, making them a powerful symbolic connection than, say. Mushroom clouds are formed by many sorts of large explosions under earths gravity, without gravity, the explosives by-product gases would remain spherical. Nuclear weapons are usually detonated above the ground, to maximize the effect of their spherically expanding fireball, immediately after the detonation, the fireball begins to rise into the air, acting on the same principle as a hot-air balloon. One way to analyze the motion, once the hot gas has cleared the ground sufficiently, is as a spherical cap bubble, as this gives agreement between the rate of rise and observed diameter. When the detonation altitude is low enough, these afterwinds will draw in dirt, Nuclear detonations produced high above the ground might not create mushroom clouds with a stem. Detonations underwater but near the surface produce a pillar of water, which, in collapsing, forms a cauliflower-like shape, underground detonations at low depth produce a mushroom cloud and a base surge, two different distinct clouds. The amount of radiation vented into the atmosphere decreases rapidly with increasing detonation depth, with surface and near-surface air bursts, the amount of debris lofted into the air decreases rapidly with increasing burst altitude. At burst altitudes of approximately 7 meters/kiloton^0.33, a crater is not formed, the fallout-reducing height, above which the primary radioactive particles consist mainly of the fine fireball condensation, is approximately 55 meters/kiloton^0.4. However, even at these burst altitudes, fallout may be formed by a number of mechanisms, the distribution of radiation in the mushroom cloud varies with yield of the explosion, type of weapon, fusion/fission ratio, burst altitude, terrain type, and weather. In general, lower-yield explosions have about 90% of their radioactivity in the mushroom head, in contrast, megaton-range explosions tend to have most of their radioactivity in the lower third of the mushroom cloud
16.
Marine Corps Test Unit
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The Marine Corps Test Unit 1, or MCTU #1, was an experimental testing unit of the United States Marine Corps. It was established outside the Fleet Marine Force for the development of specialized tactics, techniques and organizational concepts and it reported directly to the Commandant of the Marine Corps. The two atomic bombs that were dropped on Japan to end World War II demonstrated the threat of nuclear warfare and we must think in terms of 200 miles in width and depth. However the Marine Corps didnt have enough helicopters nor the individual helicopter lift capability at that time to employ the tactics needed to implement Colonel Cushmans concept of dispersion. On 1 July 1955, Commandant Shepherd approved his staffs recommendation and activated Marine Corps Test Unit #1, the commandant acted upon that MCTU #1 would case its colors and integrate its research and development, merging their roles into the amphibious reconnaissance companies. Major Bruce F. Meyers relieved Captain Michael Spark as the officer of 1st Amphibious Reconnaissance Company on 18 June 1957. The next day, 1st Amphibious Reconnaissance Company received orders from the Fleet Marine Force, Pacific, 1st Force Reconnaissance Company was activated on 19 June 1957 with Bruce F. Meyers as its first Commanding Officer. Captain Joseph Z. Taylor was his executive officer, although the MCTU #1 no longer existed, Major Meyers continued to pursue more unique methods in insertion capabilities. General Shepherd appointed Colonel Edward N, the Test Units Operations officer was Major Dewey Bob Bohn. The Infantry Battalion was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Stanley Nelson, with Major Willmar Bill Bledsoe as the executive officer and it was assigned to test the feasibility of conducting major helicopter landing assaults projected from the sea. Similarly, amphib recon Marines tested the usage of submarines for coastal projection during World War II, a Plans and Development Section was formed on April 1955 to evaluate the trials and tests of the infantry battalion and other subordinated units experiments with MCTU #1. Major Bruce F. Meyers reported for duty and was initially was assigned as the assistant operations officer of the infantry battalion and he was subsequently redesignated as the Helicopter Assault Airborne Techniques Officer. By September 1955, the platoon, commanded by Captain Joseph Z. Taylor, was added to resolve the amphibious reconnaissance role in the Fleet Marine Force. It was also tasked to bring the past force-level preliminary amphib recon methods of World War II towards a modern approach that included parachute insertions and helicopter capabilities. An air element of a helicopter squadron was augmented with three observation helicopters and an additional six Grumman F9F-2 Panthers to support MCTU #1 during its research. A Marine Air Wing element was attached along with administrative and logistic support at the request from nearby MCAS El Toro, Major Bruce F. Meyers relieved Captain Michael Spark, who was later killed in the Vietnam War and awarded the Navy Cross. The next day on 19 June 1957, the newly assembled 1st Amphibious Reconnaissance Company was dissolved, casing its colors for the establishment of 1st Force Reconnaissance Company, Colonel Rydalch assumed additional duties as the titular head of the P&D Section. He assigned Lieutenant Colonels Regan Fuller and Chuck Bailey as the officers and supervisors of the daily tests
17.
United States Marine Corps
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The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
18.
Uranium-233
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Uranium-233 is a fissile isotope of uranium that is bred from thorium-232 as part of the thorium fuel cycle. Uranium-233 was investigated for use in weapons and as a reactor fuel. It has been used successfully in experimental nuclear reactors and has proposed for much wider use as a nuclear fuel. It has a half-life of 160,000 years, uranium-233 is produced by the neutron irradiation of thorium-232. When thorium-232 absorbs a neutron, it becomes thorium-233, which has a half-life of only 22 minutes, thorium-233 decays into protactinium-233 through beta decay. 233U usually fissions on neutron absorption but sometimes retains the neutron, the capture-to-fission ratio is smaller than the other two major fissile fuels uranium-235 and plutonium-239. In 1946 the public first became informed of U-233 bred from thorium as an available source of nuclear energy and atom bombs, following a United Nations report. The United States produced, over the course of the Cold War, approximately 2 metric tons of uranium-233, in varying levels of chemical and these were produced at the Hanford Site and Savannah River Site in reactors that were designed for the production of plutonium-239. Historical production costs, estimated from the costs of production, were 2–4 million USD/kg. There are few remaining in the world with significant capabilities to produce more uranium-233. Uranium-233 has been used as a fuel in several different reactor types, the long-term strategy of the nuclear power program of India, which has substantial thorium reserves, is to move to a nuclear program breeding uranium-233 from thorium feedstock. The fission of one atom of U-233 generates 197.9 MeV =3.171 × 10−11 J, i. e.19.09 TJ/mol =81.95 TJ/kg. The main difference is the co-presence of uranium-232 which can make uranium-233 very dangerous to work on, although not an outright fizzle, METs actual yield of 22 kilotons was sufficiently below the predicted 33 kt that the information gathered was of limited value. The Soviet Union detonated its first hydrogen bomb the year, the RDS-37. In 1998, as part of its Pokhran-II tests, India detonated an experimental U-233 device of low-yield called Shakti V, the B Reactor and others at the Hanford Site optimized for the production of weapons-grade material have been used to manufacture U-233. The hazards are significant even at 5 parts per million, implosion nuclear weapons require U-232 levels below 50 ppm. Gun-type fission weapons additionally need low levels of impurities, to keep the neutron generation low. The Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment used U-233, bred in light water reactors such as Indian Point Energy Center, thorium, from which U-233 is bred, is roughly three to four times more abundant in the earths crust than uranium
19.
Fissile material
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In nuclear engineering, fissile material is material capable of sustaining a nuclear fission chain reaction. By definition, fissile material can sustain a reaction with neutrons of any energy. The predominant neutron energy may be typified by slow neutrons or fast neutrons. Fissile material can be used to fuel thermal-neutron reactors, fast-neutron reactors, according to the fissile rule, for a heavy element with 90 ≤ Z ≤100, its isotopes with 2 × Z − N =43 ±2, with few exceptions, are fissile. A nuclide capable of undergoing fission after capturing a high energy neutron is referred to as fissionable, a fissionable nuclide that can be induced to fission with low-energy thermal neutrons with a high probability is referred to as fissile. Although the terms were formerly synonymous, fissionable materials include also those that can be fissioned only with high-energy neutrons, as a result, fissile materials are a subset of fissionable materials. By contrast, the energy released by uranium-238 absorbing a thermal neutron is less than the critical energy. Consequently, uranium-238 is a material but not a fissile material. As such, while all fissile isotopes are fissionable, not all fissionable isotopes are fissile and these are materials that sustain an explosive fast nuclear fission chain reaction. Under all definitions above, uranium-238 is fissionable, but because it cannot sustain a chain reaction. Fast fission of 238U in the stage of a nuclear weapon contributes greatly to yield. The fast fission of 238U also makes a significant contribution to the output of some fast-neutron reactors. In general, most actinide isotopes with an odd number are fissile. Most nuclear fuels have an odd atomic number, and an even atomic number Z. This implies an odd number of neutrons, isotopes with an odd number of neutrons gain an extra 1 to 2 MeV of energy from absorbing an extra neutron, from the pairing effect which favors even numbers of both neutrons and protons. This energy is enough to supply the extra energy for fission by slower neutrons. They are more likely to ignore the neutron and let it go on its way, or else to absorb the neutron and these even-even isotopes are also less likely to undergo spontaneous fission, and they also have relatively much longer partial half-lives for alpha or beta decay. Examples of these isotopes are uranium-238 and thorium-232, the physical basis for this phenomenon also comes from the pairing effect in nuclear binding energy, but this time from both proton–proton and neutron–neutron pairing
20.
Pit (nuclear weapon)
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The pit, named after the hard core found in fruits such as peaches and apricots, is the core of an implosion nuclear weapon – the fissile material and any neutron reflector or tamper bonded to it. The pits of the first nuclear weapons were solid, with a neutron initiator in their center. The Gadget and Fat Man used pits made of 6.2 kg of solid hot pressed plutonium-gallium alloy half-spheres of 9.2 cm diameter, with a 2.5 cm internal cavity for the initiator. The gadgets pit was electroplated with 0.13 mm of silver, the layer, however, developed blistering, the Fat Man pit, and those of subsequent models, were all plated with nickel. A hollow pit was considered and known to be more efficient, later designs used TOM initiators of similar design but with diameters of only about 1 cm. The internal neutron initiators were later phased out and replaced with pulsed neutron sources, the solid-cores were known as the Christy design, after Robert Christy who made the solid pit design a reality after it was initially proposed by Edward Teller. Along with the pit, the physics package was also informally nicknamed Christy Gadget. Efficiency of the implosion can be increased by leaving an empty space between the tamper and the pit, causing an acceleration of the shock wave before it impacts the pit. This method is known as levitated-pit implosion, levitated pits were tested in 1948 with Fat Man style bombs, and became obsolete with the advent of hollow pits. The early weapons with a levitated pit had a removable pit and it was stored separately, in a special capsule called a birdcage. During implosion of a pit, the plutonium layer accelerates inwards, colliding in the middle. Due to the momentum, the plutonium itself plays part of the role of the tamper, requiring a smaller amount of uranium in the tamper layer, reducing the warhead weight. Hollow pits are more efficient than solid ones but require more accurate implosion, at that time, plutonium-239 supply was scarce. To lower its amount needed for a pit, a composite core was developed, the composite cores were available for Mark 3 nuclear bombs by the end of 1947. For example, a core for a Mark 4 bomb. Its explosion releases only 35% of energy of the plutonium and 25% of the uranium, so it is not highly efficient, another factor for considering different pit materials is the different behavior of plutonium and uranium. Plutonium fissions faster and produces more neutrons, but it was more expensive to produce. Uranium is slower to fission, so it can be assembled into a supercritical mass
21.
Mark 7 nuclear bomb
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Mark 7 Thor was the first tactical fission bomb adopted by US armed forces. It was also the first weapon to be delivered using the method with the help of the low-altitude bombing system. The weapon was tested in Operation Buster-Jangle, to facilitate external carry by fighter-bomber aircraft, Mark 7 was fitted with retractable stabilizer fins. The Mark 7 warhead also formed the basis of the 30.5 inches BOAR rocket, the Mark 90 Betty nuclear depth charge, MGR-1 Honest John rocket, and MGM-5 Corporal ballistic missile. It was also supplied for delivery by Royal Air Force Canberra aircraft assigned to NATO in Germany under the command of SACEUR and this was done under the auspices of Project E, an agreement between the USA and the UK on the RAF carriage of US nuclear weapons. In UK use it was designated 1,650 lb. H. E, the Mark 7 was in service from 1952 to 1967 with 1700–1800 having been built. The Mark 7 nuclear weapon weighed approximately 1,600 pounds and it was fitted with one vertical retractable stabilizer fin that allowed it to fit better in or under some planes. This was unique, and made it one of the first nuclear weapons to be streamlined enough to be carried on smaller planes, the bomb’s diameter is a total of 30 inches. It used a 92-point HE detonation system to initiate implosion and nuclear fission, Mark 7 was a dial-a-yield capsule-type weapon with fissile elements stored in a separate container. This bomb used a 92 lens implosion system and this means that the Uranium 235 would be compressed into critical mass by a combination of fast and slow explosions. The High Explosives shell was around 5 inches thick and these would ensure an even compression of the Plutonium core which would cause the core to go critical and then detonate. This is illustrated in the adjacent image, the missile could then detonate above the target called “Airburst”, or the missile could detonate upon contact with the target. The later versions of this used a PAL A type arming system. This would ensure that the weapon could not be armed or fired without an access code. There were 10 different types of this produced, and due to this there were several different delivery systems. Often the bomb was carried on Fighter jets or other types of planes due to the low range of the weapon, such as the F-84, F-100, F-101, and the B-57 planes. The Mark 7 bomb used a control system, this used a combination of gyros and servos to collect data. Once the flight data was calculated it would use the gyro to adjust the yaw, the fins were used to control the flight path using pitch
22.
Fat Man
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Fat Man was the codename for the atomic bomb that was detonated over the Japanese city of Nagasaki by the United States on 9 August 1945. It was the second of the two nuclear weapons ever used in warfare, the first being Little Boy, and its detonation marked the third-ever man-made nuclear explosion in history. It was built by scientists and engineers at Los Alamos Laboratory using plutonium from the Hanford Site, for the Fat Man mission, Bockscar was piloted by Major Charles W. Sweeney. The name Fat Man refers generically to the design of the bomb, because it had a wide. It was also known as the Mark III, Fat Man was an implosion-type nuclear weapon with a solid plutonium core. The first of type to be detonated was the Gadget, in the Trinity nuclear test, less than a month earlier on 16 July at the Alamogordo Bombing. Two more Fat Man bombs were detonated during the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in 1946, some 120 Fat Man units were produced between 1947 and 1949, when it was superseded by the Mark 4 nuclear bomb. The Fat Man was retired in 1950, a gun-type design was chosen, in which two sub-critical masses would be brought together by firing a bullet into a target. Tolman suggested an implosion-type nuclear weapon, but the idea attracted scant consideration, the feasibility of a plutonium bomb was questioned in 1942. Conant consulted Ernest Lawrence and Arthur Compton, who acknowledged that their scientists at Berkeley and Chicago respectively knew about the problem, the committee concluded that any problems could be overcome simply by requiring higher purity. Nonetheless, it was decided that the gun would receive the bulk of the research effort. It was assumed that the uranium gun-type bomb could be adapted from it. The gun-type and implosion-type designs were codenamed Thin Man and Fat Man respectively and these code names were created by Robert Serber, a former student of Oppenheimers who worked on the Manhattan Project. Little Boy would come last, as a variation of Thin Man and he was assisted in this work by Hugh Bradner, Charles Critchfield, and John Streib. L. T. E. Thompson was brought in as a consultant, Thompson was skeptical that an implosion could be made sufficiently symmetric. But Neddermeyers efforts in July and August at imploding tubes to produce cylinders tended to produce objects that resembled rocks, Neddermeyer was the only person who believed that implosion was practical, and only his enthusiasm kept the project alive. Oppenheimer brought John von Neumann to Los Alamos in September 1943 to take a look at implosion. The prospect of more-efficient nuclear weapons impressed Oppenheimer, Teller, and Hans Bethe, kistiakowskys name was immediately suggested, and Kistiakowsky was brought into the project as a consultant in October 1943
23.
Japanese Village
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Japanese Village was the nickname for a range of residential houses constructed in 1943 by the U. S. army in the Dugway Proving Ground in Utah, roughly 100 kilometers southwest of Salt Lake City. Dugway was a high-security testing facility for chemical and biological weapons, the principal architect for Japanese village was Antonin Raymond who had spent many years building in Japan. Boris Laiming, who had studied fires in Japan, writing a report on the 1923 Tokyo fire, the most successful bomb to come out of the May–September 1943 tests against the mock-up Japanese homes was the napalm-filled M-69 Incendiary cluster bomb. Contenders had been the M-47 and the M-50, also tested was the Bat bomb a lightweight bat incendiary that was attached to live bats. For the tests B-17 and B-24 bombers were used operating at normal bombing altitude, the novel, The Gods of Heavenly Punishment by Jennifer Cody Epstein has a fictionalized account of the building and destruction of the Japanese Village
24.
Electrical substation
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A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system. Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, between the generating station and consumer, electric power may flow through several substations at different voltage levels. A substation may include transformers to change voltage levels between high voltages and lower distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different transmission voltages. Substations may be owned and operated by a utility, or may be owned by a large industrial or commercial customer. Generally substations are unattended, relying on SCADA for remote supervision, the word substation comes from the days before the distribution system became a grid. The first substations were connected to one power station, where the generators were housed. Substations may be described by their class, their applications within the power system, the method used to insulate most connections. These categories are not disjointed, for example, to solve a particular problem, a transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest case is where all lines have the same voltage. In such cases, substation contains high-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance, Transmission substations can range from simple to complex. A small switching station may be more than a bus plus some circuit breakers. The largest transmission substations can cover an area with multiple voltage levels, many circuit breakers. Modern substations may be implemented using international standards such as IEC Standard 61850, a distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the distribution system of an area. The input for a substation is typically at least two transmission or sub-transmission lines. Input voltage may be, for example,115 kV, or whatever is common in the area, the output is a number of feeders. Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 kV and 33 kV, depending on the size of the area served, the feeders run along streets overhead and power the distribution transformers at or near the customer premises. In addition to transforming voltage, distribution substations also isolate faults in either the transmission or distribution systems, distribution substations are typically the points of voltage regulation, although on long distribution circuits, voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line. The downtown areas of large cities feature complicated distribution substations, with high-voltage switching, more typical distribution substations have a switch, one transformer, and minimal facilities on the low-voltage side
25.
Federal Civil Defense Administration
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In 1958 the FCDA was superseded by the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization when President Dwight D. Eisenhower merged the FCDA with the Office of Defense Mobilization. In its early years, the focused on evacuation as a strategy. The FCDA was first headed by Millard Caldwell under Truman, then Val Peterson, see also, United States civil defense The predecessor to the FCDA, the Office of Civilian Defense was abolished in June 1945 with the end of World War II. In the period between the end of the World War and 1949, when the Soviet Union detonated their first atomic weapon, after the Soviets demonstration of their first atomic weapon there was a feeling of the need to do something throughout both the American public and government. This led to, among many actions, the creation of the Federal Civil Defense Administration by President Harry S. Truman in 1950. gov/. This seemingly fictional website has not been known to ever exist, Federal Civil Defense Authority United States civil defense
26.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
27.
Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
28.
Operation Argus
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Operation Argus was a series of United States nuclear weapons tests and missile tests secretly conducted during August and September 1958 over the South Atlantic Ocean. They were performed by the Defense Nuclear Agency, in conjunction with the Explorer 4 space mission, Operation Argus was conducted between the nuclear test series Operation Hardtack I and Operation Hardtack II. Contractors from Lockheed Aircraft Corporation as well as a few personnel, atomic Energy Commission were on hand as well. Such belts would be similar in effect to the Van Allen radiation belts, such radiation belts were viewed as having possible tactical use in war. Prior to Argus, Hardtack Teak had shown disruption of communications from a nuclear blast. Argus was implemented rapidly after inception due to forthcoming bans on atmospheric and exoatmospheric testing, consequently, the tests were conducted within a mere half year of conception. Two missiles, with warheads 136–227 kg to be launched one month of each other. The missiles were to be detonated at altitudes of 200–1,000 mi, both detonations should occur near the geomagnetic equator. Satellites were to be placed in equatorial and polar orbits, with perigees of roughly 322 kilometres and apogees of roughly 2,900 kilometres or greater. These satellites were to be used to measure electron density over time, measurements were to be taken before the shots to determine a baseline, as well as during and after the events. Sounding rockets, fired from appropriate ground locations, were to carry the same instrumentation as the satellites, ground stations to be used to study effects on radio astronomy and radar probing as well as auroral measurements. Originally Argus was designated Hardtack-Argus, and later Floral, for reasons of security, both names were dropped in favor of the independent name Argus. Funding was provided by the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, the predecessor of todays Defense Threat Reduction Agency, total funds allotted for the project were US$9,023,000. The United States Navy Task Force 88, was formed April 28,1958, TF-88 was organized solely to conduct Operation Argus. Once Argus was completed, the force was dissolved. Some of these records have been destroyed or lost in the time period. Of particular note among the documents were the film records. This has proved contentious due to the number of leukemia claims among TF-88 participants to the Veterans Administration
29.
Project Chariot
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The project originated as part of Operation Plowshare, a research project to find peaceful uses for nuclear explosives. The plan was championed by Edward Teller, who traveled throughout the state touting the harbor as an important economic development for Americas newest state, Alaskan political leaders, newspaper editors, the state universitys president, even church groups all rallied in support of the massive detonation. Congress had passed the Alaskan Statehood Act just a few weeks before, an editorial in the 24 July 1960 Fairbanks News-Miner said, We think the holding of a huge nuclear blast in Alaska would be a fitting overture to the new era which is opening for our state. Opposition came from the tiny Inupiat Eskimo village of Point Hope, a few scientists engaged in environmental studies under AEC contract, and a handful of conservationists. The grassroots protest soon was picked up by organizations with national reach, such as The Wilderness Society, the Sierra Club, and Barry Commoners Committee for Nuclear Information. In 1962, facing increased public uneasiness over the risk and the potential to disrupt the lives of the Eskimos. It has never been formally canceled, in addition to the objections of the local population, no practical use of such a harbor was ever identified. The investigations noted that radiation from world-wide fallout was moving with unusual efficiency up the chain in the Arctic, from lichen, to caribou. Material from a 1962 nuclear explosion at the Nevada Test Site was transported to the Chariot site in August 1962, used in several experiments, thirty years later, the disposal was discovered in archival documents by a University of Alaska researcher. State officials immediately traveled to the site and found low levels of radioactivity at a depth of two feet in the burial mound, outraged residents of the Inupiat village of Point Hope demanded the removal of the contaminated soil, which the government did at considerable expense. Sun in a Bottle, The Strange History of Fusion and the Science of Wishful Thinking, vandegraft, Douglas L Project Chariot, Nuclear Legacy of Cape Thompson. Proceedings of the U. S. William, and Charles Diters, bureau of Indian Affairs, Alaska Region regional archaeology report under the National Historic Preservation Act. Project Chariot, The Nuclear Legacy of Cape Thompson, Alaska
30.
Operation Crossroads
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Operation Crossroads was a pair of nuclear weapon tests conducted by the United States at Bikini Atoll in mid-1946. They were the first nuclear tests since Trinity in July 1945. The purpose of the tests was to investigate the effect of weapons on warships. They were conducted by Joint Army/Navy Task Force One, headed by Vice Admiral William H. P. Blandy rather than by the Manhattan Project, which had developed nuclear weapons during World War II. The bomb was named Gilda after Rita Hayworths character in the 1946 film Gilda and it detonated 520 feet above the target fleet and caused less than the expected amount of ship damage because it missed its aim point by 2,130 feet. The bomb was known as Helen of Bikini and was detonated 90 feet underwater on July 25,1946, radioactive sea spray caused extensive contamination. A third deep-water test named Charlie was planned for 1947 but was canceled primarily because of the United States Navys inability to decontaminate the target ships after the Baker test, ultimately, only nine target ships were able to be scrapped rather than scuttled. Charlie was rescheduled as Operation Wigwam, a deep-water shot conducted in 1955 off the California coast, bikinis native residents agreed to evacuate the island, and were evacuated on board the LST-861, with most moving to the Rongerik Atoll. In the 1950s, a series of large thermonuclear tests rendered Bikini unfit for farming and fishing because of radioactive contamination. Bikini remains uninhabited as of 2015, though it is visited by sport divers. The Baker tests radioactive contamination of all the ships was the first case of immediate. Chemist Glenn T. Seaborg, the chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission. The first proposal to test nuclear weapons against naval warships was made on August 16,1945, by Lewis Strauss, with very few bombs available, he suggested a large number of targets widely dispersed over a large area. The Strauss test would be designed to demonstrate ship survivability and he proposed dropping an atomic bomb on captured Japanese ships and suggested, The resulting explosion should prove to us just how effective the atomic bomb is when used against the giant naval ships. Meanwhile, the Navy proceeded with its own plan, which was revealed at a conference on October 27 by the Commander in Chief. It involved between 80 and 100 target ships, most of them surplus U. S. ships. As the Army and the Navy maneuvered for control of the tests, Assistant Secretary of War Howard C. Peterson observed, To the public, If the Navy withstands better than the public imagines it will, in the public mind the Navy will have won. The Armys candidate to direct the tests, Major General Leslie Groves, head of the Manhattan Project which built the bombs, the Joint Chiefs of Staff decided that because the Navy was contributing the most men and materiel, the test should be headed by a naval officer
31.
Operation Crosstie
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Operation Crosstie was a series of 48 nuclear tests conducted by the United States in 1967–1968 at the Nevada Test Site. These tests followed the Operation Latchkey series and preceded the Operation Bowline series, the blast designated Gasbuggy involved an underground detonation, intended to stimulate production of natural gas by cracking the rock in the underground formation of its deposit. The test proceeded as expected, but not only did the production not increase as much as expected, buggy was a Plowshare test designed to excavate a channel. It was a detonation of 5 devices, placed 150 feet apart and 150 feet below the surface that resulted in a channel 300 feet wide,900 feet long. Or 65 feet deep and 254 feet wide, according to Declassified U. S. film, the USSR conducted a similar salvo-test to investigate the use of nuclear explosions in the construction of the Pechora–Kama Canal project. On March 23,1971, three simultaneously detonated 15 kiloton underground nuclear charges were exploded in the Taiga test. The Faultless test was a calibration test conducted in a mine cavity 3,200 feet beneath the Hot Creek Valley near Tonopah, Nevada and this test was conducted to see if the land was fit for testing a 5 megaton thermonuclear warhead for the Spartan missile. The test failed because of the degree of faulting that resulted in the area around the test. It was decided that the land was unfit for multi-megaton nuclear tests, so a similar calibration test was conducted at Amchitka Island, Alaska, the United Statess Crosstie nuclear test series was a group of 48 nuclear tests conducted in 1967-1968. These tests followed the Operation Latchkey series and preceded the Operation Bowline series
32.
Operation Dominic
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Operation Dominic was a series of 31 nuclear test explosions with a 38.1 Mt total yield conducted in 1962 by the United States in the Pacific. This test series was scheduled quickly, in order to respond in kind to the Soviet resumption of testing after the tacit 1958–1961 test moratorium, most of these shots were conducted with free-fall bombs dropped from B-52 bomber aircraft. Twenty of these shots were to test new designs, six to test weapons effects. The Thor missile was used to lift warheads into near-space to conduct high-altitude nuclear explosion tests. Operation Dominic occurred during a period of high Cold War tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, since the Cuban Bay of Pigs Invasion had occurred not long before, president John F. Kennedy responded by authorizing Operation Dominic. The operation was undertaken by Joint Task Force 8, Operation Dominic at Carey Sublettes NuclearWeaponArchive. org More info on U. S. testing The short film Operation DOMINIC Nuclear Tests 1962 is available for free download at the Internet Archive
33.
Starfish Prime
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Starfish Prime was a high-altitude nuclear test conducted by the United States on July 9,1962, a joint effort of the Atomic Energy Commission and the Defense Atomic Support Agency. A Thor rocket carrying a W49 thermonuclear warhead and a Mk.2 reentry vehicle was launched from Johnston Island in the Pacific Ocean, the explosion took place at an altitude of 250 miles, above a point 19 miles southwest of Johnston Island. It was one of five conducted by the US in outer space as defined by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. It produced an equivalent to 1.4 megatonnes of TNT. It was the largest man-made nuclear explosion in outer space, in 1958 the United States had completed six high-altitude nuclear tests, but the high-altitude tests of that year produced many unexpected results and raised many new questions. Despite thorough studies of the data, present models of these bursts are sketchy. These models are too uncertain to permit extrapolation to other altitudes, thus there is a strong need, not only for better instrumentation, but for further tests covering a range of altitudes and yields. The Starfish test was planned as the second in the Fishbowl series. The initial Starfish launch attempt on June 20 was aborted in flight due to failure of the Thor launch vehicle, the Thor missile flew a normal trajectory for 59 seconds, then the rocket engine stopped, and the missile began to break apart. The range safety officer ordered the destruction of the missile and of the warhead, the missile was between 30,000 and 35,000 feet in altitude when it was destroyed. Parts of the missile and some radioactive contamination fell upon Johnston Island and nearby Sand Island, on July 9,1962, at 09,00,09 Coordinated Universal Time, the Starfish Prime test was successfully detonated at an altitude of 400 kilometres. The coordinates of the detonation were 16°28′N 169°38′W, the actual weapon yield came very close to the design yield, which various sources have set at different values in the range of 1.4 to 1.45 megatons. The nuclear warhead detonated 13 minutes and 41 seconds after liftoff of the Thor missile from Johnston Island, the EMP damage to the microwave link shut down telephone calls from Kauai to the other Hawaiian islands. A total of 27 small rockets were launched from Johnston Island to obtain data from the Starfish Prime detonation. In addition, a number of rocket-borne instruments were launched from a firing area at Barking Sands. A very large number of United States military ships and aircraft were operating in support of Starfish Prime in the Johnston Island area, a few military ships and aircraft were also positioned in the region of the South Pacific Ocean near the Samoan Islands. This location was at the end of the magnetic field line of the Earths magnetic field from the position of the nuclear detonation. After the Starfish Prime detonation, bright auroras were observed in the area as well as in the southern conjugate region on the other side of the equator from the detonation
34.
Operation Fishbowl
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Operation Dominic was a series of 31 nuclear test explosions with a 38.1 Mt total yield conducted in 1962 by the United States in the Pacific. This test series was scheduled quickly, in order to respond in kind to the Soviet resumption of testing after the tacit 1958–1961 test moratorium, most of these shots were conducted with free-fall bombs dropped from B-52 bomber aircraft. Twenty of these shots were to test new designs, six to test weapons effects. The Thor missile was used to lift warheads into near-space to conduct high-altitude nuclear explosion tests. Operation Dominic occurred during a period of high Cold War tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, since the Cuban Bay of Pigs Invasion had occurred not long before, president John F. Kennedy responded by authorizing Operation Dominic. The operation was undertaken by Joint Task Force 8, Operation Dominic at Carey Sublettes NuclearWeaponArchive. org More info on U. S. testing The short film Operation DOMINIC Nuclear Tests 1962 is available for free download at the Internet Archive
