1.
Torre Annunziata
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Torre Annunziata is a city and comune in the Metropolitan City of Naples, region of Campania in Italy. It is located on the Gulf of Naples at the foot of Mt. Vesuvius, the city was destroyed in the Vesuvius eruption of 79 AD and in 1631. It is known locally in the Neapolitan dialect as Torre Nunziata, the city was once the seat of important ironwork food processing and pasta industries. Today industries still active include naval, armament and pharmaceutical ones, the archaeological site of Oplonti is a UNESCO World Heritage site since 1997. Torre Annunziata borders with the municipalities of Boscoreale, Boscotrecase, Castellammare di Stabia, Pompei, Torre del Greco, on the Tabula Peutingeriana Torre Annunziata is called Oplonti. In the communal territory, one of the richest Roman villas has been excavated, dating to the 1st century BC, it probably belonged to the gens Poppaea, and is known as Villa Poppaea. Torre Annunziata is home to F. C. Savoia 1908 who play at the Stadio Giraud and their highest achievement was during the 1923-24 season where they finished Serie A runners up. Professional footballer Ciro Immobile was born in Torre Annunziata
2.
Province of Naples
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The Province of Naples was a province in the Campania region of southern Italy, since January 2015 has been replaced by the Metropolitan City of Naples. The province of Naples is the most densely populated in Italy, at the 2013 census were all located in the province, as were 10 of the top 15. It has an area of 1,171.13 km², largest communities in the Napoli metropolitan area), The area is particularly fruitful for tourism, both national and international. Together they are known as the Campanian Archipelago. On Capri, there is the famous Blue Grotto, inside the grotto the sea seems to be lit from underwater, it is a magnificent blue colour, hence its name. The Sorrentine Peninsula has long being a destination for tourism, it is well known for the drink Limoncello. It is rich with villas, castles, guard towers, churches, the most popular sport in the province is football. This area was one of the first in Southern Italy to start playing sports, the most successful club from the province are by far SSC Napoli, who have won Serie A twice and the UEFA Cup while Diego Maradona was with the club
3.
Campania
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Campania is a region in Southern Italy. Located on the Italian Peninsula, with the Mediterranean Sea to the west, it includes the small Phlegraean Islands, Campania was colonised by Ancient Greeks and was part of Magna Græcia. During the Roman era, the area maintained a Greco-Roman culture, the capital city of Campania is Naples. Campania is rich in culture, especially in regard to gastronomy, music, architecture, archeological and ancient sites such as Pompeii, Herculaneum, Paestum and Velia. The name of Campania itself is derived from Latin, as the Romans knew the region as Campania felix, the rich natural sights of Campania make it highly important in the tourism industry, especially along the Amalfi Coast, Mount Vesuvius and the island of Capri. During the 8th century BC, people from Euboea in Greece, known as Cumaeans, another Oscan tribe, the Samnites, moved down from central Italy into Campania. The Roman consul Quintus Publilius Filo recaptured Neapolis by 326 BC, the Second Samnite War ended with the Romans controlling southern Campania and additional regions further to the south. Campania was a part of the Roman Republic by the end of the 4th century BC, valued for its pastures. Its Greek language and customs made it a centre of Hellenistic civilization, during the Pyrrhic War the battle took place in Campania at Maleventum in which the Romans, led by consul Curius Dentatus, were victorious. They renamed the city Beneventum, which grew in stature until it was only to Capua in southern Italy. During the Second Punic War in 216 BC, Capua, in a bid for equality with Rome, the rebellious Capuans were isolated from the rest of Campania, which remained allies of Rome. Naples resisted Hannibal due to the imposing walls, Capua was eventually starved into submission in the Roman retaking of 211 BC, and the Romans were victorious. The rest of Campania, with the exception of Naples, adopted the Latin language as official and was Romanised. As part of the Roman Empire, Campania, with Latium, Roman Emperors chose Campania as a holiday destination, among them Claudius and Tiberius, the latter of whom is infamously linked to the island of Capri. It was also during this period that Christianity came to Campania, Two of the apostles, St. Peter and St. Paul, are said to have preached in the city of Naples, and there were also several martyrs during this time. Unfortunately, the period of calm was violently interrupted by the epic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 which buried the cities of Pompeii. The area had many duchies and principalities during the Middle Ages, in the hands of the Byzantine Empire, under the Normans, the smaller independent states were brought together as part of the Kingdom of Sicily, before the mainland broke away to form the Kingdom of Naples. It was during this period elements of Spanish, French
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
6.
Pompeii
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Pompeii was an ancient Roman town-city near modern Naples, in the Campania region of Italy, in the territory of the comune of Pompei. Pompeii, along with Herculaneum and many villas in the area, was mostly destroyed and buried under 4 to 6 m of volcanic ash. Researchers believe that the town was founded in the seventh or sixth century BC by the Osci or Oscans. It came under the domination of Rome in the 4th century BC, by the time of its destruction,160 years later, its population was estimated at 11,000 people, and the city had a complex water system, an amphitheatre, gymnasium, and a port. The eruption destroyed the city, killing its inhabitants and burying it under tons of ash, the site was lost for about 1,500 years until its initial rediscovery in 1599 and broader rediscovery almost 150 years later by Spanish engineer Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre in 1748. The objects that lay beneath the city have been preserved for centuries because of the lack of air and these artefacts provide an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city during the Pax Romana. During the excavation, plaster was used to fill in the voids in the ash layers that once held human bodies and this allowed archaeologists to see the exact position the person was in when he or she died. Pompeii has been a tourist destination for over 250 years, today it has UNESCO World Heritage Site status and is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Italy, with approximately 2.5 million visitors every year. Pompeii in Latin is a second declension plural, the ruins of Pompeii are located near the modern suburban town of Pompei. It stands on a formed by a lava flow to the north of the mouth of the Sarno River. Today it is some distance inland, but in ancient times was nearer to the coast, Pompeii is about 8 km away from Mount Vesuvius. It covered a total of 64 to 67 hectares and was home to approximately 11,000 to 11,500 people on the basis of household counts and it was a major city in the region of Campania. Three sheets of sediment have been found on top of the lava that lies below the city and, mixed in with the sediment, archaeologists have found bits of bone, pottery shards. Carbon dating has placed the oldest of these layers from the 8th–6th centuries BC, the other two strata are separated either by well-developed soil layers or Roman pavement, and were laid in the 4th century BC and 2nd century BC. It is theorized that the layers of the sediment were created by large landslides. The town was founded around the 7th-6th century BC by the Osci or Oscans and it had already been used as a safe port by Greek and Phoenician sailors. According to Strabo, Pompeii was also captured by the Etruscans, and in recent excavations have shown the presence of Etruscan inscriptions. Pompeii was captured for the first time by the Greek colony of Cumae, allied with Syracuse, in the 5th century BC, the Samnites conquered it, the new rulers imposed their architecture and enlarged the town
7.
Herculaneum
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Located in the shadow of Mount Vesuvius, Herculaneum was an ancient Roman town destroyed by volcanic pyroclastic flows in 79 AD. Its ruins are located in the commune of Ercolano, Campania and it had been thought until then that the town had been evacuated by the inhabitants. Herculaneum was a town than Pompeii, possessing an extraordinary density of fine houses with, for example. Ancient tradition connected Herculaneum with the name of the Greek hero Herakles, in fact, it seems that some forefathers of the Samnite tribes of the Italian mainland founded the first civilization on the site of Herculaneum at the end of the 6th century BC. Soon after, the town came under Greek control and was used as a trading post because of its proximity to the Gulf of Naples, the Greeks named the city Ἡράκλειον, Heraklion. In the 4th century BC, Herculaneum again came under the domination of the Samnites. The city remained under Samnite control until it became a Roman municipium in 89 BC, when, having participated in the Social War, it was defeated by Titus Didius, a legate of Sulla. After the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, the town of Herculaneum was buried under approximately 20 metres of ash, excavations continued sporadically up to the present and today many streets and buildings are visible, although over 75% of the town remains buried. Today, the Italian towns of Ercolano and Portici lie on the site of Herculaneum. Until 1969 the town of Ercolano was called Resina and it changed its name to Ercolano, the Italian modernization of the ancient name in honour of the old city. The inhabitants worshipped above all Hercules, who was believed to be the founder of both the town and Mount Vesuvius, Other important deities worshipped include Venus and Apollo. The catastrophic eruption of Mt. Vesuvius occurred on the afternoon of 24 August 79 AD, because Vesuvius had been dormant for approximately 800 years, it was no longer even recognized as a volcano. Based on archaeological excavations and on two letters of Pliny the Younger to the Roman historian Tacitus, the course of the eruption can be reconstructed, at around 1pm on 24 August, Vesuvius began spewing volcanic ash and stone thousands of meters into the sky. When it reached the tropopause, the top of the cloud flattened, the prevailing winds at the time blew toward the southeast, causing the volcanic material to fall primarily on the city of Pompeii and the surrounding area. Since Herculaneum lay to the west of Vesuvius, it was only affected by the first phase of the eruption. While roofs in Pompeii collapsed under the weight of falling debris, only a few centimetres of ash fell on Herculaneum, causing little damage, during the following night, the eruptive column which had risen into the stratosphere collapsed onto Vesuvius and its flanks. The first pyroclastic surge, formed by a mixture of ash and hot gases, a succession of six flows and surges buried the citys buildings, causing little damage in some areas and preserving structures, objects and victims almost intact. In 1709 the digging of a deep well revealed some exceptional statues at the lowest levels which was found to be the site of the theatre
8.
Mount Vesuvius
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Mount Vesuvius is a somma-stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples in Campania, Italy, about 9 km east of Naples and a short distance from the shore. It is one of several volcanoes which form the Campanian volcanic arc, Vesuvius consists of a large cone partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera caused by the collapse of an earlier and originally much higher structure. Mount Vesuvius is best known for its eruption in AD79 that led to the burying and destruction of the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, more than 1,000 people died in the eruption, but exact numbers are unknown. The only surviving account of the event consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitus. Vesuvius has erupted many times since and is the volcano on the European mainland to have erupted within the last hundred years. Vesuvius has a historic and literary tradition. An inscription from Capua to IOVI VESVVIO indicates that he was worshipped as a power of Jupiter and it was inhabited by bandits, the sons of the Earth, who were giants. With the assistance of the gods he pacified the region and went on, the facts behind the tradition, if any, remain unknown, as does whether Herculaneum was named after it. An epigram by the poet Martial in 88 AD suggests that both Venus, patroness of Pompeii, and Hercules were worshipped in the devastated by the eruption of 79. Mount Vesuvius was regarded by the Romans as being devoted to the hero, Vesuvius was a name of the volcano in frequent use by the authors of the late Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire. Its collateral forms were Vesaevus, Vesevus, Vesbius and Vesvius, writers in ancient Greek used Οὐεσούιον or Οὐεσούιος. Many scholars since then have offered an etymology, as peoples of varying ethnicity and language occupied Campania in the Roman Iron Age, the etymology depends to a large degree on the presumption of what language was spoken there at the time. Naples was settled by Greeks, as the name Nea-polis, New City, the Oscans, a native Italic people, lived in the countryside. The Latins also competed for the occupation of Campania, etruscan settlements were in the vicinity. Other peoples of unknown provenance are said to have been there at some time by various ancient authors. Some theories about its origin are, From Greek οὔ = not prefixed to a root from or related to the Greek word σβέννυμι = I quench, from Greek ἕω = I hurl and βίη violence, hurling violence, *vesbia, taking advantage of the collateral form. From an Indo-European root, *eus- < *ewes- < *wes-, shine sense the one who lightens, the Gran Cono was produced during the A. D.79 eruption. For this reason, the volcano is also called Somma-Vesuvius or Somma-Vesuvio, the caldera started forming during an eruption around 17,000 years ago and was enlarged by later paroxysmal eruptions, ending in the one of AD79
9.
Villa Poppaea
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The Villa Poppaea is an ancient Roman seaside villa situated between Naples and Sorrento, in southern Italy. It is also called the Villa Oplontis or Oplontis Villa A by modern archaeologists, the villa itself is a large structure situated in the ancient Roman town of Oplontis, about ten metres below modern ground level. Evidence suggests that it was owned by the Emperor Nero, and it is believed to have used by his second wife, Poppaea Sabina. According to John R. Clarke in The Houses of Roman Italy,100 B. C. -A. D. 250, Ritual, Space, and Decoration, the Villa Poppaea is best understood as a model on many of the more modest city houses of ancient Pompeii. This grandiose maritime villa is characterized by “rituals of reception and leisure” through both its physical space and its decoration, like many of the other houses in the area, the villa shows signs of remodeling, probably to repair damage from the earthquake in 62 CE. The oldest part of the house centers round the atrium and dates from the middle of 1st century BCE, during the remodeling, the house was extended to the east, with the addition of various reception and service rooms, gardens and a large swimming pool. Like many of the frescoes that were preserved due to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, many of the frescoes are in the “Second Style” of ancient Roman painting, dating to ca. 90-25 BCE as classified in 1899 by August Mau, details include feigned architectural features such as trompe-lœil windows, doors, and painted columns. Frescoes in the caldarium depicting Hercules in the Garden of the Hesperides are painted in the Third Style dating to ca.25 BCE-40 CE according to Mau. Attention to realistic perspective is abandoned in favor of flatness and elongated architectural forms which “form a kind of shrine around a central scene, immediately to the west of the triclinium is a large oecus, which was the main living room of a Roman house. Like the caldarium frescoes, the room is painted in the Second Style. The east wall includes some wonderful details such as a theatre mask, much attention has been paid to the allusions to stage painting in the Villa Poppaea frescoes, particularly those in Room 23. The Villa of Poppaea was first discovered in the century during the construction of the Sarno Canal which cut through the central hall of the villa. Between 1839 and 1840 explorations of the site were undertaken by Bourbon excavators who removed several paintings from the villa, the excavators used a tunneling technique that was also employed at Herculaneum, and uncovered part of the peristyle and garden area. Excavations continued again from 1964 until the mid-1980s, at point the site was excavated to its current level. It was during this round of excavations that the massive swimming pool. Historian and archeologist Wilhelmina Feemster Jashemski began excavations on the gardens at the Villa Poppaea in 1974, among these was a peristyle garden in the original portion of the villa
10.
Neapolitan language
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Neapolitan is the language of much of southern continental Italy, including the city of Naples. It is not named after the city but rather the Kingdom of Naples, on October 14,2008, a law by the Region of Campania stated that Neapolitan was to be protected. Neapolitan was originally derived from Latin, but later influenced by the Spanish, French, Neapolitan has had a significant influence on the intonation of Rioplatense Spanish, of the Buenos Aires region of Argentina, and the whole of Uruguay. In western Abruzzo and Lazio the dialects give way to Central Italian dialects such as Romanesco, in central Calabria and southern Apulia, the dialects give way to the Sicilian language. However, in the United States traditional Neapolitan has had contact with English. English words are used in place of Neapolitan words, especially among second-generation speakers. There are notable differences among the dialects, but they are all generally mutually intelligible. The Italian language and Neapolitan are of variable mutual comprehensibility, depending on factors both affective and linguistic, there are notable grammatical differences such as nouns in the neuter form and unique plural formation, and historical phonological developments that often obscure the cognacy of lexical items. Its evolution has been similar to that of Italian and other Romance languages from their roots in Vulgar Latin. It may reflect a pre-Latin Oscan influence in the pronunciation of the d sound as an r sound, another purported Oscan influence is historical assimilation of the consonant cluster /nd/ as /nn/, pronounced, along with the development of /mb/ as /mm/, also consistently reflected in spelling. Other effects of the Oscan substratum are postulated too, although claims are highly controversial. In addition, the language was affected by the Greek language. There have never been any successful attempts to standardize the language, Neapolitan has enjoyed a rich literary, musical and theatrical history. The language has no status within Italy and is not taught in schools. There are also ongoing legislative attempts at the level to have it recognized as an official minority language of Italy. It is however a recognized ISO639 Joint Advisory Committee language with the code of nap. For comparison, The Lords Prayer is reproduced in the Neapolitan spoken in Naples and in a northern Calabrian dialect, in contrast with a variety of southern Calabrian, Italian and Latin. The Neapolitan alphabet, like the Italian alphabet, is almost the same as the English alphabet except that it consists of only 22 letters and it does not contain k, w, x, or y even though these letters might be found in some foreign words
11.
Emperor Nero
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Nero was Roman Emperor from 54 to 68, and the last in the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was adopted by his great-uncle Claudius to become his heir and successor, during his reign, the redoubtable general Corbulo conducted a successful war and negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire. His general Suetonius Paulinus crushed a revolt in Britain, Nero annexed the Bosporan Kingdom to the empire and may have begun the First Jewish–Roman War. In 64 AD, most of Rome was destroyed in the Great Fire of Rome, Suetonius, writing a generation later, claims that many Romans believed Nero himself had started the fire, in order to clear land for his planned palatial complex, the Domus Aurea. In 68, the rebellion of Vindex in Gaul and later the acclamation of Galba in Hispania drove Nero from the throne, facing a false report of being denounced as a public enemy who was to be executed, he committed suicide on 9 June 68. His death ended the Julio-Claudian dynasty, sparking a period of civil wars known as the Year of the Four Emperors. Neros rule is often associated with tyranny and extravagance and he is known for many executions, including that of his mother, and the probable murder by poison of his stepbrother Britannicus. Nero was rumored to have had captured Christians dipped in oil and this view is based on the writings of Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the main surviving sources for Neros reign, but a few sources paint Nero in a more favourable light. Some sources, including some mentioned above, portray him as an emperor who was popular with the common Roman people, some modern historians question the reliability of ancient sources when reporting on Neros tyrannical acts. Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, Nero, was born on 15 December 37 in Antium and he was the only son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger, sister of Emperor Caligula. Neros father, Gnaeus, was the son of Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, Gnaeus was thus the grandson of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and probably Aemilia Lepida on his fathers side, and the grandson of Mark Antony and Octavia Minor on his mothers side. Thus, Nero had as his paternal grandmother Antonia Major, through Octavia, Nero was the great-nephew of Caesar Augustus. Neros father had employed as a praetor and was a member of Caligulas staff when the latter travelled to the East. Neros father was described by Suetonius as a murderer and a cheat who was charged by Emperor Tiberius with treason, adultery, Tiberius died, allowing him to escape these charges. Neros father died of edema in 39 when Nero was two, Neros mother was Agrippina the Younger, a great-granddaughter of Caesar Augustus and his wife Scribonia through their daughter Julia the Elder and her husband Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Agrippinas father, Germanicus, was a grandson of Augustuss wife, Livia, on one side and Mark Antony, Germanicus mother Antonia Minor was a daughter of Octavia Minor and Mark Antony. Germanicus was also the son of Tiberius. Agrippina poisoned her second husband Passienus Crispus, so many ancient historians also accuse her of murdering her third husband, the emperor Claudius
12.
Artifact (archaeology)
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An artifact or artefact is. something made or given shape by man, such as a tool or a work of art, esp an object of archaeological interest. In archaeology, however, the word has become a term of particular nuance and is defined as, an object recovered by archaeological endeavor, which may have a cultural interest. However, modern archaeologists take care to distinguish material culture from ethnicity, examples include stone tools, pottery vessels, metal objects such as weapons, and items of personal adornment such as buttons, jewelry and clothing. Bones that show signs of modification are also examples. Natural objects, such as fire cracked rocks from a hearth or plant material used for food, are classified by archeologists as ecofacts rather than as artifacts, natural objects that humans have moved but not changed are called manuports. Examples include seashells moved inland, or rounded pebbles placed away from the action that made them. For instance, a bone removed from a carcass is a biofact. Similarly there can be debate over early stone objects that could be either crude artifacts or naturally occurring and it can be difficult to distinguish the differences between actual man-made lithic artifacts and geofacts – naturally occurring lithics that resemble man-made tools. It is possible to authenticate artifacts by examining the general attributed to man-made tools. Artifact Collection at the Royal Military College of Canada Museum in Kingston, Ontario
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National Archaeological Museum, Naples
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The Naples National Archaeological Museum is a museum in Naples, southern Italy, at the northwest corner of the original Greek wall of the city of Neapolis. The museum contains a collection of Roman artifacts from Pompeii, Stabiae. The collection includes works of the highest quality produced in Greek, Roman and it is the most important Italian archaeological museum and is considered one of the most important in the world. Charles of Bourbon founded the museum in the 1750s, the building he used for it had been erected as a cavalry barracks and during its time as the seat of the University of Naples was extended, in the late 18th century. The museum hosts extensive collections of Greek and Roman antiquities and their core is from the Farnese Collection, which includes a collection of engraved gems and the Farnese Marbles. Among the notable works found in the museum are the Herculaneum papyri, carbonized by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, many of these works, especially the larger ones, have been moved to the Museo di Capodimonte for display in recent years. The Farnese Hercules, which fixed the image of Hercules in the European imagination, a major collection of ancient Roman bronzes from the Villa of the Papyri is housed at the museum. These include the Seated Hermes, a sprawling Drunken Satyr, a bust of Thespis, another variously identified as Seneca or Hesiod, the museums Mosaic Collection includes a number of important mosaics recovered from the ruins of Pompeii and the other Vesuvian cities. This includes the Alexander Mosaic, dating from circa 100 BC and it depicts a battle between the armies of Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia. Another mosaic found is that of the gladiatorial fighter depicted in a found from the Villa of the Figured Capitals in Pompeii. With 2,500 objects, the museum has one of the largest collection of Egyptian artifacts in Italy after the Turin, Florence and Bologna ones. It is made up primarily of works from two collections, assembled by Cardinal Stefano Borgia in the second half of the 18th century. In its new layout the collection provides both an important record of Egyptian civilization from the Old Kingdom up to the Ptolemaic-Roman era, access was limited to only persons of mature age and known morals. The rooms were also called Cabinets of matters reserved or obscene or pornographic, the highlight of the censorship occurred in 1851 when even nude Venus statues were locked up, and the entrance walled up in the hope that the collection would vanish from memory. In September 1860, when the forces of Garibaldi occupied Naples, since the Royal Butler was no longer available, they broke into the collection. Limiting viewership and censorship have always been part of the history of the collection, censorship was restored during the era of the Kingdom of Italy, and peaked during the Fascist period, when visitors to the rooms needed the permission of the Minister of National Education in Rome. Censorship persisted in the period up to 1967, abating only after 1971 when the Ministry was given the new rules to regulate requests for visits. Completely rebuilt a few years ago with all of the new criteria, visitors under the age of 14 can tour the exhibit only with an adult
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Stabiae
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Stabiae was an ancient Roman town which is famous for the magnificent Roman villas found there near to the modern town of Castellammare di Stabia approximately 4.5 km southwest of Pompeii. The beautiful objects and frescoes taken from these villas were sold and distributed. The villas were sited on a 50 m high overlooking the Gulf of Naples. Being only 16 kilometres from Mount Vesuvius, this resort was largely buried by two metres of tephra ash in 79 AD. Originally a small port, by the 6th century BC Stabiae had already overshadowed by the much larger port at Pompeii. The town was destroyed by Lucius Cornelius Sulla on 30 April 89 BC during the Social War, the Roman author and admiral Pliny the Elder recorded that the town was rebuilt and became a popular resort for wealthy Romans. He reported that there were miles of luxury villas built along the edge of the headland. According to the account written by his nephew, Pliny the Elder was at the side of the bay in Misenum when the eruption started. He travelled by ship across the bay, partly to observe the eruption more closely. Pliny died at Stabiae the following day, probably during the arrival of the sixth, the very diluted outer edge of this surge reached Stabiae and left two centimetres of fine ash on top of the immensely thick aerially-deposited tephra which further protected the underlying remains. The archaeological remains of Stabiae were originally discovered in 1749 by Cavaliere Rocco de Alcubierre and these ruins were partially excavated by Alcubierre with help from Karl Weber between 1749–1782. The ruins that had been excavated, however, were reburied and their location was forgotten until 1950, the site was declared an archaeological protected area in 1957, and by 1962 many of the ruins had been again uncovered. The remains of both an Oscan settlement and the later Roman town were discovered, the most famous of the findings at Stabiae are the villas that come from the time between the destruction of Stabiae by Sulla in 89 BC and the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. As described above, Stabiae became a town during this time and was particularly favored for its view of the Bay of Naples. Stabiae was also known for the quality of its spring water. The ideal placement and qualities of this location drew many wealthy Romans to build villas on the ridge overlooking the bay. These villas, which are described below, provide us with some of the most stunning architectural, a great many artifacts which come from Stabiae are preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum. Before the age of the villas, however, an Oscan settlement existed in the region of Stabiae, in 1957 three hundred tombs dating from the 7th to the 3rd centuries BC were found in a necropolis associated with this town
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Province of Avellino
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The Province of Avellino is a province in the Campania region of Southern Italy. The area is characterized by small towns and villages scattered across the province. It has an area of 2,792 square kilometres and a population of 427,310 in 2012. There are 119 comuni in the province, see Comuni of the Province of Avellino. It is a province, with no connection to the sea. The ancient name of the area was Hirpinia, derived from the Oscan term hirpus, in the medieval Kingdom of Naples the provincial area roughly corresponded to the Principato Ultra, though some places were included in Capitanata or Principato Citra. The modern province was established in 1860, after the unification of Italy, the Selachoidei National Gallery at Avellino houses one of the largest collections of cartilaginous fishes in the country. Natural attractions include the Monti Piacentini and Partenio Regional Parks, together with two WWF sites, Valle della Caccia in Senerchia and the area around the Ofanto dam in Conza della Campania. Typical products are hazelnuts, the chestnut of Montella, the renowned wines Aglianico, Taurasi, Greco and Fiano, cherries, cheeses, Avellino corneal dystrophy Provincia di Avellino homepage Lupi Emigranti founded by Frigentos students and workers in order to get in touch with Province of Avellinos emigrants
16.
Aeclanum
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Aeclanum was an ancient town of Samnium, southern Italy, c.25 km east-southeast of Beneventum, on the Via Appia. It lies in Passo di Mirabella, near the modern Mirabella Eclano and this led through Lacus Ampsanctus to Aquilonia and Venusia. Another route to Apulia, the Via Aurelia Aeclanensis diverged here, the road from Aeclanum to Abellinum may also follow an ancient line. Today there are ruins of the city walls, of an aqueduct, baths, excavation has revealed a long history of pre-Roman settlement. Aeclanum became the town of the Hirpini, after Beneventum had become a Roman colony. Sulla captured it in 89 BC by setting on fire the wooden breastwork by which it was defended and it quickly recovered, new fortifications were erected, and it became a municipium. Hadrian, who repaired the Via Appia from Beneventum to this point, Aeclanum became a Christian episcopal see, whose best known bishop was Julian of Eclanum, who was consecrated by Pope Innocent I in about 417. He refused to sign the condemnation of Pelagianism issued by Pope Innocents successor, Pope Zosimus, and carried on a war of writings against Augustine of Hippo. It has been thought that the diocese was united to that of Frequentium as early as the 5th century, from 1059 it was definitively united with Frequentium. No longer a residential bishopric, Aeclanum is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see
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Compsa
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Compsa was an ancient city of the Hirpini, near the sources of the Aufidus, on the boundary of Lucania and not far from that of Apulia, on a ridge 609 m above sea level. It was betrayed to Hannibal in 216 BC after the defeat of Cannae and it was probably occupied by Sulla in 89 BC, and was the scene of the death of Titus Annius Milo in 48 BC. The usual identification of the site of Milos death with Cassano allo Ionio on the Gulf of Taranto must therefore be rejected, in imperial times, as inscriptions show, it was a municipium, but it lay far from any of the main highways. The ruins of the ancient city were studied again, when they reappeared after the destruction of the town in the 1980 Irpinia earthquake. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
18.
Province of Benevento
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The Province of Benevento is a province in the Campania region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Benevento, the province has an area of 2,071 km², and a total population of 316,464. There are 78 comuni in the province, the biggest municipalities, the only ones over 10,000 inhabitants, are Benevento, Montesarchio, SantAgata de Goti and San Giorgio del Sannio. The territory of the province of Benevento closely approximates that of the Principality of Benevento in the mid and it borders Molise on the North, Apulia on the East, the province of Avellino and that of Napoli on the South, and the province of Caserta on the West. The lowest point is in the comune of Limatola, while the highest point is Monte Mutria, one of the mountains of the Matese range, which separates the province of Benevento from Molise
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Benevento
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Benevento listen is a city and comune of Campania, Italy, capital of the province of Benevento,50 kilometres northeast of Naples. It is situated on a hill 130 metres above sea level at the confluence of the Calore Irpino and it is also the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop. Benevento occupies the site of the ancient Beneventum, originally Maleventum or still earlier Maloenton, the -vent portion of the name probably refers to a market-place and is a common element in ancient place names. The Romans theorized that it meant the site of bad events, in the imperial period it was supposed to have been founded by Diomedes after the Trojan War. A patron saint of Benevento is Saint Bartholomew, the Apostle, Benevento, as Maleventum, was one of the chief cities of Samnium, situated on the Via Appia at a distance of 51 kilometres east from Capua on the banks of the river Calor. Festus, on the contrary, related that it was founded by Auson, a son of Ulysses and Circe, a tradition which indicates that it was an ancient Ausonian city, previous to its conquest by the Samnites. But it first appears in history as a Samnite city, and must have already been a place of strength and it appears, however, to have fallen into their hands during the Third Samnite War, though the exact occasion is unknown. Benevento was certainly in the power of the Romans in 274 BC, six years later they further sought to secure its possession by establishing there a Roman colony with Latin rights. It is probable that the Oscan or Samnite name was Maloeis, or Malieis, whence the form Maleventum would derive, like Agrigentum from Acragas, Selinuntium from Selinus and its wealth is also evidenced by the quantity of coins minted by Beneventum. Horace famously notes Beneventum on his journey from Rome to Brundusium and it was indebted to the same circumstance for the honor of repeated visits from the emperors of Rome, among which those of Nero, Trajan, and Septimus Severus, are particularly recorded. It was probably for the reason that the triumphal arch. The Arch of Trajan is one of the best-preserved Roman structures in the Campania and it repeats the formula of the Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum, with reliefs of Trajans life and exploits of his reign. Some of the sculptures are in the British Museum, successive emperors seem to have bestowed on the city accessions of territory, and erected, or at least given name to, various public buildings. Its inhabitants were included in the Stellatine tribe, diaconus speaks of it as a very wealthy city, and the capital of all the surrounding provinces. The territory of Beneventum under the Roman Empire was of considerable extent. An inscription has preserved to us the names of several of the pagi or villages dependent upon Beneventum, the citys most ancient coins bear the legend Malies or Maliesa, which have been supposed to belong to the Samnite, or pre-Samnite, Maleventum. Coins with the legend BENVENTOD, must have struck after it became a Latin colony. Not long after it had been sacked by Totila and its walls razed, the circumstances of the creation of duchy of Benevento are disputed
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Arch of Trajan (Benevento)
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For other similar structures, see Arch of Trajan The Arch of Trajan is an ancient Roman triumphal arch in Benevento, southern Italy. It was erected in honour of the Emperor Trajan across the Via Appia, the arch was built between 114 and 117. In Lombard times, it was incorporated into the sector of the city walls. The church of SantIlario, now housing the Videomuseum of the Arch, was built nearby, the arch was studied by Gianmarco Serlio in Renaissance times and drawn by Giovanni Battista Piranesi in the 18th century. It was restored several times due to aging and earthquakes, under Pope Urban VIII, in 1850, on the occasion of Pope Pius IXs visit to Benevento, it was isolated through demolition of the adjoining buildings. The arch has a single, barrel-vaulted archway, and is 15.60 m high and 8.60 m wide, each façade has four pilasters at the corners of the two side pillars, supporting an entablature. Above the architraves is an attic which, like them, juts out in its central section above the archway, the arch is built in limestone covered by opus quadratum of Parian marble slabs. It has richly sculpted decorations on the two main façades, on the inner side, on the left, was a depiction of Trajan welcomed by the Capitoline Triad and, on the right, Trajan in the Forum Boarium. The frieze on the entablature portrays Trajans triumphal procession after his victory over Dacia, on each of the pylons, between the corner pilasters, are two panels, one above the other, with scenes and allegories of imperial activities. They are separated by decorative panels depicting Victories offering sacrifices of bulls in the center. On the archs keystones are further personifications, Fortune on the outer, the vault has a coffered ceiling, in the center of which is a personification of the Emperor crowned by Victory. Turin, Utet. p. Arte romana 118
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Roman Theatre, Benevento
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The Roman Theatre is an ancient Roman edifice in Benevento, southern Italy. It was built in the 2nd century by emperor Hadrian near the citys cardo maximus, abandoned in Lombard times, it is now surrounded by the medieval Rione Triggio. The structures is used for concerts, representations and other spectacles. The theatre has a plan with a diameter of 90 meters, it could originally house some 10. The exterior had 25 arcades on three orders, of only the lower one remain, with Tuscan columns and part of the second one. Above this hall, in the 18th century, the church of Santa Maria della Verità was built. Behind the scene, three staircases led to a level, which was perhaps used an entrance for artists. The entrance alley is decorated by masks similar to those used by the actors, some edifices around the theatre which are still under excavation included perhaps a dancing school and an association of artists
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Caudium
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Caudium was an ancient city in Samnium situated on the Appian Way between Beneventum to Capua. In early times it was an important site, the capital or chief city of the Caudini, grave goods, found in the necropolis nearby, show that the site was inhabited from the 8th to the 3rd centuries. Caudium is first mentioned during the Second Samnite War, when in 321 BC the Samnite army under C, pontius encamped there just before their great victory over the Romans in the nearby mountain pass called the Caudine Forks, whose exact location is disputed. A few years later, the Samnites used Caudium as a place from which to watch the Campanians, Caudium is not mentioned during the Second Punic War, but the Caudini are repeatedly mentioned. The period of its destruction is unknown, the name is found in the 9th century. The ancient bishopric of Caudium is considered to have had its seat at what is now the village of Arpaia rather than at present-day Montesarchio, felicissimus in 496 is the only ancient bishop of the see whose name is known. In the 10th century its territory part of the diocese of SantAgata de Goti. No longer a residential bishopric, the diocese of Caudium is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Smith, William, ed. article name needed. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, E. T. Salmon, Samnium and the Samnites, Cambridge U. P. G. DHenry, Enciclopedia dellarte antica, classica e orientale, Suppl
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Ligures Baebiani
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In ancient geography, the Ligures Baebiani were a settlement of Ligurians in Samnium, Italy. The towns of Taurasia and Cisauna in Samnium had been captured in 298 BC by the consul L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, and the territory of the former remained Roman state domain. In 180 BC,47,000 Ligurians, the Ligures Apuani from the neighborhood of Luna, the site of the former town lies 15 m. north of Beneventum, on the road to Saepinum and Aesernia. The capital was 401,800 sesterces, and the annual interest probably at 5%, the site of the other settlement, that of the Ligures Corneliani is unknown. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
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Province of Caserta
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The Province of Caserta is a province in the Campania region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Caserta, situated about 36 kilometres by road north of Naples, the province has an area of 2,639 square kilometres, and a total population of 906,596 as of 2012. The former Palace of Caserta is located near to the city and it was the largest palace and one of the largest buildings erected in Europe during the 18th century. In 1997, the palace was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, in the Kingdom of Naples and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Caserta was one of the most important departments in southern Italy. The first capital of the region was the ancient city of Capua until 1818, in addition to Naples, the most important centers were Caserta, Capua, Nola, Gaeta, Sora, Aversa, Teano, and Isola Liri. In 1816, during the French occupation, Joseph Bonaparte reformed the territorial division of the kingdom of Naples, a series of royal decrees completed the reforms, introducing local administrative units or communes like the French ones. The new Napoleonic reforms led to the establishment of the Province of Naples, in 1945, a Decree signed by Umberto di Savoia reconstituted the Province of Caserta, and finally in 1970, the modern province came into being. To the northeast, near the Matese mountains is the Lago del Matese, the highest point is Monte Miletto at 2,050 m, divided between Campania and Molise. The karst massif is rich in water and minerals, and contains many caves, the Volturno River flows through the centre of the province with a defensive outpost at Capua. The southern highlands of Caserta border the Province of Benevento, there are 104 comuni in the province, Official website
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Allifae
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Thus, at the breaking out of the Second Samnite War, in 326 BC, it was one of the first places which fell into the hands of the Romans, who, however, subsequently lost it, and it was retaken by C. Again, in 307 BC, a victory over the Samnites was gained by the proconsul Fabius beneath its walls. During the Second Punic War its territory was alternately traversed or occupied by the Romans and by Hannibal and these also attest that it continued to be a place of importance under the Roman Empire, and was adorned with many new public buildings under the reign of Hadrian. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Smith, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography
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Ausona (ancient city)
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Ausona was a 4th-century BC city in the central Italian region of Latium. It was one of the three cities possessed by the tribe of the Ausones and its name seems to imply that it was their chief city or metropolis. No subsequent notice is found of Ausona, but it is supposed to have situated on the banks of the little river still called Ausente. The plain below the village of Le Fratte, near the sources of this little stream, is still known as the Piano dellAusente. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Bunbury. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography
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Calatia
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Calatia was an ancient town of Campania, southern Italy, c.10 km southeast of Capua, on the Via Appia, near the point where the Via Popillia branches off from it. It is represented by the church of Giacomo alle Galazze, the Via Appia here, as at Capua, abandons its former SE direction for a length of 2,000 Oscan feet, for which it runs due east and then resumes its course SE. Ruins include remains of the walls and the necropolis was partially excavated in 1882. The ten shafts lined with slabs of tuff which may have been the approaches to tombs or may have served as wells. The history of Calatia is similar to that of its powerful neighbor Capua. In 313 BC it was taken by the Samnites and recaptured by the dictator Fabius Maximus Rullianus, the Samnites captured it again in 311 BC, but it must have been retaken at an unknown date. In the 3rd century BC we find it issuing coins with an Oscan legend, in 174 BC it is mentioned that its walls were being repaired by the censors. In 59 BC a colony was established here by Caesar, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Calatia
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Cales
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Cales was an ancient city of Campania, in todays comune of Calvi Risorta in southern Italy, belonging originally to the Aurunci/Ausoni, on the Via Latina. The Romans captured it in 335 BC and established a colony with Latin rights of 2,500 citizens, cales was initially the centre of the Roman dominion in Campania. To the period after 335 belong numerous silver and bronze coins with the inscription Caleno and it was an important base in the war against Hannibal, and at last refused further contributions for the war. Before 184 BC more settlers were sent there, after the Social War it became a municipium. The fertility of its territory and its manufacture of glazed pottery. At the end of the 3rd century BC it appears as a colony, and in the 5th century it became an episcopal see, which it still is, though it is now a mere village. The cathedral, of the 12th century, has a carved portal, near it are two grottos, which have been used for Christian worship and contain frescoes of the 10th and 11th centuries. Inscriptions name six gates of the town, and there are remains of antiquity, especially of an amphitheatre and theatre, of a supposed temple. A number of tombs belonging to the Roman necropolis were discovered in 1883, aurunca, another city of the Ausones/Aurunci Ausona, another city of the Ausones/Aurunci Attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Ashby, Thomas
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Santa Maria Capua Vetere
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Santa Maria Capua Vetere is a town and comune in the province of Caserta, part of the region of Campania. For the history of ancient Capua, see History of Ancient Capua, in the area several settlements of the Villanovan culture were present in pre-historical times, and these were probably enlarged by the Oscans and Etruscans. In the 4th century BCE Capuae was the largest city in Italy after Rome, the city was damaged by Vandal ravages but later recovered and became the seat of an independent Lombard principate. However, during the struggle of the succession to the Duchy of Benevento, the survivors mostly fled and founded the modern Capua in the site of the ancient River port of Casilinum. King Robert of Anjou made Santa Maria Maggiore one of his summer residences, the town was known as Santa Maria Maggiore until 1861. For information about main ancient landmarks in the comune of Santa Maria Capua Vetere, the main other landmark of Santa Maria Capua Vetere is the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, founded, according to the tradition, by Pope Symmachus in the 5th century. The church had originally a nave, but was enlarged by Lombard Prince Arechis II of Benevento in 787. Marcello Trotta, footballer, was born here, errico Malatesta, was an Italian anarchist, social and political activist, writer and revolutionary. Murcia, Spain Seconda Università degli Studi di Napoli Bishopric of Capua Media related to Santa Maria Capua Vetere at Wikimedia Commons Santa Maria Capua Vetere
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Arch of Hadrian (Capua)
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The Arch of Hadrian is an ancient Roman triumphal arch located in Santa Maria Capua Vetere. It was originally an arch, but today only three pylons and one of the lateral arches survive. It spanned the Appian Way and constituted an ideal entrance to the city, the arch was erected between the latter half of the 1st century and the former half of the 2nd century, but we are ignorant of its dedication. An inscription was reported, with a dedication to the Emperor Hadrian, a dedication to Septimius Severus was also dubiously reported, but this probably belonged to the podium of a statue. It was hypothesised that the archs erection occurred under the Flavian dynasty after the gift of the status of colonia to the city, there was a restoration, with additions and reconstructions of the lateral structure in 1851. In 1860 it was involved in combat in the Battle of Volturnus, later, after 1893, the damage sustained during the battle was restored. Further restorations took place in both 1945 and 1953-1955 as a result of damage suffered in the Second World War, the arch is constructed in brick and originally had an outer coating of white limestone, now lost. The pylons of the central vault remain and one of the lateral arches, the remains extend to a height of 10 metres and a width of 18.5 metres. There are modern extensions and restorations, the arches of the central vault and of the lateral vaults were of a moderate height, but that of the central arch was wider and it originally reached to a greater height. The pylons are coated at the base with blocks of limestone and are lightened by niches with arched tops. The holes in the structure now allow the possibility of the presence of columns which framed the niches. On the inside of the pylons of the passage are some niches. Lorenzo Quilici, Stefania Quilici Gigli, Sullarco di Capua, in Lorenzo Quilici & Stefania Quilici Gigli, Urbanizzazione delle campagne nellItalia antica, Roma 2001, p. 205-231
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Casilinum
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Casilinum was an ancient city of Campania, Italy, situated some 3 miles north-west of Capua. While the original town, doubtless dependent on neighboring Capua. Remains of this town have been found at some 25 feet below the modern ground-level. During the Second Punic War, Casilinum was first occupied by Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus in 217 BCE, Casilinum eventually lost its independence and became a praefectura. Caesar founded a colony at the town in 59 BCE, which was renewed by Mark Antony in 44 BCE. The veterans settled within the town took the side of Octavian after Caesars death, only its position at the junction of major roads appears to have redeemed it from insignificance. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
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Sant'Angelo in Formis
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SantAngelo in Formis is an abbey in the municipality of Capua, southern Italy. The church, dedicated to St Michael Archangel, lies on the slopes of Monte Tifata. It was once referred to as ad arcum Dianae, as it lies on the remains of a Roman temple to that goddess, the church was built in the eleventh century by Desiderius, the abbot of Monte Cassino, who also rebuilt that abbey. At Monte Cassino the decoration was carried out by Byzantine artists hired from Constantinople, the frescos were painted by Greek artists and by Italian pupils trained in their methods. Examples of the mingling of styles cited in Hall include,1, the lunette over the entrance with a half-length figure of St. Michael and above him an orant Virgin in a medallion supported by flying angels, with an inscription in Greek on the lintel at the foot. The treatment is wholly Byzantine except for the Latin motif of a crown on the Virgins head, the evangelists around the enthroned Christ in the Apse are in the form of the four symbolic creatures of the Latin tradition, rather than being shown as figures in the Greek manner. Subjects from the Old Testament and New Testament line the walls of the nave, SantAngelo in Formis and the Ancient Capua
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Sinuessa
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Sinuessa was a city of Latium, in the more extended sense of the name, situated on the Tyrrhenian Sea, about 10 km north of the mouth of the Volturno River. It was on the line of the Via Appia, and was the last place where that great highroad touched on the sea-coast, the ruins of the city are located in the modern-day municipality of Mondragone, Campania, Italy. It is certain that Sinuessa was not an ancient city, indeed there is no trace of the existence of an Italic town on the spot before the foundation of the Roman colony. Some authors mention an obscure tradition that there had previously been a Greek city on the spot called Sinope, the name of Sinuessa was derived, according to Strabo, from its situation on the spacious gulf, now called the Gulf of Gaeta. At a later period Sinuessa again attempted, but with equal ill success and it is noticed also by Horace on his journey to Brundusium, as the place where he met with his friends Varius and Virgil. The Itineraries all notice Sinuessa as an existing town on the Appian Way, and place it nine miles from Minturnae. In his Meditations, written around AD180, the emperor Marcus Aurelius notes that his friend Junius Rusticus sent a letter to Marcuss mother from Sinuessa, the period of its destruction is unknown. The ruins of Sinuessa are still visible on the seacoast just below the hill of Mondragone, the most important are those of an aqueduct, and of an edifice which appears to have been a triumphal arch, but the whole plain is covered with fragments of ancient buildings. At a short distance from Sinuessa were the baths or thermal springs called Aquae Sinuessanae which appear to have enjoyed a reputation among the Romans. Pliny tells us they were esteemed a remedy for barrenness in women and it was there, also, that the infamous Tigellinus was compelled to put an end to his own life. The mild and warm climate of Sinuessa is extolled by some writers as contributing to the effect of the waters, hence it is called Sinuessa tepens by Silius Italicus, the site of the waters is still called I Bagni, and the remains of Roman buildings still exist there. In the Starz series Spartacus, War of the Damned, Spartacus and his army invade and take Sinuessa during the second episode, Wolves at the Gate. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Smith, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography
34.
Trebula Balliensis
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Trebula or Trebula Balliensis or Trebula Baliensis, was an ancient city of Campania, Italy, the location of which is occupied by the modern village of Treglia in the comune of Pontelatone. It was situated in the north of the Vulturnus, in the mountain tract which extends from near Caiatia to the Via Latina. The first mention of the name occurs in 303 BCE, when we are told that the Trebulani received the Roman franchise at the time with the Arpinates. The Liber Coloniarum also mentions Trebula among the towns of Campania. It appears to have received a body of settlers under Augustus. There are said to be considerable ancient remains upon the spot and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Smith, William, ed. article name needed. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography
35.
Atella
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Atella was an ancient Oscan city of Campania, halfway between Naples and Capua. Its ruins lie between the towns of Orta di Atella and SantArpino and it was occupied by Rome in 210 BC, the chief citizens executed and the survivors enslaved or exiled, the city was refounded as a home for the refugees from Nuceria. In the slave revolt of Spartacus, the army was brought to the city after they defeated Lucius Furius and Lucius Cossinius in Nuceria. Near the city, a fight out between the rebels and a Roman force. The Christian bishopric with see at Atella dates back, according to recent hagiography, to a bishop named Canio, the Greek legend of Saint Januarius mentions a bishop of Atella as one of those who accompanied the relics of that saint to Naples. A later bishop of Atella named Elpidius built a church over the tomb of Saint Canio, in two of his letters, Pope Gregory the Great mentions a Bishop Importunus of Atella. The diocese of Atella continued to exist until it became one of those incorporated into the new see of Aversa, no longer a residential bishopric, Atella is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see. The town has a cathedral, the 14th-century duomo of Santa Maria da Nives. The diocese was restored in 1968 as Latin Catholic titular bishopric. The territory of ancient Atella is now in the comuni of Caivano, Cardito, Cesa, Frattamaggiore, Grumo Nevano, gCatholic with titular incumbent bio links
36.
Baiae
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Baiae was a mineral springs and coastal resort on the northwest shore of the Gulf of Naples in ancient Italy. It was fashionable for centuries during antiquity, particularly towards the end of the Roman Republic, when it was reckoned as superior to Pompeii, Herculaneum and it was notorious for its hedonistic offerings and the attendant rumors of corruption and scandal. It later formed part of Port Julius, the base of the fleet of the Imperial Roman Navy. It was deserted and its ruins largely submerged by volcanic activity by the time of the Renaissance. What is left of Baia is now a frazione of the comune of Bacoli in the Campania region of Italy, Baiae was said to have been named after Baius, the helmsman of Odysseuss ship in Homers Odyssey, who was supposedly buried nearby. The adjacent Baian Gulf was named after the town and it now forms the western part of the Gulf of Pozzuoli. The settlement was mentioned in 178 BC under the name Aquae Cumanae. Baiae was built on the Cumaean Peninsula in the Phlegraean Fields and it perhaps originally developed as the port for Cumae. The bathhouses of Baiae were filled with mineral water directed to its pools from underground sulfur springs. Roman engineers were able to construct a complex system of chambers that channeled underground heat into facilities that acted as saunas. In addition to their function, the baths were used in Roman medicine to treat various illnesses. Baiae was particularly fashionable towards the end of the Roman Republic, marius, Lucullus, and Pompey all frequented it. Julius Caesar had a villa there, and much of the town became imperial property under Augustus, with its large swimming pools and domed casino, it continued to be a getaway for the elite. Nero had a villa constructed in the middle of the 1st century. It was also a spot of the emperor Septimius Severus. Caligula ordered a 3-mile-long pontoon bridge to be built from impounded ships of the area, fastened together and weighted with sand, clad in a gold cloak, he then crossed it upon a horse. Cassius Dios Roman History also includes the event, with the detail that the emperor ordered resting places and lodging rooms with potable water erected at intervals along the bridge. As late as the 18th century, scattered fragments were still being shown to tourists as the Bridge of Caligula. ”Baiae was notorious for the lifestyle of its residents and guests
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Cumae
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Cumae was an ancient city of Magna Graecia on the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Founded by settlers from Euboea in the 8th century BC, Cumae was the first Greek colony on the mainland of Italy, the ruins of the city lie near the modern village of Cuma, a frazione of the comune Bacoli in the Province of Naples, Campania, Italy. Cumae is perhaps most famous as the seat of the Cumaean Sibyl and her sanctuary is now open to the public. In Roman mythology, there is an entrance to the underworld located at Avernus, a lake near Cumae. They were already established at Pithecusae, they were led by the paired oecists Megasthenes of Chalcis and its name refers to the peninsula of Cyme in Euboea. It spread its influence throughout the area over the 7th and 6th centuries BC, gaining sway over Puteoli and Misenum and, thereafter, all these facts were recalled long afterwards, Cumaes first brief contemporary mention in written history is in Thucydides. The growing power of the Cumaean Greeks led many indigenous tribes of the region to organize against them, notably the Dauni, contact between the Romans and the Cumaeans is recorded during the reign of Aristodemus. Livy states that prior to the war between Rome and Clusium, the Roman senate sent agents to Cumae to purchase grain in anticipation of a siege of Rome. Also Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last legendary King of Rome, lived his life in exile with Aristodemus at Cumae after the Battle of Lake Regillus, also during the reign of Aristodemus, the Cumaean army assisted the Latin city of Aricia to defeat the Etruscan forces of Clusium. The combined fleets of Cumae and Syracuse defeated the Etruscans at the Battle of Cumae in 474 BC, the Greek period at Cumae came to an end in 421 BC, when the Oscans broke down the walls and took the city, ravaging the countryside. Cumae came under Roman rule with Capua and in 338 was granted partial citizenship, in the Second Punic War, in spite of temptations to revolt from Roman authority, Cumae withstood Hannibals siege, under the leadership of Tib. At the end of the 4th century, the temple of Zeus at Cumae was transformed into a Christian basilica, the first historically documented bishop of Cumae was Adeodatus, a member of a synod convoked by Pope Hilarius in Rome in 465. Misenus was excommunicated on his return but was rehabilitated and took part as bishop of Cumae in two synods of Pope Symmachus. Pope Gregory the Great entrusted the administration of the diocese of Cumae to the bishop of Misenum, later, both Misenum and Cumae ceased to be residential sees and the territory of Cumae became part of the diocese of Aversa after the destruction of Cumae in 1207. Accordingly, Cumae is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see, in 1207, forces from Naples, acting for the boy-King of Sicily, destroyed the city and its walls, as the stronghold of a nest of bandits. The seaward side of the rise on which Cumae was built was used as a bunker. Not to be confused with the namesake Cuma in Asia Minor A bishopric was established around 450 AD, in 700 it gained territory from the suppressed Diocese of Miseno. In 1207 it was suppressed itself, its territory being divided and merged into the Roman Catholic Diocese of Aversa, saint Massenzio Rainaldo Giovanni Gregorio Leone In 1970, the diocese was nominally restored as a Latin titular see
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Villa of the Papyri
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The Villa of the Papyri, is named after its unique library of papyri, but is also one of the most luxurious houses in all of Herculaneum and in the Roman world. It is located in the current commune of Ercolano, southern Italy and it was situated on the ancient coastline below the volcano Vesuvius with nothing to obstruct the view of the sea. It was perhaps owned by Julius Caesars father-in-law, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, in AD79, the eruption of Vesuvius covered all of Herculaneum with some 30 m of volcanic ash. Herculaneum was first excavated in the years between 1750 and 1765 by Karl Weber by means of underground tunnels, the villas name derives from the discovery of its library, the only surviving library from the Graeco-Roman world that exists in its entirety. It contained over 1,800 papyrus scrolls, now carbonised by the heat of the eruption, most of the villa is still underground, but parts have been cleared of volcanic deposits. Many of the finds are displayed in the Naples National Archaeological Museum, the Getty Villa is a reproduction of the Villa of the Papyri. Sited a few hundred metres from the nearest house in Herculaneum and it was surrounded by a garden closed off by porticoes, but with an ample stretch of gardens, vineyards and woods down to a small harbour. The villas layout is faithful to, but enlarges upon, the scheme of suburban villas in the country around Pompeii. The atrium functioned as a hall and a means of communication with the various parts of the house. The entrance opened with a portico on the sea side. The first peristyle had 10 columns on each side and a pool in the centre. In this enclosure were found the bronze herma of Doryphorus, a replica of Polykleitos athlete, the large second peristyle could be reached by passing through a large tablinum in which, under a propylaeum, was the archaic statue of Athena Promachos. A collection of bronze busts were in the interior of the tablinum and these included the head of Scipio Africanus. The living and reception quarters were grouped around the porticoes and terraces, giving occupants ample sunlight, the grounds included a large area of covered and uncovered gardens for walks in the shade or in the warmth of the sun. The gardens included a gallery of busts, hermae and small marble and these were laid out between columns amid the open part of the garden and on the edges of the large swimming bath. The luxury of the villa is evidenced not only by the works of art. The villa housed a collection of at least 80 sculptures of magnificent quality, among them is the bronze Seated Hermes, found at the villa in 1758. Around the bowl of the atrium impluvium were 11 bronze fountain statues depicting Satyrs pouring water from a pitcher, other statues and busts were found in the corners around the atrium walls
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Liternum
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Liternum was an ancient town of Campania, southern central Italy, on the low sandy coast between Cumae and the mouth of the Volturnus. It was probably once dependent on Cumae, in 194 BC it became a Roman colony. Although Livy records that the town was unsuccessful, excavation reveals a Roman town existed there until the 4th century AD, the town is mainly famous as the residence of the elder Scipio Africanus, who withdrew from Rome and died there. His tomb and villa are described by Seneca the Younger, in Ovids Metamorphoses Liternum is mentioned for its mastic trees, lentisciferum. Augustus Caesar is said to have conducted a colony of veterans to Liternum, however, the place never had any great importance, and the lagoons behind it made it unhealthy. The construction of the Via Domitiana through Liternum made it a posting station, the Hunterian Museums page on Liternum, with maps and photos. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
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Miseno
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Miseno is one of the frazioni of the municipality of Bacoli in the Italian Province of Naples. Known in ancient times as Misenum, it is the site of an ancient port in Campania, nearby Cape Miseno marks the northwestern end of the Bay of Naples. According to mythology, Misenum was named after Misenus, a companion of Hector, Misenus is supposed to have drowned near here after a trumpet competition with the sea-god Triton, as recounted in Virgils Aeneid. In 38 BC, Misenum was the site where a pact was made between Octavian, and his rival Sextus Pompeius. In ancient times, Misenum was the largest base of the Roman navy, since its port was the base of the Classis Misenensis and it was first established as a naval base in 27 BC by Marcus Agrippa, the right-hand man of the emperor Augustus. With its gorgeous natural setting close to the base and the nearby important Roman cities of Puteoli and Neapolis. Pliny the Elder was the praefect in charge of the fleet at Misenum in AD79, at the time of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Seeing the beginnings of the eruption, Pliny left for a view and to effect a possible rescue. The account of his death is given by his nephew Pliny the Younger, the church of San Sossio stands here. It is said to be the birthplace of Saint Sossius, a deacon who was martyred with Proculus of Pozzuoli and it is also the place of death of Emperor Tiberius. Misenum is one of the settings in Robert Harris novel Pompeii, whose protagonist, Attilius. In the novel Ben-Hur, Misenum is the location of a villa owned by Quintus Arrius later bequeathed to his adopted son Judah Ben-Hur, the Ben-Hur family would later live in Misenum. Media related to Miseno at Wikimedia Commons The Church of St. Sossio in Miseno
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Piscina Mirabilis
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The Piscina Mirabilis was a freshwater cistern on the Bacoli cliff at the western end of the Gulf of Naples, southern Italy. One of the largest freshwater cisterns built by the ancient Romans, the cistern was dug entirely out of the tuff cliff face and was 15 metres high/deep,72 metres long, and 25 metres wide. The capacity/volume was 12,600 cubic metres and it was supported by vaulted ceilings and 48 pillars. It was supplied with water from the main Roman aqueduct, the Aqua Augusta, the ancient cistern is in private hands but parts of it may still be visited List of Roman cisterns Basilica Cistern Cistern of Philoxenos Theodosius Cistern Classis Misenensis Napoli Underground. Napoli Underground Official Campania Tourism Site
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Naples
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Naples is the capital of the Italian region Campania and the third-largest municipality in Italy, after Rome and Milan. In 2015, around 975,260 people lived within the administrative limits. The Metropolitan City of Naples had a population of 3,115,320, Naples is the 9th-most populous urban area in the European Union with a population of between 3 million and 3.7 million. About 4.4 million people live in the Naples metropolitan area, Naples is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Bronze Age Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, a larger colony – initially known as Parthenope, Παρθενόπη – developed on the Island of Megaride around the ninth century BC, at the end of the Greek Dark Ages. Naples remained influential after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, thereafter, in union with Sicily, it became the capital of the Two Sicilies until the unification of Italy in 1861. Naples was the most-bombed Italian city during World War II, much of the citys 20th-century periphery was constructed under Benito Mussolinis fascist government, and during reconstruction efforts after World War II. The city has experienced significant economic growth in recent decades, and unemployment levels in the city, however, Naples still suffers from political and economic corruption, and unemployment levels remain high. Naples has the fourth-largest urban economy in Italy, after Milan, Rome and it is the worlds 103rd-richest city by purchasing power, with an estimated 2011 GDP of US$83.6 billion. The port of Naples is one of the most important in Europe, numerous major Italian companies, such as MSC Cruises Italy S. p. A, are headquartered in Naples. The city also hosts NATOs Allied Joint Force Command Naples, the SRM Institution for Economic Research, Naples is a full member of the Eurocities network of European cities. The city was selected to become the headquarters of the European institution ACP/UE and was named a City of Literature by UNESCOs Creative Cities Network, the Villa Rosebery, one of the three official residences of the President of Italy, is located in the citys Posillipo district. Naples historic city centre is the largest in Europe, covering 1,700 hectares and enclosing 27 centuries of history, Naples has long been a major cultural centre with a global sphere of influence, particularly during the Renaissance and Enlightenment eras. In the immediate vicinity of Naples are numerous culturally and historically significant sites, including the Palace of Caserta, culinarily, Naples is synonymous with pizza, which originated in the city. Neapolitan music has furthermore been highly influential, credited with the invention of the romantic guitar, according to CNN, the metro stop Toledo is the most beautiful in Europe and it won also the LEAF Award 2013 as Public building of the year. Naples is the Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, Naples sports scene is dominated by football and Serie A club S. S. C. Napoli, two-time Italian champions and winner of European trophies, who play at the San Paolo Stadium in the south-west of the city, the Phlegraean Fields around Naples has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. The earliest Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, sailors from the Greek island of Rhodes established a small commercial port called Parthenope on the island of Megaride in the ninth century BC
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Aqua Augusta (Naples)
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This aqueduct was unlike any other of its time, being a regional network rather than being focussed on one urban centre. There were ten branches, seven of which were for cities while three were for some of the luxurious villas in this area popular with rich Romans. The Aqua Augusta was one of the most difficult and costly aqueducts ever constructed by an ancient civilisation, despite its size and complexity, the Augusta is today largely unknown as a major monument. The aqueducts source, the Fons Augusteus, was in the Terminio-Tuoro mountains near the town of Serino not far from the city of Avellino. One of its main terminations was the enormous Piscina Mirabilis at the naval base, there is evidence that a large number of private users were members of the Rome senatorial class. In Rome, a letter from the emperor was required to gain a private connection, the Emperor Augustus had the Aqua Augusta built between 30 and 20 BC. During the war with Pompeius, Augustus ordered the construction of the Portus Julius harbour complex just west of Puteoli. Large quantities of water were needed for the base itself and for the ships. The main cistern filled by the aqueduct is the Piscina Mirabilis in Ba ́coli, the next major eruption in 472 AD left the aqueduct covered in ash and 3.5 km of the duct collapsed because of this. This cut off the supply of water to all the towns except Nola, the poor administrative and economic situation in Campania at this time, and Italy in general, prevented major repairs to the Augusta. Written references to aqueducts in Naples after this time refer to other aqueducts that were now in the area. In modern times, parts of the aqueduct, in addition to the Piscina Mirabilis were vital to the regions survival during World War II, many locals used the areas as air-raid shelters. There are few remains of the aqueduct today, although much of it still exists below ground. Traces of the structure may be found at a number of sites in. This is one of the largest such terminal reservoirs on a known in the Roman Empire. It was probably intended as a water resource for the naval base. Roman aqueducts Roman engineering Roman technology List of Roman cisterns Hodge, Hodge, A. T. Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, 2nd ed. London, Duckworth
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Bourbon Tunnel
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The Bourbon Tunnel, Tunnel Borbonico or Bourbon Gallery is an ancient underground passage, constructed for military purposes to connect the Royal Palace to military barracks in Naples, Italy. The monarchy in the era of King Ferdinand II of Bourbon was fearful of the populace of Naples. Two years after it was begun, the fall of the Bourbon dynasty led construction to halt, during the Second World War, the tunnel was used as a shelter during bombardments. The tunnel contains decades of debris, including cars and a discarded fascist monument that had been made for Aurelio Padovani
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Catacombs of San Gaudioso
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The Catacombs of Saint Gaudiosus are underground paleo-Christian burial sites, located in the northern area of the city of Naples. The catacombs were probably occupied on a pre-existing Greek-Roman necropolis in the district known nowadays as Rione Sanità, according to tradition, it was the burial site of St. Gaudiosus, a bishop arrived in Naples from North Africa, due to a shipwreck. His burial took place between 451 and 453 and the place, although was already the tomb of bishop, St. Nostriano, became an object of veneration. The urbanization of Rione Sanità began only around the century and, with it. Nowadays, only a portion of what were the original catacombs. Access to the catacombs is in the crypt, under the presbytery of the church dedicated to Our Lady of Health. This subject is represented in a fresco pheraphs detached by a wall of the old church and our Lady of Health, probably the most ancient Marian representation of Naples, is now kept in the first right side chapel of the basilica. The crypt, once a long corridor catacomb, clearly contains on the vault and on the walls, the arcosolium, placed at the entrance, guards the Tomb of San Gaudioso, with a sixth-century mosaic decoration. In the various cubicles that open along the arms of the catacombs, were located 5th – 6th century frescoes, the tufa sculpture of the dead Christ to the left of the entrance dates back at the end of the 7th century. The 7th century was for the catacombs a new period of use, in this era it was, in fact, still widespread the use of the drainer, stone cavities in which corps were leaned into a fetal position, to make him lose the fluids. This type of burial was reserved for the classes and was later abandoned due to hygienic reasons. Of the German’s body, embedded in the walls, only the skulls survived, most of that skullcaps are smaller than modern men ones, maybe because of the different nutrition and the healthier way of life. The Neapolitan actor Antonio De Curtis, known as Totò, was a native of the Rione Sanità and he was used to frequent its catacombs and this image has probably inspired Toto’s poem “A’ livella”. To see even the part illuminated not by the lights, during the visit, it is advisable to bring a flashlight, Catacombs of San Gennaro Bourbon Tunnel Crypta Neapolitana Catacombs of Rome. Le radici sotterranee della cristianità disegnano nuove prospettive per il quartiere della Sanità, in Varriale Roberta, I sottosuoli napoletani, pp. 91–101
