1.
Flat engine
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A flat engine is an internal combustion engine with horizontally-opposed cylinders. Typically, the layout has cylinders arranged in two banks on either side of a crankshaft and is otherwise known as the boxer. The concept was patented in 1896 by engineer Karl Benz, who called it the contra engine, a boxer engine should not be confused with the opposed-piston engine, in which each cylinder has two pistons but no cylinder head. Also, if an engine is canted 90 degrees into the horizontal plane. Horizontal inline engines are common in industrial applications such as underfloor mounting for buses. True boxers have each crankpin controlling only one piston/cylinder while the 180° engines, the 180° engine, which may be thought of as a type of V engine, is quite uncommon as it has all of the disadvantages of a flat engine, and few of the advantages. In 1896, Karl Benz invented the first internal combustion engine with opposed pistons. He called it the engine, as the action of each side opposed the action of the other. This design has since called the boxer engine because each pair of pistons moves in. The boxer engine has pairs of pistons reaching TDC simultaneously and these engines do not require a balance shaft or counterweights on the crankshaft to balance the weight of the reciprocating parts, which are required in most other engine configurations. However, in the case of engines with fewer than six cylinders. Other engine configurations with natural dynamic balance include the straight-six, the straight-eight, the V12, Boxer engines tend to be noisier than other common engines for both intrinsic and other reasons. In cars, valve clatter from the compartment is not damped by air filters or other components. Multi-cylinder boxer layouts have proved to be suited as light aircraft engines, as exemplified by Continental, Lycoming, Rotax, Jabiru. An important factor in aircraft use is the flat engines absence of vibration, general aviation aircraft often use air-cooled flat-four and flat-six engines made by companies such as Lycoming and Continental. Ultralight and microlight aircraft often use such as the Rotax 912. During the Second World War, Boxer engines were used as a motor for the first German jet engines to power up the engine at cranking speed. It was a short stroke design so it could fit in the hub of the turbine compressor
2.
Fairbanks Morse 38 8-1/8 diesel engine
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The Fairbanks-Morse 38 8-1/8 is a diesel engine of the two-stroke, opposed-piston type. It was developed in the 1930s, and is similar in arrangement to a series of German Junkers aircraft diesels. A slightly modified version, the 38ND 8-1/8, continues in service on Los Angeles-, Seawolf-, the 38 8-1/8 has been in continuous production since its development in 1938, and is currently manufactured by Fairbanks-Morse Engine of Beloit, Wisconsin. 38 8-1/8 engines are diesel engines, with combustion occurring between two opposed pistons within a single cylinder liner. The engine has a bore of 8 1⁄8 inches and the height is 38 inches. The engine block is of dry block construction and they have been manufactured with between four and twelve cylinders, depending on application. Vertical force is transmitted from the opposed trunk style pistons to either an upper or lower crankshaft, the two crank shafts are geared together by a vertical drive shaft. Pistons are removed by removing the top crankshaft, and removing from the top. The lower crankshaft is timed 12 degrees before the crankshaft in order to expel exhaust gasses prior to the admittance of scavenging air. Fresh air cleanses the cylinders of remaining exhaust prior to the exhaust ports being covered by the lower piston. Because the engine is 2-stroke, opposed-piston, the engine features no heads or valves, the two camshafts on the engine provide timing for two injection pumps per cylinder. Porting allows exhaust gases to be expelled and scavenge air to be taken in by a positive air box pressure, intake air is provided by an engine driven Roots blower or turbo-supercharger. Historically, the engine was used in U. S. diesel-electric submarines of World War II. Surviving diesel-electric submarines with these engines include USS Pampanito, USS Blueback and this engine was also used in surface ships, notably in the diesel-electric Wind-class icebreakers and in the geared Edsall-class destroyer escorts. Variants of the 38 8-1/8 and other Fairbanks-Morse engines provided backup power on US nuclear submarines commissioned through the 1990s, during the 1940s and 1950s, Fairbanks-Morse attempted to market their opposed-piston powered line of diesel-electric locomotives, with limited success, leaving the market in 1963. The locomotive market share was eventually dominated by products from GMs Electro-Motive Division, American Locomotive Company, certain ice-breaking class vessels of the Canadian Coast Guard used Fairbanks Morse opposed piston engines in the operation of a diesel electric/gas-turbine electric operation. The former CCGS Norman McLeod Rogers, currently sailing under the Chilean flag as Contraalmirante Oscar Viel Toro is one such example, current marine Opposed-Piston applications include use as main propulsion engines and service generators. The Fairbanks Morse Opposed Piston engine is used as a stationary power generator engine
3.
Submarine
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A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability, the term most commonly refers to a large, crewed vessel. It is also used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely operated vehicles and robots, as well as medium-sized or smaller vessels, such as the midget submarine. The noun submarine evolved as a form of submarine boat, by naval tradition, submarines are usually referred to as boats rather than as ships. Although experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the 19th century, Submarines were first widely used during World War I, and now figure in many navies large and small. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection, Submarines can also be modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are also used in tourism, and for undersea archaeology, most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes. In modern submarines, this structure is the sail in American usage, a conning tower was a feature of earlier designs, a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller at the rear, and various hydrodynamic control fins, smaller, deep-diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout. Submarines use diving planes and also change the amount of water, Submarines have one of the widest ranges of types and capabilities of any vessel. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers, modern deep-diving submarines derive from the bathyscaphe, which in turn evolved from the diving bell. In 1578, the English mathematician William Bourne recorded in his book Inventions or Devises one of the first plans for an underwater navigation vehicle and its unclear whether he ever carried out his idea. The first submersible of whose construction there exists reliable information was designed and built in 1620 by Cornelis Drebbel and it was propelled by means of oars. By the mid-18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been granted in England, in 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill with water to submerge the craft, a mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemens Magazine reported that a design had initially been proposed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680. By this point of development, further improvement in design stagnated for over a century, until new industrial technologies for propulsion. The first military submarine was the Turtle, a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person and it was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion
4.
USS Pampanito (SS-383)
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USS Pampanito, a Balao-class submarine, was a United States Navy ship, the third one named for the pompano fish. She completed six war patrols from 1944 to 1945 and served as a Naval Reserve Training ship from 1960 to 1971 and she is now a National Historic Landmark, preserved as a memorial and museum ship in the San Francisco Maritime National Park Association located at Fishermans Wharf. Pampanitos keel was laid down by the Portsmouth Navy Yard in Kittery, Maine and she was launched on 12 July 1943, sponsored by Mrs. James Wolfender, and commissioned on 6 November 1943, with Lieutenant Commander Charles B. After shakedown off New London, Connecticut, Pampanito transited the Panama Canal and her first war patrol, from 15 March to 2 May, was conducted in the southwest approaches to Saipan and Guam. Pampanitos second war patrol, from 3 June to 23 July, took place off Kyūshū, Shikoku, on 23 June, a submerged Japanese submarine fired two torpedoes, just missing Pampanito. On 6 July, Pampanito damaged a Japanese gunboat, and 11 days later headed for Midway Island, pampanitos third war patrol, from 17 August to 28 September, a wolfpack operation with submarines Growler and Sealion, was conducted in the South China Sea. On 12 September, she sank 9,419 ton SS Rakuyō Maru, which unfortunately was transporting 1350 British and Australian POWs, also the 5,135 ton tanker Zuihō Maru, and she damaged a third ship. The Japanese survivors were rescued by a vessel, leaving POWs in the water with rafts. A total of 1,159 POWs died, of whom some 350 in lifeboats were bombarded and killed by a Japanese navy vessel the next day when they were rowing towards land. On 15 September, Pampanito moved back to the area of the original attack, as the sub moved closer, the men were heard to be shouting in English. Pampanito was able to pick up 73 British and Australian survivors and she then set course for Saipan, disembarked the survivors, and continued on to Pearl Harbor. Pampanitos fourth war patrol, from 28 October to 30 December, took place off Formosa and the coast of southeastern China with Sea Cat, Pipefish, and Searaven. Sinking the 1200 ton cargo ship Shinko Maru Number One,19 November, refitted at Subic Bay, Pampanito returned to the Gulf of Siam for her sixth war patrol. Operating with Caiman, Sealion, and Mingo, she sighted only one target before sailing for Pearl Harbor, from Pearl Harbor the ship proceeded to San Francisco for overhaul, departing for Pearl Harbor again 1 August. With the end of the war, she was ordered to return to San Francisco and she was decommissioned at Mare Island on 15 December 1945. She remained in reserve until April 1960 when she was assigned to Naval Reserve Training at Mare Island Naval Shipyard. Reclassified AGSS-383,6 November 1962, she served as a Naval Reserve Training ship at Vallejo, California, Pampanito earned six battle stars for World War II service. Pampanito was turned into a memorial and museum at San Francisco on 21 November 1975, transferred to the Maritime Park Association on 20 May 1976, in 1986, Pampanito was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and declared to be a National Historic Landmark
5.
Reciprocating engine
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A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is typically a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the features of all types. The main types are, the combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles, the steam engine, the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution. There may be one or more pistons, the hot gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of the cylinder. This position is known as the Bottom Dead Center, or where the piston forms the largest volume in the cylinder. The piston is returned to the top by a flywheel. This is where the forms the smallest volume in the cylinder. In most types the expanded or exhausted gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke, the exception is the Stirling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools the same sealed quantity of gas. The stroke is simply the distance between the TDC and the BDC, or the greatest distance that the piston can travel in one direction, in some designs the piston may be powered in both directions in the cylinder, in which case it is said to be double-acting. In most types, the movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting rod. A flywheel is used to ensure smooth rotation or to store energy to carry the engine through an un-powered part of the cycle. The more cylinders an engine has, generally, the more vibration-free it can operate. The power of an engine is proportional to the volume of the combined pistons displacement. A seal must be made between the piston and the walls of the cylinder so that the high pressure gas above the piston does not leak past it. This seal is provided by one or more piston rings. These are rings made of a metal, and are sprung into a circular groove in the piston head. The rings fit tightly in the groove and press against the wall to form a seal. Cylinder capacities may range from 10 cm³ or less in model engines up to several thousand cubic centimetres in ships engines, the compression ratio affects the performance in most types of reciprocating engine
6.
Internal combustion engine
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An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
7.
Cylinder (engine)
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A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine or pump, the space in which a piston travels. Multiple cylinders are arranged side by side in a bank, or engine block. Cylinders may be sleeved or sleeveless, a sleeveless engine may also be referred to as a parent-bore engine. A cylinders displacement, or swept volume, can be calculated by multiplying its cross-sectional area by the distance the piston travels within the cylinder, the engine displacement can be calculated by multiplying the swept volume of one cylinder by the number of cylinders. The rings make near contact with the walls, riding on a thin layer of lubricating oil. The first illustration depicts a longitudinal section of a cylinder in a steam engine, the sliding part at the bottom is the piston, and the upper sliding part is a distribution valve that directs steam alternately into either end of the cylinder. Refrigerator and air compressors are heat engines driven in reverse cycle as pumps. Internal combustion engines operate on the inherent volume change accompanying oxidation of gasoline, diesel fuel or ethanol and they are not classical heat engines since they expel the working substance, which is also the combustion product, into the surroundings. The reciprocating motion of the pistons is translated into crankshaft rotation via connecting rods, as a piston moves back and forth, a connecting rod changes its angle, its distal end has a rotating link to the crankshaft. A typical four-cylinder automobile engine has a row of water-cooled cylinders. V engines use two angled cylinder banks, the V configuration is utilized to create a more compact configuration relative to the number of cylinders. For example, there are also rotary turbines, the Wankel engine is a rotary adaptation of the cylinder-piston concept which has been used by Mazda and NSU in automobiles. Rotary engines are relatively quiet because they lack the clatter of reciprocating motion, air-cooled engines generally use individual cases for the cylinders to facilitate cooling. Inline motorcycle engines are an exception, having two-, three-, four-, water-cooled engines with only a few cylinders may also use individual cylinder cases, though this makes the cooling system more complex. The Ducati motorcycle company, which for years used air-cooled motors with individual cylinder cases, in some engines, especially French designs, the cylinders have wet liners. They are formed separately from the casting so that liquid coolant is free to flow around their outsides. Wet-lined cylinders have cooling and a more even temperature distribution. During use, the cylinder is subject to wear from the action of the piston rings
8.
Piston
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A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder, in some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall. An internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of the combustion gases in the combustion chamber space at the top of the cylinder. This force then acts downwards through the rod and onto the crankshaft. The connecting rod is attached to the piston by a swivelling gudgeon pin and this pin is mounted within the piston, unlike the steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead. The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, a few designs use a fully floating design that is loose in both components. All pins must be prevented from moving sideways and the ends of the pin digging into the cylinder wall, gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These are a number of iron rings, fitted loosely into grooves in the piston. The rings are split at a point in the rim, allowing them to press against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two types of ring are used, the rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing, lower rings have narrow edges. There are many proprietary and detail design features associated with piston rings, pistons are cast from aluminium alloys. For better strength and fatigue life, some racing pistons may be forged instead, early pistons were of cast iron, but there were obvious benefits for engine balancing if a lighter alloy could be used. To produce pistons that could survive engine combustion temperatures, it was necessary to develop new alloys such as Y alloy and Hiduminium, a few early gas engines had double-acting cylinders, but otherwise effectively all internal combustion engine pistons are single-acting. During World War II, the US submarine Pompano was fitted with a prototype of the infamously unreliable H. O. R, although compact, for use in a cramped submarine, this design of engine was not repeated. Media related to Internal combustion engine pistons at Wikimedia Commons Trunk pistons are long relative to their diameter and they act both as a piston and cylindrical crosshead. As the connecting rod is angled for much of its rotation, a longer piston helps to support this
9.
Cylinder head
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In an internal combustion engine, the cylinder head sits above the cylinders on top of the cylinder block. It closes in the top of the cylinder, forming the combustion chamber and this joint is sealed by a head gasket. In most engines, the head also provides space for the passages that feed air and fuel to the cylinder, the head can also be a place to mount the valves, spark plugs, and fuel injectors. With a chain drive to a camshaft, the extra length of chain needed for an overhead cam design could give trouble from wear. Early sidevalve engines were in use at a time of simple fuel chemistry, low octane ratings and this made their combustion chamber design less critical and there was less need to design their ports and airflow carefully. One difficulty experienced at this time was that the low compression ratio also implied a low expansion ratio during the power stroke, exhaust gases were thus still hot, hotter than a contemporary engine, and this led to frequent trouble with burnt exhaust valves. A major improvement to the engine was the advent of Ricardos turbulent head design. This reduced the space within the chamber and the ports. Most importantly, it used turbulence within the chamber to thoroughly mix the fuel and this, of itself, allowed the use of higher compression ratios and more efficient engine operation. Despite common knowledge, the limit on performance is not the gas flow through the valves. With high speed engines and high compression, the limiting difficulty becomes that of achieving complete and efficient combustion, modern, efficient engines thus tend towards the pent roof or hemi designs, where the valves are brought close in to the centre of the space. Where fuel quality is low and octane rating is poor, compression ratios will be restricted, in these cases, the sidevalve engine still has much to offer. Such engines remained in production into the 1990s, only being replaced when the fuels available in the field became more likely to be diesel than petrol. In the overhead valve design, the head contains the poppet valves. In the overhead camshaft design, the head contains the valves, spark plugs and inlet/exhaust tracts just like the OHV engine. The number of heads in an engine is a function of the engine configuration. Almost all inline engines today use a cylinder head that serves all the cylinders. A V engine has two heads, one for each cylinder bank of the V
10.
James Atkinson (inventor)
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The most well known of Atkinsons engines is the Cycle which was patented in 1887. By use of variable engine strokes from a crankshaft, Atkinson was able to increase the efficiency of his engine. He was awarded the John Scott Medal of The Franklin Institute in 1889, proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,347. History of the combustion engine
11.
Atkinson cycle
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The Atkinson-cycle engine is a type of internal combustion engine invented by James Atkinson in 1882. The Atkinson cycle is designed to provide efficiency at the expense of power density, a modern variation of this approach is used in some modern automobile engines. Mazda Skyactiv models offering this capability include the Mazda 3 and MX-5, Atkinson produced three different designs that had a short compression stroke and a longer expansion stroke. The first Atkinson-cycle engine was named the Differential Engine, the second, and most well-known design, was called the Cycle Engine, which used an over-center arm to create four piston strokes in one revolution of the crankshaft. Atkinsons third and final engine was called the Utilite Engine and it operated much like any two-stroke engine, Atkinsons engines were produced by the British Gas Engine Company and also licensed to other overseas manufacturers. In 1888, Charon filed a French patent and displayed an engine at the Paris Exhibition in 1889, the Charon gas engine also used a similar cycle to Miller but without a supercharger. It is referred to as the Charon cycle Modern engine designers are realizing the potential fuel-efficiency improvements the Atkinson-type cycle can provide, the first implementation of the Atkinson cycle was in 1882, unlike later versions, it was arranged as an opposed piston engine, the Atkinson differential engine. Thus, in revolution, one piston provided a compression stroke and a power stroke, and then the other piston provided an exhaust stroke. The intake and compression strokes were significantly shorter than the expansion, the Cycle engines were produced and sold for several years by the British Engine Company. Atkinson also licensed production to other manufactures, sizes ranged from a few up to 100 horsepower. Atkinsons third design was named the Utilite Engine, Atkinson realized an improvement was needed to make his cycle more applicable to a high-speed engine. The final engine produced by the British Gas Engine company was the Utilite Engine, with this design, Atkinson was able to make a more conventional engine yet preserve the efficiency of having a short compression stroke and a long expansion stroke in a rather ingenious way. It operates much like a standard two-stroke except that the exhaust port is located at about the middle of the stroke, during the expansion stroke, a valve prevents pressure from escaping as the piston moves past the exhaust port. Once the valve is opened, it remains open as the piston heads back toward compression, letting fresh air charge the cylinder, a rich fuel/air mixture is injected by a small piston pump after the start of compression. This resulted in an engine with a short compression and longer expansion stroke. The Utilite Engines were tested and found to be more efficient than Atkinsons previous designs. Very few Utilite Engines were produced and none is known to survive, the British patent is from 1892, #2492. No US patent for the Utilite Engine is known, the effective compression ratio is reduced, but the expansion ratio is unchanged
12.
Otto cycle
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A four-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes while turning a crankshaft. A stroke refers to the travel of the piston along the cylinder. The four separate strokes are termed, Intake, also known as induction or suction This stroke of the piston begins at top dead center and ends at bottom dead center. In this stroke the valve must be in the open position while the piston pulls an air-fuel mixture into the cylinder by producing vacuum pressure into the cylinder through its downward motion. Compression, This stroke begins at B. D. C, or just at the end of the suction stroke, in this stroke the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture in preparation for ignition during the power stroke. Both the intake and exhaust valves are closed during this stage, combustion, also known as power or ignition This is the start of the second revolution of the four stroke cycle. At this point the crankshaft has completed a full 360 degree revolution, while the piston is at T. D. C. The compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited by a plug or by heat generated by high compression. This stroke produces mechanical work from the engine to turn the crankshaft, during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns from B. D. C. to T. D. C. While the exhaust valve is open and this action expels the spent air-fuel mixture through the exhaust valve. Nikolaus August Otto as a man was a traveling salesman for a grocery concern. In his travels he encountered the internal combustion engine built in Paris by Belgian expatriate Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir, in 1860, Lenoir successfully created a double-acting engine that ran on illuminating gas at 4% efficiency. The 18 litre Lenoir Engine produced only 2 horsepower, the Lenoir engine ran on illuminating gas made from coal, which had been developed in Paris by Philip Lebon. In testing a replica of the Lenoir engine in 1861 Otto became aware of the effects of compression on the fuel charge, in 1862, Otto attempted to produce an engine to improve on the poor efficiency and reliability of the Lenoir engine. He tried to create an engine that would compress the fuel prior to ignition. Many other engineers were trying to solve the problem, with no success, in 1864, Otto and Eugen Langen founded the first internal combustion engine production company, NA Otto and Cie. Otto and Cie succeeded in creating an atmospheric engine that same year. The factory ran out of space and was moved to the town of Deutz, in 1872, Gottlieb Daimler was technical director and Wilhelm Maybach was the head of engine design
13.
Two-stroke engine
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A two-stroke, or two-cycle, engine is a type of internal combustion engine which completes a power cycle with two strokes of the piston during only one crankshaft revolution. This is in contrast to an engine, which requires four strokes of the piston to complete a power cycle. In a two-stroke engine, the end of the combustion stroke, two-stroke engines often have a high power-to-weight ratio, power being available in a narrow range of rotational speeds called the power band. Compared to four-stroke engines, two-stroke engines have a reduced number of moving parts. The first commercial two-stroke engine involving in-cylinder compression is attributed to Scottish engineer Dugald Clerk, however, unlike most later two-stroke engines, his had a separate charging cylinder. The crankcase-scavenged engine, employing the area below the piston as a pump, is generally credited to Englishman Joseph Day. The first truly practical two-stroke engine is attributed to Yorkshireman Alfred Angas Scott, gasoline versions are particularly useful in lightweight or portable applications such as chainsaws and motorcycles. In a two-stroke engine, the transfer from the engine to the cooling system is less than in a four-stroke. Two-stroke petrol engines are preferred when mechanical simplicity, light weight, the Japanese manufacturer Suzuki did the same in the 1970s. Production of two-stroke cars ended in the 1980s in the West, eastern Bloc countries continued until around 1991, with the Trabant and Wartburg in East Germany. They are also common in power tools used outdoors, such as lawnmowers, chainsaws, with direct fuel injection and a sump-based lubrication system, a two-stroke engine produces air pollution no worse than a four-stroke, and it can achieve higher thermodynamic efficiency. Therefore, the cycle has also been used in large diesel engines, most notably large industrial and marine engines, as well as some trucks. Although the principles remain the same, the details of various two-stroke engines differ depending on the type. The design types vary according to the method of introducing the charge to the cylinder, the method of scavenging the cylinder, piston port is the simplest of the designs and the most common in small two-stroke engines. All functions are controlled solely by the covering and uncovering the ports as it moves up. In the 1970s, Yamaha worked out some principles for this system. They found that, in general, widening an exhaust port increases the power by the amount as raising the port. However, there is a limit to the width of a single exhaust port
14.
William Beardmore and Company
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William Beardmore and Company was a Scottish engineering and shipbuilding conglomerate based in Glasgow and the surrounding Clydeside area. It was active from 1886 to the mid-1930s and at its peak employed about 40,000 people and it was founded and owned by William Beardmore, later Lord Invernairn, after whom the Beardmore Glacier was named. The Parkhead Forge, in the east end of Glasgow, would become the core of the company and it was established by Reoch Brothers & Co in 1837 and was later acquired by Robert Napier in 1841 to make forgings and iron plates for his new shipyard in Govan. Napier was given the contract to build HMS Black Prince, sister ship to the Royal Navys first true ironclad warship, Beardmore became a partner in the business and, moving to Glasgow was joined by his brother Isaac and son, William Jr. On the premature death of William Snr, Isaac retired and William Jnr became sole partner and he founded William Beardmore & Co in 1886. By 1896 the works covered an area of 25 acres and was the largest steelworks in Scotland, specialising in the manufacture of steel forgings for the shipbuilding industry of the River Clyde. By this time they had begun the manufacture of armour plate and later diversified into the manufacture of heavy naval guns, such as the BL9.2 inch gun Mk IX–X. In 1900, Beardmore took over the shipyard of Robert Napier and Sons in Govan, in 1900, Beardmore also began construction of what would become The Naval Construction Yard, at Dalmuir in west Clydebank, the largest and most advanced shipyard in the United Kingdom at the time. HMS Agamemnon was the yards first order to complete, in 1906, Beardmore eventually sold the companys Govan shipyard to Harland and Wolff in 1912. Other notable warships produced by Beardmores at Dalmuir include the dreadnoughts HMS Conqueror, HMS Benbow, in 1917 Beardmore completed the aircraft carrier HMS Argus, the first carrier to have a full-length flight deck. Beardmore expanded the activities at Dalmuir to include the manufacture of all sorts or arms and armaments, the post war recession hit the firm hard, and the shipyard was forced to close in 1930. Part of the site and some of the buildings later became incorporated into ROF Dalmuir. Twenty 4-6-0 tender locomotives were built for the Great Eastern Railway as part of their class S69 and they also built 90 ‘Jinty’ tank engine for the LMS between 1928 and 1929. Beardmores locomotive production was compared with the established competition. In concert with US and Canadian Westinghouse, diesel engines were developed and installed for railway self-propelled car use, Canadian National Railways had two articulated cars powered with Beardmore 320 hp engines, eight cars with 185 hp engines, and seven cars with 300 hp engines. Several American railroads had self-propelled cars fitted with Westinghouse engines derived from Beardmore designs, the company first became involved in aviation in 1913, when it acquired British manufacturing rights for Austro-Daimler aero-engines and later those for D. F. W. It later built Sopwith Pup aircraft at Dalmuir under licence, later, a shipborne version of the Pup, the Beardmore W. B. III, was designed by the company. A hundred of these aircraft were produced and delivered to the Royal Naval Air Service, the company built and ran the Inchinnan Airship Constructional Station at Inchinnan in Renfrewshire
15.
Louis Rigolly
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Louis Rigolly, a Frenchman, was the first man to drive a car at over 100 miles per hour. He set a record of 103.561 mph on a beach at Ostend in Belgium on 21 July 1904, driving a 13.5 litre Gobron-Brillié racing car. He covered a 1 kilometre course in 21.6 seconds, beating Belgian Pierre de Caters mark of 97.25 mph, the record stood for just three months. Rigolly also participated in early Grand Prix motor racing
16.
Junkers
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Junkers Flugzeug- und Motorenwerke AG, more commonly Junkers, was a major German aircraft and aircraft engine manufacturer. It produced some of the worlds most innovative and best-known airplanes over the course of its fifty-plus year history in Dessau and it was founded there in 1895 by Hugo Junkers, initially manufacturing boilers and radiators. During World War I, and following the war, the company famous for its pioneering all-metal aircraft. The history of Junkers aircraft production begins with the Junkers J1 mid-wing monoplane, research for this aircraft began in 1914 and was interrupted by the start of the First World War. The prototype aircraft, named the Blechesel, was completed in very late 1915 after the outbreak of the war and this aircraft is significant in that it was the first flyable aircraft to utilize an all-metal total structural design. Contemporary aircraft were built around wooden frames constructed in a fashion, reinforced with wires. The J1 was a design, using steel ribs. IdFlieg, in charge of aircraft evaluation, was unconvinced of the layout of these designs. Junkers took this opportunity to all the flying surfaces of the J4 aircraft of corrugated duralumin in order to lower weight. The J4 became Junkers first design to production, with orders totalling 283. Junkers continued to believe in the monoplane layout constructed entirely in metal, the J8 was the first cantilever monoplane design, and looked extremely modern when compared to contemporary wire-braced biplane designs. The corrugated duralumin wing and fuselage skin introduced in the J-series became a trademark of Junkers aircraft built in the 1920s and 30s, development continued during the course of World War I, including a growing partnership with Fokker, as the Junkers-Fokker Aktiengesellschaft. Several Junkers designs were licensed to Fokker during this period, the Great War ended with German Navy trials of the model J11, which was an all-metal floatplane prototype. In the immediate post-war era, Junkers used their J8 layout as the basis for the F-13, first flown on 25 June 1919 and this four passenger monoplane was the worlds first all-metal airliner. The Treaty of Versailles signed only days after the F-13 flew, after that span of time only the design of civilian aircraft was permitted to Germany.24 and three-engined G.31. Neither aircraft was a commercial success, the W-33/W-34 series also set multiple aviation firsts including records for flight duration, flight distance, altitude, rocket assisted take-off and inflight refueling between 1926 and 1930. Junkers produced a study in 1924 for a visit to the United States. The study outlined a four-engined 80-passenger plane, incorporating a forward wing, as well as a main wing
17.
Junkers Jumo 205
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The Junkers Jumo 205 aircraft engine was the most famous of a series of aircraft diesel engines that were the first, and for more than half a century the only successful aviation diesel powerplants. The Jumo 204 first entered service in 1932, later engines in the series were styled Jumo 206, Jumo 207 and Jumo 208, and differed in stroke and bore and supercharging arrangements. In all more than 900 of these engines were produced, in the 1930s and these engines all used a two-stroke cycle with twelve pistons sharing six cylinders, piston crown to piston crown in an opposed piston configuration. This unusual configuration required two crankshafts, one at the bottom of the block and the other at the top. The pistons moved towards each other during the operating cycle, intake and exhaust manifolds were duplicated on both sides of the block. There were two cam-operated injection pumps per cylinder, each feeding two nozzles, for 4 nozzles per cylinder in all, normally such designs have poor volumetric efficiency because both ports open and close at the same time and are generally located across from each other in the cylinder. This leads to poor scavenging of the burnt charge, which is why valve-less two-strokes generally produce smoke and are inefficient, the Jumo solved this problem to a very large degree through clever arrangement of the ports. The intake port was located under the piston, while the exhaust port was under the upper. The lower crankshaft ran eleven degrees behind the upper, meaning that the exhaust ports opened and, even more importantly, closed first and this system made the two-stroke Jumos run as cleanly and almost as efficiently as four-stroke engines using valves, but with considerably less complexity. There is some downside to this system as well, for one, since matching pistons were not closing at quite the same time, but one ran ahead of the other, the engine could not run as smoothly as a true opposed style engine. In addition, the power from the two opposing crankshafts had to be geared together, adding weight and complexity, a problem the design shared with H block engines. In the Jumo, these problems were avoided to some degree by taking power primarily from the upper shaft, somewhat offset upwards on the engines front end. All of the accessories, such as pumps, injectors. What was left over was then geared to the upper shaft, in all, about three-quarters of the power to the engines propeller came from the upper crankshaft. In theory, the layout of the engine could have allowed it to be installed inside the thick wings of larger aircraft. Details of the oil scavenging system suggest this was not possible, a twelve-cylinder version, the Jumo 218, was designed but never built, while a single 24-cylinder 4-crankshaft Junkers Jumo 223 was built and tested. The Jumo 204 and 205 were licensed to Napier, who built a number as the Napier Culverin just prior to the war. After the war, they mounted three Culverins in a layout to produce the Napier Deltic, which was for some time one of the most powerful
18.
Fairbanks-Morse
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Fairbanks Morse and Company was an American manufacturing company in the late 19th and early 20th century. It used the trade name Fairbanks-Morse, there are three separate corporate entities that could be considered successors to the company, none of which represent a complete and direct descendant of the original company. All claim the heritage of Fairbanks Morse and Company, Fairbanks Scales is a owned company in Kansas City, Missouri. Fairbanks Morse Engine, a subsidiary of EnPro Industries, is a company based in Beloit, Wisconsin, Fairbanks Morse Pumps is a part of Pentair Water in Kansas City, Kansas, and manufactures pumps. In 1829 he started a hemp dressing business for which he built the machinery, though unsuccessful in fabricating for fiber factories, another invention by Thaddeus, the platform scale, formed the basis for a great enterprise. Scales were integral to business as marine and railway shippers charged by weight, Fairbanks scales won 63 medals over the years in international competition. It became the manufacturer in the US, and the best-known company the world over until Henry Ford. In Wisconsin, a missionary named Leonard Wheeler designed a durable windmill for pumping water. Wheeler set up shop in Beloit just after the Civil War, soon half a million windmills dotted the landscape throughout the West and as far away as Australia. As part of expansion, Morse brought Wheeler and his Eclipse Windmill pumps into business with the Fairbanks company. Morse later became a partner in the Fairbanks Company and by the end of the nineteenth century, Canadian and American cities had branch dealerships, with Fairbanks first coming to Montreal, Canada, in 1876 and later opening a factory there. In the late century, business expanded in the Western United States. It grew to include typewriters, hand trucks, railway velocipedes, pumps, tractors, the company became an industrial supplier distributing complete turn-key systems, tools, plumbing, gauges, gaskets, parts, valves and pipe. Its 1910 catalog contained over 800 pages, the Fairbanks Morse Company began producing oil and naptha engines in the 1890s with the purchase of the Charter line of engines. Fairbanks Morse gas engine became a success with farmers, irrigation, electricity generation, and oilfield work also benefited from these engines. Small lighting plants built by the company were also popular, Fairbanks Morse powerplants evolved by burning kerosene in 1893, coal gas in 1905, then to semi-diesel engines in 1913 and to full diesel engines in 1924. In 1914 the company production of the Model Z single-cylinder engine in one-, three-. The Z was soon made in sizes up to 20 horsepower, over a half million units were produced in the following 30 years
19.
Junkers Jumo 204
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The Junkers Jumo 204 was the second in a series of German aircraft Diesel engines. The Jumo 204 first entered service in 1932, Later engines in the series were designated Jumo 205, Jumo 206, Jumo 207 and Jumo 208, they differed in stroke and bore and supercharging arrangements. Development of the Junkers diesel engines started in the 1920s with the Junkers Fo3, the Fo4 was re-designated Junkers 4, which in turn was re-designated Junkers Jumo 204 by the Reichsluftfahrtministerium, where the first number indicates the manufacturer,2 – Junkers Motoren. The pistons moved towards each other during the operating cycle, intake and exhaust ports were duplicated at both ends of the block. There were two cam-operated injection pumps per cylinder, each feeding two nozzles, totaling four nozzles per cylinder. As is typical of designs, the Jumos used fixed intake and exhaust ports instead of valves. Normally such designs have poor volumetric efficiency because both ports open and close at the time and are generally located across from each other in the cylinder. This leads to poor scavenging of the burnt charge, which is why valve-less two-strokes generally run smoky and are inefficient, the Jumo 204 solved this problem to a very large degree through a better arrangement of the ports. The intake port was located under the piston, while the exhaust port was under the upper. The lower crankshaft ran eleven degrees behind the upper, meaning that the exhaust ports opened first and this system made the two-stroke Jumos run as cleanly as four-stroke engines using valves, but with considerably less complexity. The Jumo 204 was test flown in early 1929 installed in a Junkers G24, the Jumo Fo3 and 204 were licensed to Napier & Son, who built a small number as the Napier Culverin just prior to the war. Late in the war, they mounted three Culverins in a layout to produce the Napier Deltic, which was for some time one of the most powerful. Data from Junkers Aircraft & Engines 1913–1945, Mo3 A research diesel engine for test bed use only, the Mo3 was a four-cylinder, opposed-piston engine designed to run horizontally. Tested from 1913, the found in testing the Mo3 were progressively solved after World War I with the Fo3. Fo3 From 1924, Junkers experimented with the Fo3, A vertical 5-cyl, opposed-piston diesel, which ran on a test bed in the summer of 1926, developing 620 kW at 1,200 rpm. Mostly successful, the Fo3 did highlight the need for dynamic balancing of the rotating components. Fo4 The Fo4, benefiting from the experience gained with the Fo3, was a six-cylinder opposed-piston diesel engine, tested from 1928 and flown in the nose of a Junkers G.24 from 30 August 1929. Jumo 204 Later production of refined Jumo 4s, designated Jumo 204 in three sub-variants, 204A, 204B, and 204C, differing in airscrew drive arrangements
20.
Napier Deltic
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Unusually, the cylinders were disposed in a three bank triangle, with a crankshaft at each corner of the triangle. The term Deltic is used to refer to both the Deltic E, a single half-sized, turbocharged Deltic power unit also featured in the English Electric-built Type 2 locomotive, designated as the Class 23. Both locomotive and engine became known as the Baby Deltic. The Deltic story began in 1943 when the British Admiralty set up a committee to develop a high-power, hitherto in the Royal Navy, such boats had been driven by petrol engines, but their highly flammable fuel made them vulnerable to fire, unlike the opposing diesel-powered E-boats. Until this time, Diesel engines had poor power-to-weight ratio and low speed, before the war, Napier had been working on an aviation Diesel design known as the Culverin after licensing versions of the Junkers Jumo 204. The Culverin was an opposed-piston two-stroke design and this negates the need for a heavy cylinder head, as the opposing piston filled this role. On the downside, the layout required separate crankshafts on each end of the engine that must be coupled through gearing or shafts, the primary advantages of the design were uniflow breathing and a rather flat engine, originally intended to be buried in the wings of large aircraft. The Admiralty required a more powerful engine, and knew about Junkers designs for multi-crankshaft engines of straight six. The Admiralty felt that these would be a starting point for the larger design which it required. The result was a triangle, the cylinder forming the sides. The Deltic could be produced with varying numbers of cylinders—nine and eighteen were the most common, in 1946, the Admiralty placed a contract with the English Electric Company, parent of Napier, to develop this engine. One feature of the engine was the way that crankshaft-phasing was arranged to allow for exhaust port lead and these engines are called uniflow designs, because the flow of gas into and out of the cylinder is one way, assisted by blowers to improve cylinder exhaust scavenging. The inlet/outlet port order is In/Out/In/Out/In/Out going around the triangular ring and this would have led the firing in each bank of cylinders to be 60 degrees apart. However, it was decided to arrange that each cylinders exhaust piston would lead its inlet piston by 20 degrees of crankshaft rotation and this required the firing events for adjacent cylinders to be 40 degrees apart. For the 18 cylinder design, it was possible for firing events to be interlaced over all six banks. This led to the even, buzzing exhaust note of the Deltic, with a charge ignition every 20 degrees of crankshaft revolution, and it should be noted that the 9 cylinder design, having three banks of cylinders, has its crankshafts rotating in the opposite direction. The exhaust lead of 20 degrees is added to the 60 degrees between banks giving firing events for adjacent cylinders in the same bank 80 degrees apart, although the engine was cylinder-ported and required no poppet valves, each bank had a camshaft, driven at crankshaft speed. This was used solely to drive the fuel pumps, each cylinder having its own injector and pump
21.
Crankshaft
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A crankshaft—related to crank—is a mechanical part able to perform a conversion between reciprocating motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating motion of the piston into rotational motion, whereas in a reciprocating compressor, a Roman iron crank of yet unknown purpose dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland. The 82.5 cm long piece has fitted to one end a 15 cm long bronze handle, the accompanying inscription is in Greek. The crank and connecting rod mechanisms of the other two archaeologically attested sawmills worked without a gear train, al-Jazari described a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine in two of his water-raising machines. His twin-cylinder pump incorporated a crankshaft, though the device was unnecessarily complex, the Italian physician Guido da Vigevano, planning for a new crusade, made illustrations for a paddle boat and war carriages that were propelled by manually turned compound cranks and gear wheels. In Renaissance Italy, the earliest evidence of a crank and connecting-rod is found in the sketch books of Taccola. A sound grasp of the motion involved is demonstrated a little later by Pisanello. One of the drawings of the Anonymous of the Hussite Wars shows a boat with a pair of paddle-wheels at each end turned by men operating compound cranks. Crankshafts were also described by Konrad Kyeser, Leonardo da Vinci and his wind-powered sawmill used a crankshaft to convert a windmills circular motion into a back-and-forward motion powering the saw. Corneliszoon was granted a patent for his crankshaft in 1597, large engines are usually multicylinder to reduce pulsations from individual firing strokes, with more than one piston attached to a complex crankshaft. Many small engines, such as found in mopeds or garden machinery, are single cylinder and use only a single piston. A crankshaft is subjected to stresses, potentially equivalent of several tonnes of force. The crankshaft is connected to the fly-wheel, the block, using bearings on the main journals. An engine loses up to 75% of its energy in the form of friction, noise and vibration in the crankcase. The remaining losses occur in the heat and blow by. The crankshaft has a linear axis about which it rotates, typically with several bearing journals riding on replaceable bearings held in the engine block. As the crankshaft undergoes a great deal of sideways load from each cylinder in an engine, it must be supported by several such bearings. This was a factor in the rise of V8 engines, with their shorter crankshafts, the long crankshafts of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using higher compression ratios and higher rotational speeds
22.
William Doxford & Sons
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William Doxford & Sons Ltd, often referred to simply as Doxford, was a British shipbuilding and marine engineering company. William Doxford founded the company in 1840, from 1870 it was based in Pallion, Sunderland, on the River Wear in Northeast England. The Company was managed by William Doxfords four sons following his death in 1882 and it was acquired by Northumberland Shipbuilding Company in 1918. It was renamed Doxford & Sunderland Shipbuilding & Engineering Co Ltd in 1961, court Line took it over in 1972 and renamed it Sunderland Shipbuilders Ltd. In the 1970s a new all-weather Pallion yard was built which could build two ships of up to 30,000 tons deadweight side-by-side, the steel came in at one end, and the completed ship left from the other with engines installed and sometimes with the machinery running. Court Line collapsed in 1974 and the company was nationalised and it was privatised in 1986 when it was merged with Austin & Pickersgill to form North East Shipbuilders. However, the last ship built at pallion was floated out of the yard in 1989 after which it closed as a shipbuilding yard, the old shipyard is now occupied by Pallion Engineering Limited whilst a part of the former marine engine works is occupied by Sunderland Wall climbing centre. Doxford was a major British shipbuilder and it also made marine diesel engines, the last of which it built in 1980. List of shipbuilders and shipyards MV Badagry Palm - the last Doxford marine engine Doxford Engine Friends Association William Doxford and Sons page on Ships Nostalgia website
23.
Commer TS3
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The Commer TS3 was a diesel engine fitted in Commer trucks built by the Rootes Group in the 1950s and 1960s. It was largely the product of Tilling-Stevens, but was developed by Rootes Group when they bought out Tilling-Stevens, the engine was the first diesel engine used by Rootes Group and was of unorthodox design. Eric W Coy, Rootes Chief Engineer, was responsible for the development of the engine by a team of only seven people. TS in the name derives from its Tilling-Stevens origins, a company acquired by Rootes in 1950. From 1954 Rootes diesel production was moved to the Tilling-Stevens plant in Maidstone, the engine was unusual in being an opposed piston engine where each horizontal cylinder contains two pistons, one at each end, that move in opposition to each other. Even more unusually, both sets of pistons drove only a single crankshaft, most opposed piston engines have a crankshaft at each end of the cylinder. The TS3 engine used a crankshaft beneath the cylinders, each piston driving it through a connecting rod, a rocker lever. The crankshaft had six crankpins and there were six rockers, the engine was a two-stroke, compression-ignition diesel engine with uniflow-ported cylinders. Scavenging was performed by a Roots blower, which was mounted on the front of the engine and driven by a long quill shaft from a chain drive at the rear of the engine. Although the engines gained a reputation for performance, this quill shaft was somewhat prone to breaking if over-worked. Data from Type, Three cylinders, opposed pistons, as the horizontal cylinders were lower than a vertical engine, the engine was mounted beneath the floor of the cab. The bonnet of the truck could be dispensed with, moving the windscreen, access for maintenance was generally good, a small hatch in the cab gave access to the oil and fuel filters, the injection pump and injectors. Connecting rods and pistons could be accessed from each side of the cab, behind removable doors. As there was no camshaft or valves, this removed the usual need to access the cylinder head of a conventional engine, even the blower could be replaced by first removing the radiator and working from the front. Only the crankshaft bearings required the engine block to be removed from the chassis, the engines distinctive exhaust bark was always apparent, leading to their popular name of Knockers. The TS3 was used in the Commer Avenger Marks II, III and IV PSV chassis, beadle and Thomas Harrington Ltd from 1952-63. The last straw was in 1957 when Ford announced a PSV version of its Thames Trader, from 1957 Commer Avenger sales began to dwindle. Rootes Group, Commers parent company, entered into a partnership with Lister to market the engines as industrial stationary engines through a joint company Rootes-Lister Ltd, the venture was not a success for industrial engines, although some were sold as marine engines by Lister Blackstone Marine Ltd
24.
Tilling-Stevens
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Tilling-Stevens was a British manufacturer of buses and other commercial vehicles, based in Maidstone, Kent. Originally established in 1897, it became a specialist in petrol-electric vehicles and it continued as an independent manufacturer until 1950, when it was acquired by the Rootes Group. W. A. Stevens was established in Maidstone in 1897 by William Arthur Stevens and had by 1906 built its first petrol-electric vehicle using designs patented by Percival Frost-Smith. A petrol engine was connected to a generator and the current produced passed to a traction motor which drove the rear wheels. The petrol-electric transmission was fitted to chassis built by J. E. Hall and Co, transmissions were also supplied to Dennis Bros, of Guildford these vehicles were named Dennis-Stevens. An arrangement was agreed with a bus operator, Thomas Tilling. The ease of driving and soundness of construction of these soon led to the company supplying chassis to many bus operators in the UK. Tilling-Stevens Motors Ltd was obliged to consolidate its position with bus operators during World War I because the Army considered their petrol-electric chassis were not suitable for use in France, the low-mounted electrical items were considered vulnerable. All this combined to lead to a decline in popularity of the Tilling-Stevens, by the 1930s, TS chassis were being produced with conventional petrol/diesel engines, gearboxes and transmission. Tilling-Stevens split from Thomas Tilling in 1930 and renamed itself T S Motors Ltd in 1932, Tilling-Stevens was still manufacturing buses after World War II, with a large order built in 1947/1948 for export to Hong Kong. The result was a version of the hybrid TS6 model with electrical components by BTH of Bath, Somerset. The first six entered service in 1923, further orders followed from Halifax Corporation and in 1924 the general manager of the Teesside Railless Traction Board designed a trolleybus chassis which was built by Tilling-Stevens. This chassis could use an engine to drive the dynamo. The company subsequently purchased the rights to the Teesside design after receiving enquiries from abroad, following the initial split from Thomas Tilling, the company produced one further new chassis which was exhibited at the 1930 Scottish Motor Show. Only one sale was made, to Turin, Italy, Tilling-Stevens also produced goods chassis available with either petrol-electric or conventional gearbox transmissions and built many trucks during World War I. Their cast aluminium radiators were distinctive, with Tilling-Stevens cast into the top, after the war, they failed to invest in updating their products and ended up building mainly buses. Tilling-Stevens therefore acquired Vulcan Trucks of Southport, Lancashire in 1938 to extend their range, production stayed at Maidstone, and Vulcans production was also relocated there. The unusual electric transmission became less of an advantage as other makers developed their simpler mechanical transmissions to be reliable, Tilling-Stevens specialised in some unusual markets where the transmission could offer a particular advantage, by also using it as a generator
25.
Locomotive
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A locomotive or engine is a rail transport vehicle that provides the motive power for a train. A locomotive has no payload capacity of its own, and its purpose is to move the train along the tracks. In contrast, some trains have self-propelled payload-carrying vehicles and these are not normally considered locomotives, and may be referred to as multiple units, motor coaches or railcars. The use of these vehicles is increasingly common for passenger trains. Traditionally, locomotives pulled trains from the front, however, push-pull operation has become common, where the train may have a locomotive at the front, at the rear, or at each end. Prior to locomotives, the force for railroads had been generated by various lower-technology methods such as human power, horse power. The first successful locomotives were built by Cornish inventor Richard Trevithick, in 1804 his unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along the tramway of the Penydarren ironworks, near Merthyr Tydfil in Wales. Although the locomotive hauled a train of 10 long tons of iron and 70 passengers in five wagons over nine miles, the locomotive only ran three trips before it was abandoned. Trevithick built a series of locomotives after the Penydarren experiment, including one which ran at a colliery in Tyneside in northern England, the first commercially successful steam locomotive was Matthew Murrays rack locomotive, Salamanca, built for the narrow gauge Middleton Railway in 1812. This was followed in 1813 by the Puffing Billy built by Christopher Blackett and William Hedley for the Wylam Colliery Railway, Puffing Billy is now on display in the Science Museum in London, the oldest locomotive in existence. In 1814 George Stephenson, inspired by the locomotives of Trevithick. He built the Blücher, one of the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotives, Stephenson played a pivotal role in the development and widespread adoption of steam locomotives. His designs improved on the work of the pioneers, in 1825 he built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north east England, which became the first public steam railway. In 1829 he built The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials and this success led to Stephenson establishing his company as the pre-eminent builder of steam locomotives used on railways in the United Kingdom, the United States and much of Europe. The first inter city passenger railway, Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened in 1830, there are a few basic reasons to isolate locomotive train power, as compared to self-propelled vehicles. Maximum utilization of power cars Separate locomotives facilitate movement of costly motive power assets as needed, flexibility Large locomotives can substitute for small locomotives when more power is required, for example, where grades are steeper. As needed, a locomotive can be used for freight duties. Obsolescence cycles Separating motive power from payload-hauling cars enables replacement without affecting the other, to illustrate, locomotives might become obsolete when their associated cars did not, and vice versa
26.
British Rail Class 55
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The British Rail Class 55 was a class of diesel locomotive built in 1961 and 1962 by English Electric. They were designed for the express passenger services on the East Coast Main Line between London Kings Cross and Edinburgh. They gained the name Deltic from the locomotive, British Railways DP1 DELTIC. The fleet was withdrawn from service between January 1980 and December 1981, three locomotives were retained for a few days, until 2 January 1982, to work the farewell special, all being withdrawn immediately on arrival back at York. Six locomotives entered preservation during 1982 and 1983, one by the National Railway Museum, two cabs were also privately purchased. Additional Deltic engines were produced to enable engines to be exchanged regularly for overhaul while keeping the locomotives in service, the locomotives were assigned to three locomotive depots, Finsbury Park in London, Gateshead over the Tyne from Newcastle, and Haymarket in Edinburgh. They arrived from the manufacturer painted in green, the dark BR green on top, with a narrower strip of a lighter. This helped to disguise the bulk of the locomotive body, the cab window surrounds were picked out in cream-white. Although delivered without it, they all soon sported the yellow warning panel at each end common to all British diesel and electric locomotives. The introduction of the Deltics was a change in locomotive performance on the East Coast Main Line. The recently introduced Class 40 diesels had a maximum drawbar horsepower of 1,450. On one of O. S. Nocks first Deltic runs he states once the tail of the train was over the 60 mph restriction the throttle was opened to the full, never previously had I felt a positive thrust in my back when in the second mans seat. Nock went on to estimate that at 80 mph the locomotive was producing about 2,750 drawbar horsepower. As early as 1963 Deltics were recorded exceeding 100 mph, Nock recording 100 mph for 16 miles south of Thirsk with a maximum of 104 mph, he went on to say that such speeds in 1963 were terrific. As the East Coast Main Line was upgraded, times dropped still further and by the mid 1970s the Flying Scotsman was reaching Edinburgh in 5 hours 30 minutes, still with one stop at Newcastle. The ultimate Deltic performance came on 2 February 1978 with a run on the 07,25 from Newcastle to Kings Cross, in some respects the run was set up but the speeds were record breaking. The locomotive was 55008 The Green Howards, it was hauling 10 coaches and this included various signal stops and other enforced speed reductions, the net time is estimated at 115 min 45 sec, an average of 97 mph start to stop. The train achieved 113 mph on the flat between Darlington and York,114 mph at Offord and 125 mph whilst descending Stoke bank, the Railway Performance Society estimate that on modern infrastructure a realistic Deltic-hauled schedule from Kings Cross to Edinburgh would be around 4 hours 57 minutes
27.
British Rail Class 23
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The British Rail Class 23 were a class of ten Bo-Bo diesel-electric locomotives built by the English Electric Company in 1959. The power unit used was a Napier Deltic T9-29 9-cylinder engine of 1,100 bhp driving an EE generator and they were numbered from D5900 to D5909. On initial completion, the first locomotives were found to weigh 3 long tons over the weight of 72 long tons. A programme of lightening was begun, some of this involved cutting circular lightening holes into the bogie frames, much of the over-weight was due to ancillary components, particularly the train-heating steam generators, being supplied over weight. To avoid waste, these components were replaced by lighter versions from other makers, the lightened locomotives eventually met British Rails approval, but only after a painstaking weighing that involved specifying the amount of sand in the sandboxes and other precise details. After acceptance trials at Doncaster, they entered service between April and June 1959 and they were based at Hornsey, although at weekends were usually located at Hitchin engine shed. It had been British Rails original intention to work the locos across London on the widened lines, the first of the class was held at Vulcan Foundry whilst EE tried to reduce the weight but this could not be completed to a satisfactory standard. The locomotives were banned from Moorgate because of excessive exhaust smoke in the tunnels. Initial problems with the locomotives were minor and varied, although a problem with cracking in the cylinder liner around the hole required the engine to be changed. By November 1959, seven engines had changed and this reduced availability first raised comparisons with the better reliability of the British Rail Class 24 Type 2. The Type 2s were averaging 30-40,000 miles per failure, many engines seized because this shaft driving the auxiliaries snapped and then whipped round, rupturing coolant hoses and causing overheating. By October 1960 the emphasis of failures had shifted from the ancillaries to the engine itself, locomotive mileages had only reached 40-60,000 miles each, including stoppages, whilst in this 18 months there had been 44 engine changes across only 10 locomotives. Despite a generous availability of engines, four of the ten locomotives were out of service at the time. Turbocharger bearing failures, caused by exhaust gases leaking through the labyrinth seals, seized pistons, due to poor cooling caused by chemical erosion from incorrect lubricants. In July 1961 BR suggested replacing the Napier engine with an English Electric 8SVT V8 and this would however have added eight tons in extra weight, and so was rejected. EE also pointed out that the locomotives were now highly reliable in general, by around 1963 all the locomotives had gradually been moved to Stratford Depot as they failed and were added to the line in store, pending a decision on their future. By this time the locos were based at the new maintenance depot at Finsbury Park. It was decided by BR and EE to carry out a programme to refurbish the class, the locos also had modifications to their nose ends, losing the gangway doors and headcode discs in favour of a central roller blind headcode box
28.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
29.
Hunt-class mine countermeasures vessel
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The Hunt class is a class of thirteen mine countermeasure vessels of the Royal Navy. As built, they combined the roles of the traditional minesweeper and that of the active minehunter in one hull. They have a role as offshore patrol vessels. Upon introduction in the early 1980s they were the largest warships ever built out of glass-reinforced plastic and are the last in operation to use the Napier Deltic diesel engine. All were built by Vosper Thornycroft in Woolston except Cottesmore and Middleton, quorn was the last ship of the class launched. The capabilities of the eight vessels of the Hunt class have been significantly enhanced by the installation of Sonar Type 2193. In late 2007 Chiddingfold used the Seafox drone, the Royal Navys mine disposal system, Seafox is described by the MOD as a state of the art fire and forget system, capable of destroying mines in depths of up to 300 metres. Sandown-class minehunter Royal Navy - Mine Countermeasures Vessels - Hunt Class Media related to Hunt class mine countermeasure vessel at Wikimedia Commons
30.
Kolomna Locomotive Works
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The Kolomna Locomotive Works is a major producer of railroad locomotives in Russia. The plant started production in 1869 with a steam locomotive. In the Czarist period before the Russian Revolution, Kolomna was one of a few producers in Russia. During this period 139 types of locomotives were designed. The company is now a part of Transmashholding, the main activities of the company are, design, manufacturing and service of diesel engines, mainline locomotives, DC passenger electric locomotives. TEP70 passenger locomotives provide much of the traffic on non-electrified sections of the railways of Russia. It was the first production plant for steel structures for railways. In the second half of the 19th century the plant began to build locomotives, cars, river boats, in 1866 his brother Gustav joined the management and the company name was changed to Plant engineers Struve brothers. In 1871 the company name was changed to Kolomna Machine-Building Plant, in 1935 the plant was named Valerian Kuybyshev. The plant in Kolomna built the first Russian three-axle locomotive T-Series, the worlds first ship with an engine the Kolomna Diesel. In the first years of Soviet power the plant manufactured locomotives, wagons, streetcars, in 1931 the plant began to produce diesel locomotives and in 1932, in conjunction with the plant Dinamo, electric locomotives of the VL19 series. During the war, the plant provided for the needs of the front and it repaired tanks, built armoured trains and manufactured ammunition. In 1943 the plant resumed production of locomotives and diesel engines. In November 1953 the plant produced its ten thousandth locomotive, in 1956 the factory began serial production of diesel locomotives and diesel engines for locomotives, ships, submarines and diesel power plants. Passenger locomotives TEP60 and TEP70 began to perform the lions share of traffic on non-electrified lines in Russia, Belarus. At the end of 1934 Kolomna Locomotive Works laid down three submarines of the Pike class under the numbers u-313 u-314 and u-315 and these were completed in the spring of 1937 and towed to the Red Sormovo factory in Nizhny Novgorod. The plant was awarded the Order of Lenin, Order of the Red Banner of Labour, electrical equipment by Brown Boveri VL19, main freight DC electric locomotive. This was the first and the only electric locomotive design which was created in the Soviet Union TE3
31.
Aircraft diesel engine
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The aircraft diesel engine or aero diesel has not been widely used as an aircraft engine. Diesel engines were used in airships and were tried in aircraft in the late 1920s and 1930s, the ever-rising cost of avgas and doubts about its future availability have spurred a resurgence in aircraft diesel engine production in recent years. The use of a diesel had been specified for its low fire risk fuel, the first successful flight of a diesel powered aircraft was made on September 18,1928 in a Stinson model SM-IDX Detroiter, registration number X7654. Around 1936 the heavier but less thirsty diesel engines were preferred over gasoline engines when flight time was over 6–7 hours. Entering service in the early 1930s, the two-stroke Junkers Jumo 205 opposed-piston engine was more widely used than previous aero diesels. It was moderately successful in its use in the Blohm & Voss Ha 139, in Britain Napier & Son license-built the larger Junkers Jumo 204 as the Napier Culverin, but it did not see production use in this form. A Daimler-Benz diesel engine was used in Zeppelins, including the ill-fated LZ129 Hindenburg. This engine proved unsuitable in military applications and subsequent German aircraft engine development concentrated on gasoline, the Yermolaev Yer-2 long-range medium bomber was also built with Charomskiy diesel engines. Other manufacturers also experimented with engines in this period, such as the French Bloch. The Royal Aircraft Establishment developed a compression ignition version of the Rolls-Royce Condor in 1932. Interest in diesel engines in the period was sporadic. The lower power-to-weight ratio of diesels, particularly compared to turboprop engines, with fuel available cheaply and most research interest in turboprops and jets for high-speed airliners, diesel-powered aircraft virtually disappeared. The near-death of the aviation market in the 1990s saw a massive decline in the development of any new aircraft engine types. Napier & Son in Britain had developed the Napier Culverin, a derivative of the Junkers Jumo 205, before World War II, several factors have emerged to change this equation. First, a number of new manufacturers of general aviation aircraft developing new designs have emerged, second, in Europe in particular, avgas has become very expensive. Third, in locations, avgas is harder to obtain than diesel fuel. Finally, automotive diesel technologies have improved greatly in recent years, certified diesel-powered light planes are currently available, and a number of companies are developing new engine and aircraft designs for the purpose. Many of these run on readily available jet fuel, or on conventional automotive diesel, simulations indicate lower maximum payload due to the heavier engine, but also longer range at medium payload
32.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
33.
General aviation
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General aviation is the term for all civil aviation operations other than scheduled air services and non-scheduled air transport operations for remuneration or hire. General aviation flights range from gliders and powered parachutes to corporate business jet flights, the majority of the worlds air traffic falls into this category, and most of the worlds airports serve general aviation exclusively. General aviation covers a range of activities, both commercial and non-commercial, including flying clubs, flight training, agricultural aviation, light aircraft manufacturing. Of the 21,000 civil aircraft registered in the UK,96 per cent are engaged in GA operations, there are 28,000 Private Pilot Licence holders, and 10,000 certified glider pilots. Some of the 19,000 pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in GA activities, GA operates from more than 1,800 airports and landing sites or aerodromes, ranging in size from large regional airports to farm strips. GA is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority, although regulatory powers are being transferred to the European Aviation Safety Agency. The main focus is on standards of airworthiness and pilot licensing, general aviation is particularly popular in North America, with over 6,300 airports available for public use by pilots of general aviation aircraft. In comparison, scheduled flights operate from around 560 airports in the U. S, aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, general aviation provides more than one percent of the United States GDP, accounting for 1.3 million jobs in professional services and manufacturing. Most countries have authorities that oversee all civil aviation, including general aviation, Aviation accident rate statistics are necessarily estimates. In Canada, recreational flying accounted for 0.7 fatal accidents for every 1000 aircraft, while air taxi accounted for 1.1 fatal accidents for every 100,000 hours
34.
Diesel engine
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Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to such a degree that it ignites atomised diesel fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as an engine or gas engine. In diesel engines, glow plugs may be used to aid starting in cold weather, or when the engine uses a lower compression-ratio, the original diesel engine operates on the constant pressure cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock. Low-speed diesel engines can have an efficiency that exceeds 50%. Diesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles and they were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s they have used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants followed later, in the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the US increased. According to the British Society of Motor Manufacturing and Traders, the EU average for diesel cars accounts for 50% of the total sold, including 70% in France and 38% in the UK. The worlds largest diesel engine is currently a Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C Common Rail marine diesel, the definition of a Diesel engine to many has become an engine that uses compression ignition. To some it may be an engine that uses heavy fuel oil, to others an engine that does not use spark ignition. However the original cycle proposed by Rudolf Diesel in 1892 was a constant temperature cycle which would require higher compression than what is needed for compression ignition. Diesels idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion, to make this more clear, let it be assumed that the subsequent combustion shall take place at a temperature of 700°. Then in that case the pressure must be sixty-four atmospheres, or for 800° centigrade the pressure must be ninety atmospheres. In later years Diesel realized his original cycle would not work, Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application. Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion, now all that is mentioned is the compression must be high enough for ignition. In 1806 Claude and Nicéphore Niépce developed the first known internal combustion engine, the Pyréolophore fuel system used a blast of air provided by a bellows to atomize Lycopodium
35.
Diesel locomotive
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A diesel locomotive is a type of railway locomotive in which the prime mover is a diesel engine. Several types of diesel locomotive have been developed, differing mainly in the means by which power is conveyed to the driving wheels. Early internal combustion engine-powered locomotives and railmotors used gasoline as their fuel, soon after Dr. Rudolf Diesel patented his first compression ignition engine in 1892, it was considered for railway propulsion. Progress was slow, however, as several problems had to be overcome, power transmission was a primary concern. As opposed to steam and electric engines, internal combustion engines work efficiently only within a range of turning frequencies. In light vehicles, this could be overcome by a clutch, in heavy railway vehicles, mechanical transmission never worked well or wore out too soon. Experience with early gasoline powered locomotives and railcars was valuable for the development of diesel traction, one step towards diesel-electric transmission was the petrol-electric vehicle, such as the Acsev Weitzer railmotor, which could operate from batteries and electric overhead wires too. Steady improvements in diesel design gradually reduced its size and improved its power-to-weight ratio to a point where one could be mounted in a locomotive. Once the concept of drive was accepted, the pace of development quickened. In 1930, Armstrong Whitworth of the United Kingdom delivered two 1,200 hp locomotives using engines of Sulzer design to Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway of Argentina, currently, almost all diesel locomotives are diesel-electric, although the diesel-hydraulic type was widely used between the 1950s and 1970s. The Soviet diesel locomotive TEP80-0002 lays claim to the speed record for a diesel railed vehicle. In 1894, a 20 h. p. two axle machine built by Priestman Brothers was used on the Hull Docks, in 1896 an oil-engined railway locomotive was built for the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, England, in 1896, using an engine designed by Herbert Akroyd Stuart. It was not, strictly, a diesel because it used a hot bulb engine, following the expiration of Dr. Rudolf Diesels patent in 1912, his engine design was successfully applied to marine propulsion and stationary applications. However, the massiveness and poor power-to-weight ratio of early engines made them unsuitable for propelling land-based vehicles. Therefore, the potential as a railroad prime mover was not initially recognized. This changed as development reduced the size and weight of the engine, the worlds first diesel-powered locomotive was operated in the summer of 1912 on the Winterthur-Romanshorn Railroad in Switzerland, but was not a commercial success. In 1906, Rudolf Diesel, Adolf Klose and the steam, Sulzer had been manufacturing Diesel engines since 1898. During further test runs in 1913 several problems were found, after the First World War broke out in 1914, all further trials were stopped
36.
Turbocharger
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Turbochargers were originally known as turbosuperchargers when all forced induction devices were classified as superchargers. Nowadays the term supercharger is usually applied only to mechanically driven forced induction devices, compared to a mechanically driven supercharger, turbochargers tend to be more efficient, but less responsive. Twincharger refers to an engine with both a supercharger and a turbocharger, turbochargers are commonly used on truck, car, train, aircraft, and construction equipment engines. They are most often used with Otto cycle and Diesel cycle internal combustion engines and they have also been found useful in automotive fuel cells. Forced induction dates from the late 19th century, when Gottlieb Daimler patented the technique of using a pump to force air into an internal combustion engine in 1885. During World War I French engineer Auguste Rateau fitted turbochargers to Renault engines powering various French fighters with some success, in 1918, General Electric engineer Sanford Alexander Moss attached a turbocharger to a V12 Liberty aircraft engine. Turbochargers were first used in aircraft engines such as the Napier Lioness in the 1920s. Ships and locomotives equipped with turbocharged diesel engines began appearing in the 1920s, turbochargers were also used in aviation, most widely used by the United States. During World War II, notable examples of U. S. aircraft with turbochargers include the B-17 Flying Fortress, B-24 Liberator, P-38 Lightning, and P-47 Thunderbolt. Turbochargers are widely used in car and commercial vehicles because they allow smaller-capacity engines to have improved fuel economy, reduced emissions, higher power, in contrast to turbochargers, superchargers are mechanically driven by the engine. Belts, chains, shafts, and gears are common methods of powering a supercharger, for example, on the single-stage single-speed supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, the supercharger uses about 150 horsepower. Yet the benefits outweigh the costs, for the 150 hp to drive the supercharger the engine generates an additional 400-horsepower, a net gain of 250 hp. This is where the principal disadvantage of a supercharger becomes apparent, another disadvantage of some superchargers is lower adiabatic efficiency as compared to turbochargers. Adiabatic efficiency is a measure of an ability to compress air without adding excess heat to that air. Even under ideal conditions, the compression process always results in elevated temperature, however. Roots superchargers impart significantly more heat to the air than turbochargers, thus, for a given volume and pressure of air, the turbocharged air is cooler, and as a result denser, containing more oxygen molecules, and therefore more potential power than the supercharged air. In practical application the disparity between the two can be dramatic, with turbochargers often producing 15% to 30% more power based solely on the differences in adiabatic efficiency. By comparison, a turbocharger does not place a direct mechanical load on the engine, although turbochargers place exhaust back pressure on engines, in contrast to supercharging, the primary disadvantage of turbocharging is what is referred to as lag or spool time
37.
Supercharger
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A supercharger is an air compressor that increases the pressure or density of air supplied to an internal combustion engine. This gives each intake cycle of the more oxygen, letting it burn more fuel and do more work. Power for the supercharger can be provided mechanically by means of a belt, gear, shaft, when power is provided by a turbine powered by exhaust gas, a supercharger is known as a turbosupercharger – typically referred to simply as a turbocharger or just turbo. Common usage restricts the term supercharger to mechanically driven units, in 1848 or 1849 G. Jones of Birmingham, England brought out a Roots-style compressor. The worlds first functional, actually tested engine supercharger was made by Dugald Clerk, gottlieb Daimler received a German patent for supercharging an internal combustion engine in 1885. Louis Renault patented a centrifugal supercharger in France in 1902, an early supercharged race car was built by Lee Chadwick of Pottstown, Pennsylvania in 1908 which reportedly reached a speed of 100 mph. The worlds first series-produced cars with superchargers were Mercedes 6/25/40 hp, both models were introduced in 1921 and had Roots superchargers. They were distinguished as Kompressor models, the origin of the Mercedes-Benz badging which continues today, on March 24,1878 Heinrich Krigar of Germany obtained patent #4121, patenting the first ever screw-type compressor. Later that same year on August 16 he obtained patent #7116 after modifying and improving his original designs and his designs show a two-lobe rotor assembly with each rotor having the same shape as the other. Although the design resembled the Roots style compressor, the screws were clearly shown with 180 degrees of twist along their length, unfortunately, the technology of the time was not sufficient to produce such a unit, and Heinrich made no further progress with the screw compressor. Nearly half a century later, in 1935, Alf Lysholm and he also patented the method for machining the compressor rotors. There are two types of superchargers defined according to the method of gas transfer, positive displacement. Positive displacement blowers and compressors deliver an almost constant level of pressure increase at all engine speeds, dynamic compressors do not deliver pressure at low speeds, above a threshold speed, pressure increases with engine speed. Positive-displacement pumps deliver a nearly fixed volume of air per revolution at all speeds, Roots superchargers are external compression only. External compression refers to pumps that transfer air at ambient pressure into the engine, if the engine is running under boost conditions, the pressure in the intake manifold is higher than that coming from the supercharger. That causes a backflow from the engine into the supercharger until the two reach equilibrium and it is the backflow that actually compresses the incoming gas. This is an inefficient process and the factor in the lack of efficiency of Roots superchargers when used at high boost levels. The lower the boost level the smaller is this loss, and Roots blowers are very efficient at moving air at low pressure differentials, all the other types have some degree of internal compression
38.
Gear
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A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part to transmit torque. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source, Gears almost always produce a change in torque, creating a mechanical advantage, through their gear ratio, and thus may be considered a simple machine. The teeth on the two meshing gears all have the same shape, two or more meshing gears, working in a sequence, are called a gear train or a transmission. A gear can mesh with a linear toothed part, called a rack, the gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a crossed, belt pulley system. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slippage, in transmissions with multiple gear ratios—such as bicycles, motorcycles, and cars—the term gear as in first gear refers to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical gear. The term describes similar devices, even when the ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or when the device does not actually contain gears. Early examples of gears date from the 4th century BC in China, examples of further development include, Ma Jun used gears as part of a south-pointing chariot. The Antikythera mechanism is an example of an early and intricate geared device. Its time of construction is now estimated between 150 and 100 BC, the water-powered grain-mill, the water-powered saw mill, fulling mill, and other applications of watermill often used gears. The first mechanical clocks were built in AD725, the 1386 Salisbury cathedral clock may be the worlds oldest working mechanical clock. The definite ratio that teeth give gears provides an advantage over other drives in precision machines such as watches that depend upon an exact velocity ratio, an external gear is one with the teeth formed on the outer surface of a cylinder or cone. Conversely, a gear is one with the teeth formed on the inner surface of a cylinder or cone. For bevel gears, a gear is one with the pitch angle exceeding 90 degrees. Internal gears do not cause output shaft direction reversal, spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or disk with teeth projecting radially, though the teeth are not straight-sided, the edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears mesh together correctly only if fitted to parallel shafts, No axial thrust is created by the tooth loads. Spur gears are excellent at moderate speeds but tend to be noisy at high speeds, helical or dry fixed gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, since the gear is curved, this angling makes the tooth shape a segment of a helix
39.
Ignition system
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The widest application for spark ignition internal combustion engines is in petrol road vehicles, cars, four-by-fours, motorcycles, pickups, vans, trucks, and buses. Compression ignition Diesel engines ignite the mixture by the heat of compression. They usually have glowplugs that preheat the combustion chamber to allow starting in cold weather, other engines may use a flame, or a heated tube, for ignition. While this was common for very early engines it is now rare, the first electric spark ignition was probably Alessandro Voltas toy electric pistol from the 1780s. The simplest form of ignition is that using a magneto. The spark plugs are connected directly from the magneto output, early magnetos had one coil, with the contact breaker inside the combustion chamber. In about 1902, Bosch introduced a double-coil magneto, with a fixed sparking plug, and they are also used on piston-engined aircraft engines. Although an electrical supply is available, magneto systems are used mainly because of their higher reliability, magnetos were used in these engines because their simplicity and self-contained operation was more reliable, and because magnetos weighed less than having a battery and dynamo or alternator. The Wright brothers used a magneto invented in 1902 and built for them in 1903 by Dayton, Ohio inventor and this gave the benefits of easy starting with reliable sparking at speed. Many modern magneto systems have removed the second coil from the magneto itself, in this development, the induced current in the coil in the magneto also flows through the primary of the external coil, generating a high voltage in the secondary as a result. Such a system is referred to as a transfer system. Energy transfer systems provide the ultimate in ignition reliability, the output of a magneto depends on the speed of the engine, and therefore starting can be problematic. Some magnetos include a system, which spins the magnet quickly at the proper moment. Some engines, such as aircraft but also the Ford Model T, used a system which relied on non rechargeable dry cells, the operator would manually switch the ignition over to magneto operation for high speed operation. To provide high voltage for the spark from the low voltage batteries, a tickler was used, in this mode of operation, the coil would buzz continuously, producing a constant train of sparks. The entire apparatus was known as the Model T spark coil, in the UK these devices were commonly known as trembler coils and were popular in cars pre-1910, and also in commercial vehicles with large engines until around 1925 to ease starting. In either case, the low voltage was switched to the spark plug by the timer mounted on the front of the engine. This performed the equivalent function to the distributor, although by directing the low voltage
40.
EcoMotors
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This engine was promoted to significantly improve fuel efficiency, and substantially reduce production costs when compared to convententional internal combustion engines. The principal officers of EcoMotors are, Prof. Peter Hofbauer, Donald Runkle, the two primary investors in EcoMotors are Khosla Ventures and Bill Gates. Vinod Khosla, who founded Khosla Ventures in 2004, was founder and CEO of Sun Microsystems, in April 2013 EcoMotors announced a deal to have Chinese auto parts giant Zhongding Power build a $200 million factory in the Anhui Province in eastern China. The factory hoped to produce 150,000 OPOC engines per year, the engineblocks will be made of CGI and will be produced at a fully automated Zhongding foundry in Anhui by a licence from Sintercast of Sweden which is the world leader in CGI-technology. The production was first announced to commence in 2014 but is now delayed to during 2016, the OPOC engine is an opposed-piston 2-stroke engine. The OPOC is an internal combustion engine in which each cylinder has a piston at both ends, and no cylinder head. There are no valves or a cylinder head, Opposed piston engines have been manufactured using one, two and three crankshafts. However, the first opposed piston engine produced was by the French company Gobron-Brillié in 1900, the engine had one crankshaft and is very similar in concept to the EcoMotors OPOC engine design, except using a camshaft and valves. In 1903 a Gobron-Brillié car powered by the piston engine was the first car ever to reach 100 mph. The OPOC engine can be moduled with two, or more, engines coupled via a clutch between engines. When more power is needed the second engine is clutched in, when clutched out of service there are no friction or pumping losses from the second engine module. Official EcoMotors website Opposed Piston Opposed Cylinder Engine video at Engineering TV Start-Ups Work to Reinvent the Combustion Engine
41.
Gas turbine
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A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a turbine. The basic operation of the gas turbine is similar to that of the power plant except that the working fluid is air instead of water. Fresh atmospheric air flows through a compressor that brings it to higher pressure, energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so the combustion generates a high-temperature flow. This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands down to the exhaust pressure, the turbine shaft work is used to drive the compressor and other devices such as an electric generator that may be coupled to the shaft. The energy that is not used for shaft work comes out in the exhaust gases, the purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so that the most desirable energy form is maximized. Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators,50, Heros Engine — Apparently, Heros steam engine was taken to be no more than a toy, and thus its full potential not realized for centuries. 1000, The Trotting Horse Lamp was used by the Chinese at lantern fairs as early as the Northern Song dynasty. When the lamp is lit, the heated airflow rises and drives an impeller with horse-riding figures attached on it,1629, Jets of steam rotated an impulse turbine that then drove a working stamping mill by means of a bevel gear, developed by Giovanni Branca. 1678, Ferdinand Verbiest built a model carriage relying on a jet for power. 1791, A patent was given to John Barber, an Englishman and his invention had most of the elements present in the modern day gas turbines. The turbine was designed to power a horseless carriage,1861, British patent no.1633 was granted to Marc Antoine Francois Mennons for a Caloric engine. The patent shows that it was a gas turbine and the show it applied to a locomotive. Also named in the patent was Nicolas de Telescheff, a Russian aviation pioneer,1872, A gas turbine engine was designed by Franz Stolze, but the engine never ran under its own power. 1894, Sir Charles Parsons patented the idea of propelling a ship with a turbine, and built a demonstration vessel. This principle of propulsion is still of some use,1895, Three 4-ton 100 kW Parsons radial flow generators were installed in Cambridge Power Station, and used to power the first electric street lighting scheme in the city. 1899, Charles Gordon Curtis patented the first gas engine in the USA. 1900, Sanford Alexander Moss submitted a thesis on gas turbines, in 1903, Moss became an engineer for General Electrics Steam Turbine Department in Lynn, Massachusetts
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