1.
Pipe organ
–
The pipe organ is a musical instrument that produces sound by driving pressurized air through organ pipes selected via a keyboard. Because each pipe produces a pitch, the pipes are provided in sets called ranks, each of which has a common timbre. Most organs have multiple ranks of pipes of differing timbre, pitch, a pipe organ has one or more keyboards played by the hands, and a pedalboard played by the feet, each keyboard has its own group of stops. The keyboard, pedalboard, and stops are housed in the organs console, the smallest portable pipe organs may have only one or two dozen pipes and one manual, the largest may have over 20,000 pipes and seven manuals. A list of some of the most notable and largest pipe organs in the world can be viewed at List of pipe organs. The origins of the organ can be traced back to the water organ in Ancient Greece, in the 3rd century BC. By the 6th or 7th century AD, bellows were used to supply organs with wind, beginning in the 12th century, the organ began to evolve into a complex instrument capable of producing different timbres. A pipe organ with great leaden pipes was sent to the West by the Byzantine emperor Constantine V as a gift to Pepin the Short, King of the Franks, in 757. Pepins son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812, by the 17th century, most of the sounds available on the modern classical organ had been developed. From that time, the organ was the most complex man-made device - a distinction it retained until it was displaced by the telephone exchange in the late 19th century. Pipe organs are installed in churches, synagogues, concert halls, schools and they are used in the performance of classical music, sacred music, secular music, and popular music. The beginning of the 21st century has seen a resurgence in installations in concert halls, the organ boasts a substantial repertoire, which spans over 500 years. The organ is one of the oldest instruments used in European classical music that has commonly been credited as having derived from Greece. Its earliest predecessors were built in Ancient Greece in the 3rd century BC. The word organ is derived from the Greek όργανον, a term for an instrument or a tool, via the Latin organum. The Greek engineer Ctesibius of Alexandria is credited with inventing the organ in the 3rd century BC and he devised an instrument called the hydraulis, which delivered a wind supply maintained through water pressure to a set of pipes. The hydraulis was played in the arenas of the Roman Empire, the 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih, in his lexicographical discussion of instruments, cited the urghun as one of the typical instruments of the Eastern Roman Empire. It was often used in the Hippodrome in the capital of Constantinople
2.
St Thomas' Church, Strasbourg
–
St Thomas Church is a historical building in Strasbourg, eastern France. It is the main Lutheran church of the city since its Cathedral became Catholic again after the annexation of the town by France in 1681 and it is nicknamed the Protestant Cathedral or the Old Lady, and the only example of a hall church in the Alsace region. The building is located on the Route Romane dAlsace and it is classified as a Monument historique by the French Ministry of Culture since 1862. Its congregation forms part of the Protestant Church of Augsburg Confession of Alsace, the site on which the current church stands was used as a place of worship under the patronage of Thomas the Apostle as early as the sixth century. In the ninth century, Bishop Adelochus established a magnificent church with adjoining school, in 1196, construction began on the façade of a new, fortress-like building with an imposing steeple, built in the Roman style. Interrupted several times, the work was completed in 1521. Around 1450, the church commissioned a set of oil on panel paintings dedicated to the Passion of Jesus and it is assumed that he is identical with the painter Hans Hirtz, recorded in Strasbourg before 1460. The upper right angle of the Christ Carrying the Cross shows the St. Thomas Church as it looks today. It still administers the primary and secondary schools École Saint-Thomas and Foyer Jean Sturm, as well as the Séminaire Protestant, julius Smend came to preach regularly from 1893, and between 1894 and 1899, the Gesangbuch für Elsaß-Lothringen was developed there. On May 7,2006, the church was the place of the celebration for the creation of the Union des églises protestantes dAlsace et de Lorraine. The church is a hall church, the oldest on the territory of former south-west Germany. Inside it is approximately 65 metres long and 30 metres wide, there is a gallery on the left outer aisle, and chapels to the left and right of the apse. Another organ is the 1905 organ built by Fritz Haerpfer, following a design by Albert Schweitzer, monuments at the church date from between 1130 and 1850. Most famous are the decorated sarcophagus of Bishop Adelochus by the Master of Eschau. Among the many remarkable monuments, the Renaissance tombstone of Nikolaus Roeder von Tiersberg is notable for its realistic depiction of his decaying corpse. Roeder had been the donor of the life-size Mount of Olives group of now to be seen inside Strasbourg Cathedral. Neoclassical sculptor Landolin Ohmacht is represented by two works, one of dedicated to Jean-Frédéric Oberlin. A late-Gothic representation of Saint Michael, probably a work by Jost Haller, is, after the Saint Christopher in St. Peter and St. Pauls Church, Wissembourg, of the medieval leaded windows, only the rose at the front of the church remains intact
3.
Strasbourg
–
Strasbourg is the capital and largest city of the Grand Est region of France and is the official seat of the European Parliament. Located close to the border with Germany in the region of Alsace. In 2014, the city proper had 276,170 inhabitants, Strasbourgs metropolitan area had a population of 773,347 in 2013, making it the ninth largest metro area in France and home to 13% of the Grand Est regions inhabitants. The transnational Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau had a population of 915,000 inhabitants in 2014, Strasbourg is the seat of several European institutions, such as the Council of Europe and the Eurocorps, as well as the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman of the European Union. The city is also the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, Strasbourgs historic city centre, the Grande Île, was classified a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1988, the first time such an honour was placed on an entire city centre. The largest Islamic place of worship in France, the Strasbourg Grand Mosque, was inaugurated by French Interior Minister Manuel Valls on 27 September 2012. Economically, Strasbourg is an important centre of manufacturing and engineering, as well as a hub of road, rail, the port of Strasbourg is the second largest on the Rhine after Duisburg, Germany. Before the 5th century, the city was known as Argantorati, a Celtic Gaulish name Latinized first as Argentorate, after the 5h century, the city became known by a completely different name Gallicized as Strasbourg. That name is of Germanic origin and means Town of roads, Strasbourg is situated on the eastern border of France with Germany. This border is formed by the River Rhine, which forms the eastern border of the modern city. The historic core of Strasbourg however lies on the Grande Île in the River Ill, which flows parallel to, and roughly 4 kilometres from. The natural courses of the two eventually join some distance downstream of Strasbourg, although several artificial waterways now connect them within the city. This section of the Rhine valley is an axis of north-south travel, with river traffic on the Rhine itself. The city is some 400 kilometres east of Paris, in spite of its position far inland, Strasbourgs climate is classified as Oceanic, with warm, relatively sunny summers and cold, overcast winters. Precipitation is elevated from mid-spring to the end of summer, but remains largely constant throughout the year, on average, snow falls 30 days per year. The highest temperature recorded was 38.5 °C in August 2003. The lowest temperature recorded was −23.4 °C in December 1938. Nonetheless, the disappearance of heavy industry on both banks of the Rhine, as well as effective measures of traffic regulation in and around the city have reduced air pollution
4.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
5.
Musical instrument classification
–
Throughout history, various methods of musical instrument classification have been used. The most commonly used system divides instruments into string instruments, woodwind instruments, brass instruments and percussion instruments, the oldest known scheme of classifying instruments is Chinese and dates from the 3rd millennium BC. It grouped instruments according to the materials they are made of. However, the Chou-Li, an anonymous treatise compiled from sources in about the 2nd century BC, had the following order, metal, stone, clay, leather, silk, wood, gourd. The same order was presented in the Tso Chuan, attributed to Tso Chiu-Ming, more usually, instruments are classified according to how the sound is initially produced. The modern system divides instruments into wind, strings and percussion, the scheme was later expanded by Martin Agricola, who distinguished plucked string instruments, such as guitars, from bowed string instruments, such as violins. Classical musicians today do not always maintain this division, but distinguish between wind instruments with a reed and those where the air is set in motion directly by the lips, many instruments do not fit very neatly into this scheme. The serpent, for example, ought to be classified as a brass instrument, however, it looks more like a woodwind instrument, and is closer to one in many ways, having finger-holes to control pitch, rather than valves. Keyboard instruments do not fit easily into this scheme, for example, the piano has strings, but they are struck by hammers, so it is not clear whether it should be classified as a string instrument or a percussion instrument. Ottoman encyclopedist Hadji Khalifa also recognized the three classes in his Kashf al-Zunun an Asami al-Kutub wa al-Funun, a treatise on the origin. The division pervades Tboli thought about cosmology, social characters of men and women, victor-Charles Mahillon later adopted a system very similar to this. This scheme was taken up by Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs who published an extensive new scheme for classication in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie in 1914. Their scheme is used today, and is most often known as the Hornbostel-Sachs system. Electrophones, such as the guitar or electric bass, which produce sound through electricity and is required to be plugged in to an amplifier. Later Sachs added a category, electrophones, such as theremins. Modern synthesizers and electronic instruments fall in this category, within each category are many subgroups. The system has been criticised and revised over the years, in 1932, comparative musicologist André Schaeffner developed a new classification scheme that was exhaustive, potentially covering all real and conceivable instruments. The Kpelle of West Africa also use this system and they distinguish the struck, including both beaten and plucked, and the blown
6.
Keyboard instrument
–
A keyboard instrument is a musical instrument played using a keyboard. The most common of these are the piano, organ, and various keyboards, including synthesizers. Other keyboard instruments include celestas, which are struck idiophones operated by a keyboard, and carillons, today, the term keyboard often refers to keyboard-style synthesizers. Another important use of the keyboard is in historical musicology. Particularly in the 18th century, the harpsichord, the clavichord, and the piano were in competition. Hence in a phrase like Mozart excelled as a player the word keyboard is usefully noncommittal. The earliest known keyboard instrument was the Ancient Greek hydraulis, a type of pipe organ, the keys were likely balanced and could be played with a light touch, as is clear from the reference in a Latin poem by Claudian, who says magna levi detrudens murmura tactu. Intent, that is “let him thunder forth as he presses out mighty roarings with a light touch”, from its invention until the fourteenth century, the organ remained the only keyboard instrument. Often, the organ did not feature a keyboard at all, almost every keyboard until the fifteenth century had seven naturals to each octave. The clavichord and the harpsichord appeared during the 14th century—the clavichord probably being earlier, the harpsichord and clavichord were both common until widespread adoption of the piano in the 18th century, after which their popularity decreased. The piano was revolutionary, because a pianist could vary the volume of the sound by varying the vigor with which each key was struck. The pianos full name is gravicèmbalo con piano e forte meaning harpsichord with soft and loud but can be shortened to piano-forte, which means soft-loud in Italian. In its current form, the piano is a product of the late 19th century, in fact, the modern piano is significantly different from even the 19th-century pianos used by Liszt, Chopin, and Brahms. See Piano history and musical performance, keyboard instruments were further developed in the early twentieth century. Early electromechanical instruments, such as the Ondes Martenot, appeared early in the century and this was a very important contribution to the keyboards history. Much effort has gone into creating an instrument that sounds like the piano but lacks its size, the electric piano and electronic piano were early efforts that, while useful instruments in their own right, did not convincingly reproduce the timbre of the piano. Electric and electronic organs were developed during the same period, more recent electronic keyboard designs strive to emulate the sound of specific make and model pianos using digital samples and computer models. Concerns celebrated keyboard players and the various instruments used over the centuries
7.
Aerophone
–
Aerophones categorically comprise the largest and most complex group of instruments in the Americas. The first class includes instruments which, when played, do not contain the vibrating air and this class includes free reed instruments, such as the harmonica, but also many instruments unlikely to be called wind instruments at all by most people, such as sirens and whips. The second class includes instruments which contain the air when being played. This class includes almost all instruments generally called wind instruments — including the didgeridoo, brass instruments, additionally, very loud sounds can be made by explosions directed into, or being detonated inside of resonant cavities. Detonations inside the calliope, as well as the pyrophone might thus be considered as class 42 instruments, according to Ardal Powell, flute is a simple instrument found in numerous ancient cultures. There are three legendary and archeologically verifiable birthplace sites of flutes, Egypt, Greece and India, of these, the transverse flute appeared only in ancient India, while the fipple flutes are found in all three. It is likely, states Powell, that the modern Indian bansuri has not changed much since the medieval era. Archaeological studies have found examples of globular flutes in ancient Mexico, Colombia and Peru, the use of shells of Conches as an aerophone have also been found to be prevalent in areas such as Central America and Peru. Examples of aerophone type instruments in China can be dated back to the Neolithic period, fragments of bone flutes can be found at the burial sites of the Jiahu settlements of ancient China, and they represent some of the earliest known examples of playable instruments. The instruments were carved from the wing bone of the red-crowned crane. The flutes were efficient enough to sound in a nearly accurate octave. Examples of flutes made out of bamboo in China date back to 2nd Century BC and these flutes were known as Dizis or simply Di and typically had 6 holes for playing melodies that were framed by scale-modes. Flutes including the famous Bansuri, have been a part of Indian classical music since 1500 BC. A major deity of Hinduism, Krishna, has been associated with the flute, some early flutes were made out of tibias. Free aerophones are instruments where the air is not enclosed by the instrument itself. The air-stream meets a sharp edge, or an edge is moved through the air. Occasionally called percussive aerophones, plosive aerophones are sounded by percussion caused by a single compression, an example of a plosive aerophone is the scraper flute which has tubes with ridged or serrated edges so that they can be scraped with a rod to produce sound. Non-free aerophones are instruments where the air is contained within the instrument
8.
Range (music)
–
In music, the range of a musical instrument is the distance from the lowest to the highest pitch it can play. For a singing voice, the equivalent is vocal range, the range of a musical part is the distance between its lowest and highest note. The terms sounding range, written range, designated range, duration range, a piccolo, for example, typically has a sounding range one octave higher than its written range. The designated range is the set of notes the player should or can achieve while playing, all instruments have a designated range, and all pitched instruments have a playing range. Timbre, dynamics, and duration ranges are interrelated and one may achieve registral range at the expense of timbre, the designated range is thus the range in which a player is expected to have comfortable control of all aspects. The duration range is the difference between the shortest and longest rhythm used, dynamic range is the difference between the quietest and loudest volume of an instrument, part or piece of music. Although woodwind instruments and string instruments have no upper limit to their range. Brass instruments, on the hand, can play beyond their designated ranges. Notes lower than the brass instruments designated range are called pedal tones, the playing range of a brass instrument depends on both the technical limitations of the instrument and the skill of the player. Classical arrangements seldom make woodwind or brass instruments play beyond their designed range, string musicians play the bottom of their ranges very frequently, but the top of a string instruments range is rather fuzzy, and it is unusual for a string player to exceed the designated range. It is quite rare for wind musicians to play the extremes of their instruments, the most common exception is that in many 20th century works, pedal tones are called for in bass trombones. This chart uses standard numberings for octaves where middle C corresponds to C4, in the MIDI language middle C is referred to as MIDI note number 60. The lowest note that an organ can sound is C−1. However, if acoustic combination counts, the lowest note is C−2, *This chart only displays down to C0, though some pipe organs, such as the Boardwalk Hall Auditorium Organ, extend down to C−1. Also, the frequency of the subcontrabass tuba is B♭−1
9.
Musical instrument
–
A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
10.
Theatre organ
–
A theatre organ is a distinct type of pipe organ originally developed to provide music and sound effects to accompany silent films during the first 3 decades of the 20th century. Theatre organs are usually identified by the distinctive horseshoe-shaped arrangement of stop tabs above, in organs installed in the UK, a common feature was large translucent surrounds extending from both sides of the console, with internal colored lighting. A spectacular original example is the so-called Rhinestone Barton, installed in 1928 in the former RKO Iowa Theatre, another original example is the 3/13 Barton from Ann Arbors historic Michigan Theatre. The organ was installed in 1927 and is currently played five nights during a week before most film screenings. As the concept of the organ was embraced, theatre organs began to be installed in other types of venues, such as civic auditoriums, sports arenas, private residences. One of the largest theatre ever built was the 6 manual 52 rank Barton installed in the massive Chicago Stadium. There were over 7,000 such organs installed in America and elsewhere from 1915 to 1933, many organ builders supplied instruments to theatres. Many of the elements of the theatre organ simply allowed it to do its job better than anything else could. Although not all of these originated with Robert Hope-Jones, he was the first to successfully employ. Earlier church instruments used a linkage of rods and wires to connect the keys to the pipes. Unification Previously, each rank of pipes could be played on one manual at one pitch level. In other words, there was one pipe for each key on the keyboard, with the advent of unification, ranks were extended by adding more pipes and made playable at different pitch levels, and on different manuals. Thus, fewer ranks could be used in a variety of combinations and pitches. Horseshoe console To turn the pipe ranks on and off, the organ console used drawknobs placed on panels on both sides of the manuals. Using electricity, Robert Hope-Jones substituted tongue-shaped tabs arranged on a curved panel around and these stop tabs could be quickly and easily flipped up or down to select or deactivate any ranks of pipes. Traps, toy counter, and effects Real musical instruments, not previously associated with the organ, were installed in the pipe chambers to be pneumatically operated at will by the organist. Such instruments as piano, drums, cymbals, xylophone, marimba, orchestra bells, chimes, castanets, woodblock, and even tuned sleigh bells could be played from the organ keyboards. Sound effects such as train and boat whistles, car horns, sirens, bird whistles, the fronts of these chambers were covered with a set of swell shades which opened and closed like venetian blinds
11.
Electric organ
–
An electronic organ is an electronic keyboard instrument which was derived from the harmonium, pipe organ and theatre organ. Originally, it was designed to imitate the sound of pipe organs, theatre organs, band sounds, or orchestral sounds. In a fashion not totally unlike that of organs, reed organs generated sound by forcing air over a set of reeds by means of a bellows. While reed organs had limited tonal quality, they were small, inexpensive, self-powered, the reed organ was thus able to bring an organlike sound to venues that were incapable of housing or affording pipe organs. This concept was to play an important role in the development of the electric organ, pipe organ In the 1930s, several manufacturers developed electronic organs designed to imitate the function and sound of pipe organs. At the time, some thought that emulation of the pipe organ was the most promising route to take in the development of an electronic organ. Various types of organs have been brought to market over the years. Electricity arrived on the scene in the first decades of the 20th century. Electrically powered reed organs appeared during the first decades of electricity, cahills techniques were later used by Laurens Hammond in his organ design, and the 200-ton Telharmonium served as the worlds first demonstration of electrically produced music on a grand scale. Meanwhile, some experimentation with producing sound by electric impulses was taking place. Built in Belleville, Ontario, the Robb Wave Organ predates its much more successful competitor Hammond by patent and manufacture, the first widespread success in this field was a product of the Hammond Corporation in 1934. The Hammond organ quickly became the successor of the reed organ, from the start, electronic organs operated on a radically different principle from all previous organs. The organ was electrically powered, replacing the reed organs twin bellows pedals with a swell pedal more like that of a pipe organ. Instead of having to pump at a constant rate, as had been the case with the reed organ, from the beginning, the electronic organ had a second manual, also rare among reed organs. The most revolutionary difference in the Hammond, however, was its number of tonewheel settings. By using the drawbars, the organist could combine a variety of tones and harmonics in varying proportions. In all, the Hammond was capable of producing more than 250 million tones, the classic Hammond sound benefitted from the use of free-standing loudspeakers called tone cabinets that produced a higher-quality sound than small built-in speakers. The sound was further enhanced by rotating speaker units, usually manufactured by Leslie
12.
Hammond organ
–
The Hammond organ is an electric organ, invented by Laurens Hammond and John M. Hanert and first manufactured in 1935. Various models have been produced, most of use sliding drawbars to create a variety of sounds. Around two million Hammond organs have been manufactured, the organ is commonly used with, and associated with, the Leslie speaker. The organ was originally marketed and sold by the Hammond Organ Company to churches as a lower-cost alternative to the pipe organ. It quickly became popular with jazz musicians in organ trios. Organ trios were hired by jazz club owners, who found that organ trios were a cheaper alternative to hiring a big band. The Hammond Organ Company struggled financially during the 1970s as they abandoned tonewheel organs and these instruments were not as popular with musicians as the tonewheels had been, and the company went out of business in 1985. The Hammond name was purchased by the Suzuki Musical Instrument Corporation and this culminated in the production of the New B-3 in 2002, which provided an accurate recreation of the original B-3 organ using modern digital technology. Hammond-Suzuki continues to manufacture a variety of organs for both players and churches. Other companies, such as Korg, Roland and Clavia, have achieved success in providing emulations of the original tonewheel organs. The sound of a tonewheel Hammond can also be emulated using software such as Native Instruments B4. A number of distinctive Hammond organ features are not usually found on other keyboards like the piano or synthesizer, Some are similar to a pipe organ, but others are unique to the instrument. Most Hammond organs have two 61-note keyboards called manuals, as with pipe organ keyboards, the two manuals are arrayed on two levels close to each other. There is no difference in volume regardless of how heavily or lightly the key is pressed, the keys on each manual have a lightweight action, which allows players to perform rapid passages more easily than on a piano. In contrast to piano and pipe organ keys, Hammond keys have a flat-front profile, Early Hammond console models had sharp edges, but starting with the B-2 these were rounded, as they were cheaper to manufacture. The M series of spinets also had waterfall keys, but later models had diving board style keys which resembled those found on a church organ. Modern Hammond-Suzuki models use waterfall keys, Hammond console organs come with a wooden pedalboard played with the feet, for bass notes. Most console Hammond pedalboards have 25 notes, with the note a low C
13.
Reed organ
–
The pump organ, reed organ, harmonium, or melodeon is a type of free-reed organ that generates sound as air flows past a vibrating piece of thin metal in a frame. The piece of metal is called a reed, the finer instruments have a unique tone, and the cabinets of those intended for churches and affluent homes were often excellent pieces of furniture. Several million free-reed organs and melodeons were made in the USA, during this time Estey Organ and Mason & Hamlin were popular manufacturers. The harmoniums design incorporates free reeds and derives from the earlier regal, a harmonium-like instrument was exhibited by Gabriel Joseph Grenié in 1810. He called it an orgue expressif, because his instrument was capable of greater expression, alexandre Debain improved Greniés instrument and gave it the name harmonium when he patented his version in 1840. There was concurrent development of similar instruments, beginning in 1885, the firm of Mason & Hamlin, of Boston made their instruments with the suction bellows, and this method of construction soon superseded all others in America. Harmoniums reached the height of their popularity in the West in the late 19th, an added attraction of the harmonium in tropical regions was that the instrument held its tune regardless of heat and humidity, unlike the piano. This export market was lucrative for manufacturers to produce harmoniums with cases impregnated with chemicals to prevent woodworm. At the peak of the instruments Western popularity around 1900, a variety of styles of harmoniums were being produced. These ranged from simple models with plain cases and only four or five stops, up to large instruments with ornate cases, up to a dozen stops, expensive harmoniums were often built to resemble pipe organs, with ranks of fake pipes attached to the top of the instrument. Small numbers of harmoniums were built with two manuals, some were even built with pedal keyboards, which required the use of an assistant to run the bellows or, for some of the later models, an electrical pump. The invention of the organ in the mid-1930s spelled the end of the harmoniums success in the West. By this time, harmoniums had reached high levels of complexity, not only through the need to provide instruments with a greater tonal range. The last mass-producer of harmoniums in North America was the Estey company, which ceased manufacture in the mid-1950s, as the existing stock of instruments aged and spare parts became hard to find, more and more were either scrapped or sold. It was not uncommon for harmoniums to be modernised by having electric blowers fitted, the majority of Western harmoniums today are in the hands of enthusiasts, though the instrument remains popular in South Asia. Modern electronic keyboards can emulate the sound of the pump organ, the acoustical effects described below are a result of the free-reed mechanism. Therefore, they are identical for the Western and Indian harmoniums. And as its vibrators also admit of a delicate and durable tuning and this arrangement was difficult to play on
14.
Carol Williams (organist)
–
ARAM, FRCO, FTCL, ARCM is a British-born international concert organist and composer, now living in America. She served during 2001–2016 as the Civic Organist for the city of San Diego, California and she is the Artistic Director of the Spreckels Organ Society, Artist in Residence at St. Pauls Cathedral San Diego, and Host of the TourBus, a pipe organ documentary series. British born, Williams was raised in a Welsh family with musical influences. She began private lessons at age five and could read music before she could read English and her formal training started with five years at the Royal Academy of Music where she specialized in organ performing as a student of David Sanger. She obtained the Academys prestigious Recital Diploma, together with the LRAM for both organ and piano, Williams has also studied with Daniel Roth, the Organist at the Church of St. Sulpice, Paris. Moving to the United States, Williams undertook postgraduate study at Yale University under the direction of Thomas Murray and she was appointed University Chapel Organist and was awarded an Artist Diploma together with the Charles Ives Prize for outstanding achievement. She then relocated to New York City where she became the Associate Organist at the Cathedral of the Incarnation in Long Islands Garden City. She undertook doctoral study under McNeil Robinson at the Manhattan School of Music, Williams performances have taken her all over the world. She has also given concerts in Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Monaco, Luxembourg. Williams has been elected an Associate of the Royal Academy of Music in recognition of her contribution to music and she performed the inaugural recitals on a newly installed Austin organ in Beijings Forbidden City Concert Hall. Thomas Church on New Yorks Fifth Avenue and she also took part in the Virgil Fox Memorial Concert held in the fall of 2000 at New Yorks Riverside Church, and a recording of the event was released. Williams is also hosting a video series TourBus, featuring the great and small, famous and unique pipe organs of the world, its music, people. In October 2001, Williams became the first woman in the United States to be appointed Civic Organist and she served as the San Diego Civic Organist and Artistic Director of the Spreckels Organ Society in San Diego, California from 2001 to 2016. Williams performs an average of 75 concerts a year worldwide, Williams regularly attracts new audiences to the pipe organ with charismatic humor and programs of intense genre diversity, including collaborations with various Jazz, Blues, Pop and Rock bands. Concert patrons have received her live performances with “rock star” enthusiasm, ©2015 Andromeda ©2015 Sophies Game ©2015 Produced by Melcot Music, Just Carol Compositions MCTCD022 Carols Christmas MCTCD021 Carol Williams Plays - Volume 2, Madness. MCTCD020 Carol Williams Plays MCTCD019 Mainly French MCTCD018 Hey Wurlitzer MCTCD016 Maid in China MCTCD015 Wurlitzer Plus, Pauls Cathedral San Diego MCTDVD010 TourBus 11 goes to the Compenius Organ in Denmark MCTDVD011 Carol Williams official website Spreckels Organ Society website Balboa Park San Diego, CA
15.
Flight of the Bumblebee
–
Flight of the Bumblebee is an orchestral interlude written by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov for his opera The Tale of Tsar Saltan, composed in 1899–1900. Its composition is intended to evoke the seemingly chaotic and rapidly changing flying pattern of a bumblebee. Despite the pieces being an incidental part of the opera. The piece closes Act III, Tableau 1, during which the magic Swan-Bird changes Prince Gvidon Saltanovich into an insect so that he can fly away to visit his father. Incidentally, this piece does not constitute one of the movements of the suite that Rimsky-Korsakov derived from the opera for concerts. Those familiar with the opera Tsar Saltan may recognize two leitmotifs used in the Flight, both of which are associated with Prince Gvidon from earlier in the opera. Flight of the Bumblebee is recognizable for its pace when played up to tempo. It is not so much the pitch or range of the notes that are played that challenges the musician, because of this and its complexity, it requires a great deal of skill to perform. In the Tsar Saltan suite, the version is commonly played. In the Opera version, the three-minute fifty-five-second version is performed, sergei Rachmaninovs transcription for piano features in the film Shine and is interpreted by David Helfgott. Big band trumpeter Harry James did a cover of the piece in 1941, Flight of the Bumblebee was featured, along with other compositions by Rimsky-Korsakov, in the fictional 1947 biopic Song of Scheherazade. Bumble and the Stingers reached #21 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1961, japanese band Takeshi Terauchi & Bunnys recorded an instrumental rock cover of this song on their 1967 album, Lets Go Unmei. The song was featured in the first episode of The Muppet Show, during the episode of the Internet animated series Cyanide and Happiness Ribs, the song is frequently played. The radio program The Green Hornet used Flight of the Bumblebee as its theme music, the music became so strongly identified with the show and the character that it was retained as the theme for the later TV series. This version was orchestrated by Billy May and conducted by Lionel Newman, with trumpet solo by Al Hirt and this particular version was later featured in the 2003 film Kill Bill. Progressive metal band Protest The Hero references the main motif at the end of the song Palms Read, extremes song Flight of the Wounded Bumblebee is named after the piece, although it is not based on it. Manowar bassist Joey DeMaio recorded a version titled Sting of the Bumblebee, trans-Siberian Orchestra has included the piece into the song A Last Illusion on its Beethovens Last Night album. The video game Rayman uses a version of the piece during a chase sequence in which the title character rides a mosquito
16.
Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov
–
Nikolai Andreyevich Rimsky-Korsakov was a Russian composer, and a member of the group of composers known as The Five. He was a master of orchestration, Scheherazade is an example of his frequent use of fairy tale and folk subjects. Rimsky-Korsakov believed, as did fellow composer Mily Balakirev and critic Vladimir Stasov, however, Rimsky-Korsakov appreciated Western musical techniques after he became a professor of musical composition, harmony and orchestration at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory in 1871. He undertook a rigorous program of self-education and became a master of Western methods, incorporating them alongside the influences of Mikhail Glinka. His techniques of composition and orchestration were further enriched by his exposure to the works of Richard Wagner and he wrote that he developed a passion for the ocean in childhood from reading books and hearing of his older brothers exploits in the navy. This love of the sea might have influenced him to two of his best-known orchestral works, the musical tableau Sadko and Scheherazade. Through his service as Inspector of Naval Bands, Rimsky-Korsakov expanded his knowledge of woodwind and brass playing and he passed this knowledge to his students, and also posthumously through a textbook on orchestration that was completed by his son-in-law, Maximilian Steinberg. Rimsky-Korsakov left a body of original Russian nationalist compositions. He prepared works by The Five for performance, which brought them into the classical repertoire. Rimsky-Korsakov is therefore considered the architect of what the classical music public considers the Russian style of composition. Rimsky-Korsakov was born in Tikhvin,200 kilometres east of Saint Petersburg, the father of the composer, Andrei Petrovich Rimsky-Korsakov, though born out of wedlock, went on to serve first as the vice-governor of Novgorod, and then in the Volhynian Governorate. The composers mother, Sofya Vasilevna, was the daughter of a peasant serf, the Rimsky-Korsakov family had a long line of military and naval service. Nikolais older brother Voin,22 years his senior, became a well-known navigator and he later recalled that his mother played the piano a little, and his father could play a few songs on the piano by ear. Beginning at six, he took lessons from local teachers and showed a talent for aural skills. Although he started composing by age 10, Rimsky-Korsakov preferred literature over music and he later wrote that from his reading, and tales of his brothers exploits, he developed a poetic love for the sea without ever having seen it. This love, and prompting from Voin, encouraged the 12-year-old to join the Imperial Russian Navy and he studied at the School for Mathematical and Navigational Sciences in Saint Petersburg and, at 18, took his final examination in April 1862. While at school, Rimsky-Korsakov took piano lessons from a man named Ulikh and these lessons were sanctioned by Voin, who now served as director of the school, because he hoped they would help the youth to develop social skills and overcome his shyness. Rimsky-Korsakov wrote that, while indifferent to lessons, he developed a love for music, fostered by visits to the opera and, later, Ulikh perceived that he had serious musical talent and recommended another teacher, Feodor A. Kanille
17.
United States Military Academy
–
It sits on scenic high ground overlooking the Hudson River,50 miles north of New York City. It is one of the four U. S. military service academies, the entire central campus is a national landmark and home to scores of historic sites, buildings, and monuments. The majority of the campuss Norman-style buildings are constructed from gray, the campus is a popular tourist destination complete with a large visitor center and the oldest museum in the United States Army. Candidates for admission must both apply directly to the academy and receive a nomination, usually from a member of Congress or Delegate/Resident Commissioner in the case of Washington, puerto Rico, Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and the Virgin Islands. Other nomination sources include the President and Vice President of the United States, students are officers-in-training and are referred to as cadets or collectively as the United States Corps of Cadets. Tuition for cadets is fully funded by the Army in exchange for an active duty service obligation upon graduation, approximately 1,300 cadets enter the Academy each July, with about 1,000 cadets graduating. Cadets are required to adhere to the Cadet Honor Code, which states that a cadet will not lie, cheat, steal, the academy bases a cadets leadership experience as a development of all three pillars of performance, academics, physical, and military. Most graduates are commissioned as lieutenants in the Army. Foreign cadets are commissioned into the armies of their home countries, since 1959, cadets have also been eligible to cross-commission, or request a commission in one of the other armed services, provided that they meet that services eligibility standards. Every year, a small number of cadets do this. The academys traditions have influenced other institutions because of its age and it was the first American college to have an accredited civil-engineering program and the first to have class rings, and its technical curriculum was a model for later engineering schools. West Points student body has a rank structure and lexicon. All cadets reside on campus and dine together en masse on weekdays for breakfast, the academy fields fifteen mens and nine womens National Collegiate Athletic Association sports teams. Cadets compete in one sport every fall, winter, and spring season at the intramural, club and its football team was a national power in the early and mid-20th century, winning three national championships. The Continental Army first occupied West Point, New York, on 27 January 1778, between 1778 and 1780, the Polish engineer and military hero Tadeusz Kościuszko oversaw the construction of the garrison defenses. While the fortifications at West Point were known as Fort Arnold during the war, as commander, Benedict Arnold committed his act of treason, after Arnold betrayed the patriot cause, the Army changed the name of the fortifications at West Point, New York, to Fort Clinton. With the peace after the American Revolutionary War, various ordnance, Cadets underwent training in artillery and engineering studies at the garrison since 1794. In 1801, shortly after his inauguration as president, Thomas Jefferson directed that plans be set in motion to establish at West Point the United States Military Academy and he selected Jonathan Williams to serve as its first superintendent
18.
West Point Cadet Chapel
–
The Cadet Chapel at the United States Military Academy is a place of Protestant denomination worship for many members of the United States Corps of Cadets. The chapel is an example of gothic revival architecture, with its cross-shaped floor plan, soaring arches. It hosts the largest chapel pipe organ in the world, which consists of 23,511 individual pipes, the Cadet Chapel dominates the skyline and sets the architectural mood of the academy. Designed by architect Bertram Goodhue and completed in 1910, the neogothic Cadet Chapel replaced the Old Cadet Chapel which had built in 1836. The Old Cadet Chapel was deconstructed and relocated to the entrance of the West Point Cemetery, where it stands today
19.
Music
–
Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch, rhythm, dynamics, different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. The word derives from Greek μουσική, Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as the harmony of the spheres and it is music to my ears point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, There is no noise, the creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. There are many types of music, including music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious ceremonies. For example, it can be hard to draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock and heavy metal, within the arts, music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art or as an auditory art. People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing cello in a youth orchestra, the word derives from Greek μουσική. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the music is derived from mid-13c. Musike, from Old French musique and directly from Latin musica the art of music and this is derived from the. Greek mousike of the Muses, from fem. of mousikos pertaining to the Muses, from Mousa Muse. In classical Greece, any art in which the Muses presided, Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. With the advent of recording, records of popular songs. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their songs, which serve as a self-portrait. An environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved, amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure, and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings, There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians, in community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras. However, there are many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers
20.
Greek language
–
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
21.
Manual (music)
–
A manual is a musical keyboard designed to be played with the hands, on an instrument such as a pipe organ, harpsichord, clavichord, electronic organ, or synthesizer. The term manual is used with regard to any hand keyboard on these instruments to distinguish it from the pedalboard and it is proper to use manual rather than keyboard, then, when referring to the hand keyboards on any instrument that has a pedalboard. Music written to be played only on the manuals can be designated by manualiter, organs and synthesizers can, and usually do, have more than one manual, most home instruments have two manuals, while most larger organs have two or three. Elaborate pipe and theater organs can have four or more manuals, the manuals are set into the organ console. A typical, full-size organ manual consists of five octaves, or 61 keys, some smaller electronic organs may have manuals of four octaves or less. On smaller electronic organs and synthesizers, the manuals may span fewer octaves and this arrangement encourages the organist to play the melody line on the upper manual as he plays the harmony line or chords on the lower manual. On pipe organs each manual plays a specific subset of the organs stops, synthesizers can program separate manuals to emulate sounds of various orchestral sections or instruments. On such instruments a performer can produce the sounds of an entire orchestra through his or her use of all available manuals in conjunction with the pedalboard, despite the superficial resemblance to piano keyboards, organ manuals require a very different style of playing. Organ keys often require less force to depress than piano keys, when depressed, an organ key continues to sound its note at the same volume until the organist releases the key, unlike a piano key, whose note gradually fades away. Another difference is that of dynamic control, while the piano note, then, can only decay, the organ note may increase in volume or undergo other dynamic changes. All of these mean that both the technique of organ playing and the resulting music are quite different from those of the piano. Nevertheless, the trained pianist may play a basic organ repertoire with little difficulty, although more advanced organ music will require specialized training, theatre pipe organs use the nomenclature Great, Accompaniment, Solo, Bombarde, and Orchestral. Devices known as couplers are available to link the manuals
22.
Musical keyboard
–
A musical keyboard is the set of adjacent depressible levers or keys on a musical instrument. Depressing a key on the causes the instrument to produce sounds, either by mechanically striking a string or tine, plucking a string, causing air to flow through a pipe. On electric and electronic keyboards, depressing a key connects a circuit, since the most commonly encountered keyboard instrument is the piano, the keyboard layout is often referred to as the piano keyboard. The twelve notes of the Western musical scale are laid out with the lowest note on the left, because these keys were traditionally covered in ivory they are often called the white notes or white keys. The keys for the remaining five notes—which are not part of the C major scale— are raised, because these keys receive less wear, they are often made of black colored wood and called the black notes or black keys. The pattern repeats at the interval of an octave, the arrangement of longer keys for C major with intervening, shorter keys for the intermediate semitones dates to the 15th century. The break was between middle C and C-sharp, or outside of Iberia between B and C, broken keyboards reappeared in 1842 with the harmonium, the split occurring at E4/F4. The reverse-colored keys on Hammond organs such as the B3, C3, the chromatic compass of keyboard instruments has tended to increase. Harpsichords often extended over five octaves in the 18th century, while most pianos manufactured since about 1870 have 88 keys, some modern pianos have even more notes. While modern synthesizer keyboards commonly have either 61,76 or 88 keys, organs normally have 61 keys per manual, though some spinet models have 44 or 49. An organ pedalboard is a keyboard with long pedals that are played by the organists feet, pedalboards vary in size from 12 to 32 notes. In a typical layout, black note keys have uniform width. In the larger gaps between the keys, the width of the natural notes C, D and E differ slightly from the width of keys F, G, A and B. This allows close to uniform spacing of 12 keys per octave while maintaining uniformity of seven natural keys per octave, over the last three hundred years, the octave span distance found on historical keyboard instruments has ranged from as little as 125 mm to as much as 170 mm. Several reduced-size standards have been proposed and marketed, a 15/16 size and the 7/8 DS Standard keyboard developed by Christopher Donison in the 1970s and developed and marketed by Steinbuhler & Company. There have been variations in the design of the keyboard to address technical and musical issues, thus, an octave would have eight white keys and only four black keys. During the sixteenth century, when instruments were tuned in meantone temperament, some harpsichords were constructed with the G♯. The broken octave, a variation of the short octave
23.
Pedal keyboard
–
A pedalboard is a keyboard played with the feet that is usually used to produce the low-pitched bass line of a piece of music. Training in pedal technique is part of standard organ pedagogy in church music, pedalboards are found at the base of the console of most pipe organs, theatre organs, and electronic organs. Standalone pedalboards such as the 1970s-era Moog Taurus bass pedals are used in progressive rock. In the 21st century, MIDI pedalboard controllers are used with synthesizers, electronic Hammond-style organs, pedalboards are also used with pedal pianos and with some harpsichords, clavichords, and carillons. The first use of pedals on an organ grew out of the need to hold bass drone notes. Indeed, the pedal point, which refers to a prolonged bass tone under changing upper harmonies, derives from the use of the organ pedalboard to hold sustained bass notes. These earliest pedals were wooden stubs nicknamed mushrooms which were placed at the height of the feet and these pedals, which used simple pulldowns connected directly to the manual keys, are found in organs dating to the 13th century. The pedals on French organs were composed of short stubs of wood projecting out of the floor which were mounted in pedalboards that could be flat or tilted. Organists were unable to play anything but simple lines or slow-moving plainsong melodies on these short stub-type pedals. Organist E. Power Biggs, in the notes for his album Organs of Spain noted that One can learn to play them. There were two used for the accidental notes. The first approach can be seen in the 1361 Halberstadt organ, other organs positioned the black keys on the same level and depth as the white keys. The first pedal keyboards only had three or four notes, eventually, organ designers augmented this range by using eight notes, an approach now called a short octave keyboard, because it does not include accidental notes such as C♯, D♯, F♯, G♯, and A♯. The 17th-century north German organ builder Arp Schnitger used an F♯ and G♯ in the lowest octave of the manuals and pedal keyboards, from the 16th to 18th centuries, short octave keyboards were also used in the lowest octave of upper manual keyboards. By the 14th century, organ designers were building separate windchests for the pedal division and these windchests were often built into tall structures called organ towers. Until the 15th century, most pedal keyboards only triggered the existing Hauptwerk pipes already used by the manual keyboards. Beginning in the 15th century, some organ designers began giving pedal keyboards their own set of pipes, in the 15th and 16th centuries, the pedal division usually consisted of a few 8′ ranks and a single 16′ rank. By the early 17th century, pedal divisions became more complex, nevertheless, the pedal division was usually inconsistent from one country to another
24.
Ctesibius
–
Ctesibius or Ktesibios or Tesibius was a Greek inventor and mathematician in Alexandria, Ptolemaic Egypt. He wrote the first treatises on the science of compressed air and this, in combination with his work on the elasticity of air On pneumatics, earned him the title of father of pneumatics. None of his work has survived, including his Memorabilia. Ctesibius was probably the first head of the Museum of Alexandria, very little is known of his life but his inventions were well known. It is said that his first career was as a barber, during his time as a barber, he invented a counterweight-adjustable mirror. His other inventions include the hydraulis, an organ that is considered the precursor of the modern pipe organ. Ctesibius described one of the first force pumps for producing a jet of water, or for lifting water from wells, the principle of the siphon has also been attributed to him. According to Diogenes Laertius, Ctesibius was miserably poor, proclus and Hero of Alexandria also mention him
25.
Water organ
–
The water organ or hydraulic organ is a type of pipe organ blown by air, where the power source pushing the air is derived by water from a natural source or by a manual pump. Consequently, the organ lacks a bellows, blower, or compressor. The hydraulic organ is often confused with the hydraulis. The hydraulis is the name of a Greek instrument created by Ctesibius of Alexandria, the hydraulis has a reservoir of air which is inserted into a cistern of water. The air is pushed into the reservoir with hand pumps, the reservoir is open on the bottom, allowing water to maintain the pressure on the air as the air supply fluctuates from either the pumps pushing more air in, or the pipes letting air out. The hydraulis in ancient Greek is often imagined as an automatic organ, one of the oldest automatic instruments known is the automatic flute player invented by Banū Mūsā brothers in 9th-century Arabia. A hydraulis is a type of pipe organ that operated by converting the dynamic energy of water into air pressure to drive the pipes. Hence its name hydraulis, literally water pipe and it is attributed to the Hellenistic scientist Ctesibius of Alexandria, an engineer of the 3rd century BC. The hydraulis was the worlds first keyboard instrument and was, in fact, both water and air arrive together in the camera aeolis. Here, water and air separate and the air is driven into a wind-trunk on top of the camera aeolis. Two perforated ‘splash plates’ or ‘diaphragms’ prevent water spray from getting into the organ pipes, the water, having been separated from the air, leaves the camera aeolis at the same rate as it enters. It then drives a water wheel, which in turn drives the musical cylinder, to start the organ, the tap above the entry pipe is turned on and, given a continuous flow of water, the organ plays until the tap is closed again. Many water organs had simple water-pressure regulating devices, at the Palazzo del Quirinale, the water flows from a hilltop spring, coursing through the palace itself into a stabilizing ‘room’ some 18 metres above the camera aeolis in the organ grotto. This drop provides sufficient wind to power the restored six-stop instrument, among Renaissance writers on the water organ, Salomon de Caus was particularly informative. It also includes an example of music for water organ. Water organs were described in the writings of the famous Ctesibius, Philo of Byzantium. Like the water clocks of Platos time, they were not regarded as playthings but might have had a significance in Greek philosophy. Hydraulically blown organ pipes were used to imitate birdsong, and musicologists Susi Jeans, ord-Hume have suggested that it was used to create the sounds of the Vocal Memnon
26.
Byzantine Empire
–
It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empires Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the Empires official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius, the Empires military, the borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Maurice, the Empires eastern frontier was expanded, in a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia, the Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire, the term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre, and in 1680 of Du Canges Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, however, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world. The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans, Romania, the Roman Republic, Graikia, and also as Rhōmais. The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika and Graikika. The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm, the Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These territories were home to different cultural groups, both urban populations and rural populations. The West also suffered heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD
27.
Classical music
–
Classical music is art music produced or rooted in the traditions of Western music, including both liturgical and secular music. The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1550 and 1900, which is known as the common-practice period, Western staff notation is used by composers to indicate to the performer the pitches, tempo, meter and rhythms for a piece of music. This can leave less room for such as improvisation and ad libitum ornamentation. The term classical music did not appear until the early 19th century, the earliest reference to classical music recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is from about 1836. This score typically determines details of rhythm, pitch, and, the written quality of the music has enabled a high level of complexity within them, J. S. The use of written notation also preserves a record of the works, Musical notation enables 2000s-era performers to sing a choral work from the 1300s Renaissance era or a 1700s Baroque concerto with many of the features of the music being reproduced. That said, the score does not provide complete and exact instructions on how to perform a historical work, even if the tempo is written with an Italian instruction, we do not know exactly how fast the piece should be played. Bach was particularly noted for his complex improvisations, during the Classical era, the composer-performer Mozart was noted for his ability to improvise melodies in different styles. During the Classical era, some virtuoso soloists would improvise the cadenza sections of a concerto, during the Romantic era, Beethoven would improvise at the piano. The instruments currently used in most classical music were largely invented before the mid-19th century and they consist of the instruments found in an orchestra or in a concert band, together with several other solo instruments. The symphony orchestra is the most widely known medium for music and includes members of the string, woodwind, brass. The concert band consists of members of the woodwind, brass and it generally has a larger variety and number of woodwind and brass instruments than the orchestra but does not have a string section. However, many bands use a double bass. Many of the used to perform medieval music still exist. Medieval instruments included the flute, the recorder and plucked string instruments like the lute. As well, early versions of the organ, fiddle, Medieval instruments in Europe had most commonly been used singly, often self accompanied with a drone note, or occasionally in parts. From at least as early as the 13th century through the 15th century there was a division of instruments into haut, during the earlier medieval period, the vocal music from the liturgical genre, predominantly Gregorian chant, was monophonic, using a single, unaccompanied vocal melody line. Polyphonic vocal genres, which used multiple independent vocal melodies, began to develop during the medieval era, becoming prevalent by the later 13th
28.
Seville Cathedral
–
The Cathedral of Saint Mary of the See, better known as Seville Cathedral, is a Roman Catholic cathedral in Seville. It is the largest Gothic cathedral and the third-largest church in the world. It is also the largest cathedral in the world, as the two churches, the Basilica of the National Shrine of Our Lady of Aparecida and St. Peters Basilica, are not the seats of bishops. It was registered in 1987 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, along with the Alcázar palace complex, See refers to the episcopal see, i. e. the bishops ecclesiastical jurisdiction. After its completion in the early 16th century, the Seville Cathedral supplanted Hagia Sophia as the largest cathedral in the world, the cathedral is also the burial site of Christopher Columbus. The Archbishops Palace is located on the side of the cathedral. Seville Cathedral was built to demonstrate the wealth, as it had become a major trading center in the years after the Reconquista in 1248. In July 1401 it was decided to build a new cathedral, according to local oral tradition, the members of the cathedral chapter said, Hagamos una Iglesia tan hermosa y tan grandiosa que los que la vieren labrada nos tengan por locos. Construction began in 1402 and continued until 1506, the clergy of the parish gave half their stipends to pay for architects, artists, stained glass artisans, masons, carvers, craftsman and labourers and other expenses. Five years after construction ended, in 1511, the dome collapsed, the dome again collapsed in 1888, and work was still being performed on the dome until at least 1903. The 1888 collapse occurred due to an earthquake and resulted in the destruction of every precious object below the dome at that time, the interior has the longest nave of any cathedral in Spain. The central nave rises to a height of 42 meters and is decorated with a large quantity of gilding. This altarpiece was the work of a single craftsman, Pierre Dancart. The builders used some columns and other elements from the ancient mosque, including its minaret, the Giralda is the bell tower of the Cathedral of Seville. Its height is 343 feet, and its base is 23 feet above sea level and 44 feet long per side. The Giralda is the minaret of the mosque that stood on the site under Muslim rule. It was converted into a tower for the cathedral after the Reconquista. It was registered in 1987 as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, the tower is 104.5 m in height and was one of the most important symbols in the medieval city
29.
Organ pipe
–
An organ pipe is a sound-producing element of the pipe organ that resonates at a specific pitch when pressurized air is driven through it. Each pipe is tuned to a note of the musical scale. A set of pipes of similar timbre tuned to a scale is known as a rank or a stop. Organ pipes are made out of either metal or wood. Very rarely, glass, porcelain, plastic, paper, Papier-mâché, a historical organ in the Philippines has pipes made exclusively of bamboo. Metal pipes are made of lead, for increased rigidity it is alloyed with tin along with trace amounts of antimony. The percentage of each metal in the influences the characteristics of the resulting pipe. A high proportion of tin results in a brighter colouring. In addition, high amounts of tin give a gleaming and long-lasting polish, the cost of each metal is also a factor, as tin is more expensive than lead. Cost considerations may also lead to the use of the inferior rolled zinc especially for the tones that take a lot of material. In addition, pipes have been made of metals, including copper, aluminium, gold electroplate, silver, brass. Metal pipes are made by first casting the desired lead alloy onto a long flat surface. Once the metal cools, it is cut into pieces, which are rolled into shapes around molds called mandrels. Thus, the cross-section of a pipe is usually circular. The low melting point, solderability and malleability of the metal makes the construction of pipes relatively easy. Using screws and glue, the pipes are assembled from pieces of various shapes and sizes. In contrast with the circular cross-section of a pipe, the cross-section of a wooden pipe is most commonly square or rectangular. Glass pipes have been created using warm glass and stained glass techniques by Xaver Wilhelmy, three Wilhelmy glass ranks exist in the United States, two in a private collection in West Virginia and one in a private collection in Virginia
30.
Organ stop
–
An organ stop is a component of a pipe organ that admits pressurized air to a set of organ pipes. Its name comes from the fact that stops can be used selectively by the organist, some can be on, the term can also refer to the control that operates this mechanism, commonly called a stop tab, stop knob, or drawknob. On electric or electronic organs that imitate a pipe organ, the terms are often used, with the exception of the Hammond organ and clonewheel organs. The term is sometimes used as a synonym for register. Registration is the art of combining stops, the phrase pull out all the stops has entered general usage, for deploying all available means to pursue a goal. Organ pipes are organized within the organ according to note and timbre. A set of pipes producing the same timbre for each note is called a rank, while each key on a pipe organ controls a note which may be sounded by different ranks of pipes, alone or in combination. The use of stops enables the organist to selectively turn off certain ranks in order to produce different combinations of sounds, a stop may be linked to a single rank, or to multiple ranks. While nowadays one speaks of drawing a stop to select a particular rank or set of ranks, when the organist desires a rank to sound, he or she operates the corresponding control at the console, allowing wind to flow to the pipes. Likewise, the organist can deny wind to the pipes by operating the control in the opposite direction. Common stop controls include stop knobs, which move in and out of the console, and stop tabs, some organs, particularly smaller historical organs from England or Spain, feature divided registers, in which there are two stop knobs for certain ranks. One stop knob will control the upper portion of the keyboard, over the course of the history of the pipe organ, there have been several different designs by which stops are actuated. In the longest-standing design, known as the slider chest, there is a strip of material called a slider which fits underneath a given rank of pipes, the slider has small holes drilled in it, one for each pipe in the rank. When the stop is set such that pipes are inactive, the holes are misaligned with the pipes, when the stop is set such that the pipes are active, the slider moves over, aligning the holes with the pipes, allowing air to reach them. Because the slider chest was developed before the advent of electricity, many organs originally built with mechanical actuators have been retrofitted with electric actuators. Other common designs include the spring chest, the valve chest. The term unification refers to the practice of expanding the resources of an organ without adding extra pipes by making notes available to different stops from the same rank of pipes. For example, an 8′ Gedeckt may also be available as a 4′ Gedeckt
31.
Registration (organ)
–
Registration is the technique of choosing and combining the stops of a pipe organ in order to produce a particular sound. Registration can also refer to a combination of stops, which may be recalled through combination action. The pitch produced by a pipe is a function of its length, an organ stop may be tuned to sound the pitch normally associated with the key that is pressed, or it may speak at a fixed interval above or below this pitch. The pitch of a rank of pipes is denoted by a number on the stop knob, a stop that speaks at unison pitch is known as an 8 stop. This nomenclature refers to the length of the longest pipe in that rank. The octave sounded by a pipe is inversely exponentially proportional to its length. Likewise, a 2 stop speaks exactly one octave higher than a 4 stop, conversely, a 16 stop speaks exactly one octave below an 8 stop, and a 32′ stop speaks exactly one octave below a 16 stop. Lengths used in actual organs include 64,32,16,8,4,2,1, example, Ranks that do not speak at a unison or octave pitch, but rather at a non-octave interval to the unison pitch, are called mutation stops. Because they sound at intervals other than an octave above or below the sound, they are rarely used on their own, rather. The length label of a stop gives the answer as to what pitch the rank sounds. For example, a stop labeled 2 2⁄3 sounds at the interval of a twelfth above unison pitch, mutations usually sound at pitches in the harmonic series of the fundamental. In some large organs, non harmonic mutations are used infrequently, such mutations that sound at the fifth just above or below the fundamental, can create the impression of a stop an octave lower than the fundamental, especially when low frequencies are involved. Whenever possible or practical, mutations are tuned a mean tone interval away from the fundamental, certain stops called mixtures contain multiple ranks of pipes sounding at consecutive octaves and fifths above unison pitch. The number of ranks in a mixture is denoted by a Roman numeral on the knob, for example. So for every key pressed, five different pipes sound, in the seventeenth century, national styles of organ building began to emerge. Organs had certain characteristics that were common to organs in the country in which they were built. Registration techniques developed that mirrored the characteristics in the organs of each national style, a combination action is a system designed to capture specific organ registrations to be recalled instantaneously by the player while they are playing. Because of this, it is referred to as a capture system
32.
Keyboard expression
–
Acoustic pianos, such as upright and grand pianos, are velocity-sensitive—the faster the key strike, the harder the hammer hits the strings. Baroque-style clavichords and professional synthesizers are after-touch-sensitive—applied force on the key after the initial strike produces effects such as vibrato or swells in volume, tracker pipe organs and electronic organs are displacement-sensitive—partly depressing a key produces a quieter tone. The piano, being velocity-sensitive, responds to the speed of the key-press in how fast the hammers strike the strings, several piano predecessors, such as the harpsichord, were not velocity-sensitive like the piano. To avoid this confusion, pressure sensitivity is often, perhaps usually, the MIDI standard supports both velocity and aftertouch. In general, only electronic keyboards implement true pressure sensitivity. Some manufacturers advertising incorrectly uses the term touch-sensitive for velocity sensitivity, even on a touch-sensitive keyboard, not all digital instrument sounds may incorporate velocity sensitivity into the sounds envelope. For example, the pipe organ sound often has no velocity-sensitive effects. The manufacturers and distributors of some inferior keyboards incorrectly describe their purely velocity-sensitive instruments as pressure-sensitive, the clavichord and some electronic keyboards also respond to the amount of force applied after initial impact—they are pressure-sensitive. This can be used by a skilled player to slightly correct the intonation of the notes when playing on a clavichord. Unlike in an action, the tangent does not rebound from the string, rather, it stays in contact with the string as long as the key is held. The volume of the note can be changed by striking harder or softer, when the key is released, the tangent loses contact with the string and the vibration of the string is silenced by strips of damping cloth. By applying a pressure up and down the key with the finger. While the vibrato on fretless string instruments such as the violin typically oscillates in pitch both above and below the note, clavichord bebung only produce pitches above the note. Sheet music does not often explicitly indicate bebung, composers generally let players apply bebung at their discretion. When sheet music does indicate bebung, it appears as a series of dots above or below a note, on electronic keyboards and synthesizers, pressure sensitivity is usually called aftertouch. A minority of instruments have polyphonic aftertouch, in each individual note has its own sensor for pressure that enables differing usage of aftertouch for different notes. Aftertouch sensors detect whether the musician is continuing to exert pressure after the strike of the key. The aftertouch feature allows players to change the tone or sound of a note after it is struck
33.
Dynamics (music)
–
In music, dynamics are instructions in musical notation to the performer about the loudness at which to play a note or phrase. More generally, dynamics may also include aspects of the execution of a given piece. The two basic dynamic indications in music are, p or piano, meaning soft, more subtle degrees of loudness or softness are indicated by, mp, standing for mezzo-piano, meaning half soft. Mf, standing for mezzo-forte, meaning half loud, più p, standing for più piano and meaning softer. Più f, standing for più forte and meaning louder, use of up to three consecutive fs or ps is also common, pp, standing for pianissimo and meaning very soft. Ff, standing for fortissimo and meaning very loud, ppp, standing for pianississimo and meaning very very soft. Fff, standing for fortississimo and meaning very loud. Some pieces contain dynamic designations with more than three consecutive fs or ps, in Holsts The Planets, ffff occurs twice in Mars and once in Uranus often punctuated by organ and fff occurs several times throughout the work. It also appears in Heitor Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brasileiras No,4, and in Liszts Fantasy and Fugue on the chorale Ad nos, ad salutarem undam. Igor Stravinsky used ffff at the end of the finale of the Firebird Suite, ffff is also found in a prelude by Rachmaninoff, op. 3-2. Shostakovich even went as loud as fffff in his fourth symphony, gustav Mahler, in the third movement of his Seventh Symphony, gives the celli and basses a marking of fffff, along with a footnote directing pluck so hard that the strings hit the wood. On another extreme, Carl Nielsen, in the movement of his Symphony No. 5, marked a passage for woodwinds a diminuendo to ppppp, another more extreme dynamic is in György Ligetis Études No. 13, which has at one point a ffffff and progresses to a ffffffff, in the baritone passage Era la notte from his opera Otello, Verdi uses pppp. Steane and others suggest that such markings are in reality a strong reminder to less than subtle singers to at least sing softly rather than an instruction to the singer actually to attempt a pppp, dynamic indications of this kind are relative, not absolute. Mp does not indicate a level of volume, it merely indicates that music in a passage so marked should be a little louder than p. Interpretations of dynamic levels are mostly to the performer, in the Barber Piano Nocturne. Another instance of performers discretion in this piece occurs when the hand is shown to crescendo to a f
34.
Swell box
–
In an organ, Swell refers to the division whose pipes are enclosed in a swell box. This box has an opening covered with moveable shades or shutters which resemble heavy venetian blinds. When open, these allow the pipes sounds to travel freely from the box to the room. When closed, most of the sound is contained in the box, thus the moveable shades provide a means of adjusting the loudness of the sound, and perhaps more importantly, of gradual crescendo and decrescendo. The reason this arrangement is necessary is that a given pipe only plays at one given loudness, if the wind pressure were varied in an attempt to change the loudness, the pitch, tone quality, attack and decay and other characteristics would also change. In fact, organbuilders have to go to a lot of trouble to provide a steady, so the only way to gradually increase or decrease the loudness of a pipe is to enclose it in a swell box, and then to gradually open or close the shutters. No matter how a box is designed, the sound of the pipes is compromised by enclosing them. Since much of the best organ music was written before gradual crescendo and decrescendo effects became common, on the other hand, building an organ with no swell box - and thus unable to play later music - would also seem to be an unfortunate compromise. Fortunately, the kinds of music which are least compatible with enclosed pipes are precisely the kinds where gradual crescendo and dimenuendo are not required
35.
Organ building
–
Organ building is the profession of designing, building, restoring and maintaining pipe organs. After manufacture of all parts of a new organ, the pipes must be pre-tuned and voiced to the desired pitch, the instrument is then usually partly or wholly assembled in the workshop, dismantled, and reassembled on-site, after which the pipes receive a final tuning and voicing. Organ builders also provide maintenance, which includes adjustment of pipes and maintenance of the action. Older organs may also be restored to a state, including recreation of damaged and missing parts using historically accurate materials. In some countries, including Germany, Switzerland, and Norway, list of pipe organ builders Poul-Gerhard Andersen. New York, Oxford / London, Allen & Unwin,1969, the Art of Organ-Building, A Comprehensive Historical, Theoretical, and Practical Treatise on the Tonal Appointment and Mechanical Construction of Concert-Room, Church, and Chamber Organs. OCLC225672 Walter and Thomas Lewis, modern Organ Building, Practical Explanation and Description of Organ Construction with Especial Regard to Pneumatic Action and Chapters on Tuning, Voicing, etc. 3rd ed. London, Reeves,1939, repr, Die Orgel und ihr Bau, ein systematisches Handbuch für Cantoren, Organisten, Schullehrer, Musikstudirende &c. so wie für Geistliche, Kirchenvorsteher und alle Freunde der Orgel und des Orgelspiels. The Organ and its Construction, A Systematic Handbook for Organists, Organ Builders, da Capo Press music reprint series. Die Situation des Orgelbaus in Deutschland zu Beginn des 21, in, Die Orgel zwischen Gestern und Morgen. Bericht über das zehnte Colloquium der Walcker-Stiftung für orgelwissenschaftliche Forschung 23, Siegen, Universitätsbibliothek Siegen,2011, pp. 14–15 Lawrence I. A Short History of the Organ Revival
36.
Positive organ
–
A positive organ is a small, usually one-manual, pipe organ that is built to be more or less mobile. It was common in sacred and secular music between the 10th and the 18th centuries, in chapels and small churches, as a chamber organ, many positives, both of the box and cupboard types, can be divided into upper and lower parts to be more easily moved. The lower part then usually contains the bellows, blower and/or treadle, wheels, casters or a custom-made hand truck are other aids to mobility, which have become vastly more common in modern times. Positive organs typically exhibit few stops due to their size and portable nature. Somewhat larger positives may also have a 2-2/3′ and/or other mutation stop and/or a small mixture, still larger positives may have a 4′ principal or a second 8′ stop, the latter often treble-only. More complex examples feature a keyboard, which allows each stop to be activated separately in the treble. This makes it possible to play a melody and an accompaniment simultaneously on different registrations. Most positives have just one keyboard and no pedals. The positive organ differs from the organ in that it is larger and is not played while strapped at a right angle to the performers body. It also has a keyboard, while a portative may have as few as 12 or 13 notes. The positive is also not to be confused with the regal, a well-known instance of an early positive or portable organ of the 4th century occurs on the obelisk erected to the memory of Theodosius I on his death in AD395. Among the illuminated manuscripts of the British Museum there are many miniatures representing interesting varieties of the organ of the Middle Ages. All of the 14th century, and Add,17280, both of the 15th century. In the Renaissance and Baroque periods, positive organs were used at many kinds of civil, the Positive is also a traditional department of a large organ, often placed behind the organists back and more or less the size of a separate Positive organ. In England it became known as a Chair organ, later to be corrupted into the Choir division found on Romantic, since the Orgelbewegung, also the German term Ruckpositiv can be encountered in English. Orgelkids - a project to educate children about building and playing pipe organs and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Picture of a new 2009 positive organ available for sale or rent by New England Organbuilders of Connecticut Picture of a seventeenth century positive organ at the Vienna Museum of Art History
37.
Portative organ
–
The performer manipulates the bellows with one hand and fingers the keys with the other. The portative organ lacks a reservoir to retain a supply of wind, the instrument was commonly used in European secular music from the twelfth to the sixteenth centuries. The portative is constructed simply in order to make it as portable as possible, the pipes are arranged on a small rectangular windchest and supplied with wind by one or two bellows placed at the back, in front or at the right side of the instrument. The row of pipes is supported by posts at either end, the simplest style of keyboard on the portative consists of one slider for each pipe. When a slider is pushed in, the corresponding pipe sounds, the slider is restored to its normal position by a horn spring. Some instruments use the reverse of this action, with keys featuring knobs or handles, in principle, the portative is a smaller instrument than the positive organ, which features more ranks of pipes and a larger keyboard. The portative also should not be confused with the regal, a keyboard instrument that contains a rank of short-length reed pipes instead of flue pipes. Towards the middle of the century, miniatures of illuminated manuscripts depict portatives with modern. An example can be seen in the Spanish manuscript known as the Cantigas de Santa Maria and it is evident from the position of the organists thumb in these miniatures that the keys are pressed down to make the notes sound. There are nine pipes and nine keys, which is sufficient for a C-major diatonic scale of one octave with an added B-flat, from the description of these remains by C. F. The small instrument often taken for a syrinx on a medallion of Sallust in the Cabinet Impérial de France in Paris may be meant for a miniature portative. Positive organ Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Schlesinger. Modern portative organs Portative organs, Organetti Virtual portative under GrandOrgue
38.
Pump organ
–
The pump organ, reed organ, harmonium, or melodeon is a type of free-reed organ that generates sound as air flows past a vibrating piece of thin metal in a frame. The piece of metal is called a reed, the finer instruments have a unique tone, and the cabinets of those intended for churches and affluent homes were often excellent pieces of furniture. Several million free-reed organs and melodeons were made in the USA, during this time Estey Organ and Mason & Hamlin were popular manufacturers. The harmoniums design incorporates free reeds and derives from the earlier regal, a harmonium-like instrument was exhibited by Gabriel Joseph Grenié in 1810. He called it an orgue expressif, because his instrument was capable of greater expression, alexandre Debain improved Greniés instrument and gave it the name harmonium when he patented his version in 1840. There was concurrent development of similar instruments, beginning in 1885, the firm of Mason & Hamlin, of Boston made their instruments with the suction bellows, and this method of construction soon superseded all others in America. Harmoniums reached the height of their popularity in the West in the late 19th, an added attraction of the harmonium in tropical regions was that the instrument held its tune regardless of heat and humidity, unlike the piano. This export market was lucrative for manufacturers to produce harmoniums with cases impregnated with chemicals to prevent woodworm. At the peak of the instruments Western popularity around 1900, a variety of styles of harmoniums were being produced. These ranged from simple models with plain cases and only four or five stops, up to large instruments with ornate cases, up to a dozen stops, expensive harmoniums were often built to resemble pipe organs, with ranks of fake pipes attached to the top of the instrument. Small numbers of harmoniums were built with two manuals, some were even built with pedal keyboards, which required the use of an assistant to run the bellows or, for some of the later models, an electrical pump. The invention of the organ in the mid-1930s spelled the end of the harmoniums success in the West. By this time, harmoniums had reached high levels of complexity, not only through the need to provide instruments with a greater tonal range. The last mass-producer of harmoniums in North America was the Estey company, which ceased manufacture in the mid-1950s, as the existing stock of instruments aged and spare parts became hard to find, more and more were either scrapped or sold. It was not uncommon for harmoniums to be modernised by having electric blowers fitted, the majority of Western harmoniums today are in the hands of enthusiasts, though the instrument remains popular in South Asia. Modern electronic keyboards can emulate the sound of the pump organ, the acoustical effects described below are a result of the free-reed mechanism. Therefore, they are identical for the Western and Indian harmoniums. And as its vibrators also admit of a delicate and durable tuning and this arrangement was difficult to play on
39.
Accordion
–
Accordions are a family of box-shaped musical instruments of the bellows-driven free-reed aerophone type, colloquially referred to as a squeezebox. A person who plays the accordion is called an accordionist, the concertina and bandoneón are related, the harmonium and American reed organ are in the same family. The instrument is played by compressing or expanding the bellows while pressing buttons or keys, causing pallets to open and these vibrate to produce sound inside the body. Valves on opposing reeds of each note are used to make the instruments reeds sound louder without air leaking from each reed block. The performer normally plays the melody on buttons or keys on the manual. The accordion is widely spread across the world, nevertheless, in Europe and North America, some popular music acts also make use of the instrument. Additionally, the accordion is used in cajun, zydeco, jazz music. The piano accordion is the official city instrument of San Francisco, the oldest name for this group of instruments is harmonika, from the Greek harmonikos, meaning harmonic, musical. Today, native versions of the accordion are more common. These names refer to the type of accordion patented by Cyrill Demian, accordions have many configurations and types. Similar to a bow, the production of sound in an accordion is in direct proportion to the motion of the player. The bellows is located between the right- and left-hand manuals, and is made from pleated layers of cloth and cardboard, with added leather and metal. It is used to pressure and vacuum, driving air across the internal reeds and producing sound by their vibration. These boxes house reed chambers for the right- and left-hand manuals, each side has grilles in order to facilitate the transmission of air in and out of the instrument, and to allow the sound to better project. The grille for the manual is usually larger and is often shaped for decorative purposes. The right-hand manual is used for playing the melody and the left-hand manual for playing the accompaniment. The manual mechanism of the instrument either enables the air flow, or disables it, the different types have varying components. All instruments have reed ranks of some format, the most typical accordion is the piano accordion, which is used for many musical genres
40.
Harmonica
–
There are many types of harmonica, including diatonic, chromatic, tremolo, octave, orchestral, and bass versions. A harmonica is played by using the mouth to direct air into or out of one or more holes along a mouthpiece, behind each hole is a chamber containing at least one reed. A harmonica reed is a flat elongated spring typically made of brass, stainless steel, or bronze, when the free end is made to vibrate by the players air, it alternately blocks and unblocks the airway to produce sound. Reeds are pre-tuned to individual pitches, tuning may involve changing a reeds length, the weight near its free end, or the stiffness near its fixed end. Longer, heavier and springier reeds produce deeper, lower sounds, an important technique in performance is bending, causing a drop in pitch by making embouchure adjustments. Such two-reed pitch changes actually involve sound production by the normally silent reed, the basic parts of the harmonica are the comb, reed plates and cover plates. The comb is the body of the instrument, which. The term comb may originate from the similarity between this part of a harmonica and a hair comb, Harmonica combs were traditionally made from wood but now are also made from plastic or metal. Some modern and experimental designs are complex in the way that they direct the air. There is dispute among players about whether comb material affects the tone of a harmonica, among those saying yes are those who are convinced by their ears. Few dispute, however, that comb surface smoothness and air-tightness when mated with the reedplates can greatly affect tone, the main advantage of a particular comb material over another one is its durability. In particular, a comb can absorb moisture from the players breath. This can cause the comb to expand slightly, making the instrument uncomfortable to play, various types of wood and treatments have been devised to reduce the degree of this problem. Much effort is devoted by serious players to restoring wood combs, some players used to soak wooden-combed harmonicas in water to cause a slight expansion, which they intended to make the seal between the comb, reed plates and covers more airtight. Modern wooden-combed harmonicas are less prone to swelling and contracting, players still dip harmonicas in water for the way it affects tone and ease of bending notes. The reed plate is a grouping of several reeds in a single housing, the reeds are usually made of brass, but steel, aluminium and plastic are occasionally used. Individual reeds are usually riveted to the plate, but they may also be welded or screwed in place. Reeds fixed on the side of the reed plate respond to blowing
41.
Free reed aerophone
–
A free reed aerophone is a musical instrument that produces sound as air flows past a vibrating reed in a frame. Air pressure is generated by breath or with a bellows. The following illustrations depict the type of reed typical of harmonicas, pitch pipes, accordions, one side of the reed frame is omitted from the images for clarity, in reality, the frame completely encloses the reed. Airflow over one side of the reed creates an area of low pressure on that side, the reed frame is constructed so that the flexing of the reed obstructs the airflow, which reduces or eliminates the low pressure area and allows the reed to flex back. Each time the reed passes through the frame, it interrupts air flow and these rapid, periodic interruptions of the air flow create the audible vibrations perceived by the listener. Of secondary importance to the pitch are the dimensions of the chamber in which the reed is fitted. As an exception, the pitch of the Chinese bawu and hulusi are determined by fingering recorder-like tone holes along the instrument body, various free reed instruments appear to have been invented since antiquity, but were unknown in the West until the early modern period. The most likely precursor to free reed aerophones is the Jews harp, an instrument known to many cultures throughout the world, in this instrument, the main sound producer is the vibrating reed tongue itself, rather than the air flow. Among the ancient instruments, the khene of Laos, the shēng of China, the sheng was traditionally made with bamboo pipes, and was first mentioned in the Shi Jing of the Zhou Dynasty. The Chinese sheng is considered the ancestor of the harmonica, harmonium, concertina, accordion, a free reed organ was invented in the Arab world in the 13th century, while the German Heinrich Traxdorf of Nuremberg built one around 1460 AD. It is thought that the classical Chinese sheng traveled west through Russia during the 19th century and it has been claimed that this inspired a series of inventions in the early 19th century that were the foundation of the development of the modern free reeds. At Copenhagen, one of instruments with brass pipes and free reeds in-caved into the sides of this pips inspired the organ builder Mr. Kirsnick to fit similar reeds into portable organs. 1880 Kirsnick moved to Saint Petersburg improved this new organ pipes to adjustable pitch with a hook, christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein built also his speaking machine in Copenhagen and he was in contact with Mr. Kirsnick. Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein got an award for the machine in Petersburg and his machine or a copy of this machine came to Paris very shortly after 1880. He also held lessons at universities and did all to promote this new type of reeds, not only in German-speaking regions of Europe. The actual work was done by different organ builders, and very many people ware involved, in the two years from 1802 to 1804 in Vienna, he spent time with Johann Nepomuk Mälzel and Mälzel changed the type of reeds used in his Panharmonicon to free reed pipes. Vogler, Maelzel and Friedrich Kaufmann were then at the time in Paris in 1807. Friedrich Kaufmann, a maker, went back home to Dresden
42.
Loudspeaker
–
A loudspeaker is an electroacoustic transducer, which converts an electrical audio signal into a corresponding sound. The most widely used type of speaker in the 2010s is the speaker, invented in 1925 by Edward W. Kellogg. The dynamic speaker operates on the basic principle as a dynamic microphone. Besides this most common method, there are several technologies that can be used to convert an electrical signal into sound. The sound source must be amplified or strengthened with a power amplifier before the signal is sent to the speaker. Speakers are typically housed in an enclosure or speaker cabinet which is often a rectangular or square box made of wood or sometimes plastic. The enclosures materials and design play an important role in the quality of the sound, where high fidelity reproduction of sound is required, multiple loudspeaker transducers are often mounted in the same enclosure, each reproducing a part of the audible frequency range. In this case the individual speakers are referred to as drivers, drivers made for reproducing high audio frequencies are called tweeters, those for middle frequencies are called mid-range drivers, and those for low frequencies are called woofers. Smaller loudspeakers are found in such as radios, televisions, portable audio players, computers. Larger loudspeaker systems are used for music, sound reinforcement in theatres and concerts, the term loudspeaker may refer to individual transducers or to complete speaker systems consisting of an enclosure including one or more drivers. To adequately reproduce a range of frequencies with even coverage, most loudspeaker systems employ more than one driver. Individual drivers are used to different frequency ranges. The drivers are named subwoofers, woofers, mid-range speakers, tweeters, the terms for different speaker drivers differ, depending on the application. In two-way systems there is no mid-range driver, so the task of reproducing the mid-range sounds falls upon the woofer and tweeter, home stereos use the designation tweeter for the high frequency driver, while professional concert systems may designate them as HF or highs. When multiple drivers are used in a system, a network, called a crossover. Loudspeaker driver of the type pictured are termed dynamic to distinguish them from earlier drivers, or speakers using piezoelectric or electrostatic systems, or any of several other sorts. Johann Philipp Reis installed an electric loudspeaker in his telephone in 1861, it was capable of reproducing clear tones, alexander Graham Bell patented his first electric loudspeaker as part of his telephone in 1876, which was followed in 1877 by an improved version from Ernst Siemens. In 1898, Horace Short patented a design for a loudspeaker driven by compressed air, he sold the rights to Charles Parsons
43.
Barrel organ
–
A barrel organ is a mechanical musical instrument consisting of bellows and one or more ranks of pipes housed in a case, usually of wood, and often highly decorated. The pieces of music are encoded onto wooden barrels, which are analogous to the keyboard of the pipe organ. There are many names for the organ, such as hand organ, cylinder organ, box organ, street organ, grinder organ. While many of these refer to the physical operation of the crank. The term hurdy-gurdy is sometimes applied to a small, portable barrel organ that was frequently played by organ grinders and buskers. Although the hurdy-gurdy is also powered by a crank and often used by street performers, another key difference is that the hurdy-gurdy player is free to play any tune he or she desires, while the barrel organist is generally confined to pre-programmed tunes. Some also confuse the barrel organ with the organ or calliope. In the United Kingdom barrel pianos, particularly those played in the streets, are frequently called barrel organs, the pieces of music are encoded onto the barrel using metal pins and staples. Pins are used for notes, and staples of varying lengths for longer notes. Each barrel usually carried several different tunes, pinning such barrels was something of an art form, and the quality of the music produced by a barrel organ is largely a function of the quality of its pinning. The organ barrels must be sturdy to maintain precise alignment over time, damage to the barrel, such as warpage, would have a direct effect on the music produced. The size of the barrel will depend on the number of notes in the organ, the more notes, the longer the barrel. The longer the tune, the greater the diameter, since the music is hard-coded onto the barrel, the only way for a barrel organ to play a different set of tunes is to replace the barrel with another one. While not an operation, barrels are unwieldy and expensive. A set of levers called keys is positioned just above the surface of the barrel, each key corresponds to one pitch. A rod is connected to the rear of each key, the other end of the rod is a metal pin which operates a valve within the wind chest. When the instrument is played, offsets on the crank shaft cause bellows to open, a reservoir/regulator maintains a constant pressure. A worm gear on the crank shaft causes the barrel to rotate slowly and its pins and staples lift the fronts of the keys
.jpg)
.jpg)
_1.jpg)
.jpg)
