1.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Modern architecture
–
Modern architecture or modernist architecture is a term applied to a group of styles of architecture which emerged in the first half of the 20th century and became dominant after World War II. The revolution in materials came first, with the use of cast iron, plate glass, the cast plate glass process was invented in 1848, allowing the manufacture of very large windows. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an example of iron and plate glass construction, followed in 1864 by the first glass. These developments together led to the first steel-framed skyscraper, the ten-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago, the iron frame construction of the Eiffel Tower, then the tallest structure in the world, captured the imagination of millions of visitors to the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition. French industrialist François Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house in the suburbs of Paris. Another important technology for the new architecture was electric light, which reduced the inherent danger of fires caused by gas in the 19th century. This break with the past was particularly urged by the architectural theorist, for each function its material, for each material its form and its ornament. This book influenced a generation of architects, including Louis Sullivan, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, at the end of the 19th century, a few architects began to challenge the traditional Beaux Arts and Neoclassical styles that dominated architecture in Europe and the United States. The Glasgow School of Art 1896-99) designed by Charles Rennie MacIntosh, had a facade dominated by large bays of windows. The Art Nouveau style was launched in the 1890s by Victor Horta in Belgium and Hector Guimard in France, it introduced new styles of decoration, based on vegetal and floral forms. In 1903-1904 in Paris Auguste Perret and Henri Sauvage began to use reinforced concrete, previously used for industrial structures. Between 1910 and 1913, Auguste Perret built the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, because of the concrete construction, no columns blocked the spectators view of the stage. Otto Wagner, in Vienna, was another pioneer of the new style, in his book Moderne Arkchtekture he had called for a more rationalist style of architecture, based on modern life. Wagner declared his intention to express the function of the building in its exterior, the reinforced concrete exterior was covered with plaques of marble attached with bolts of polished aluminum. The interior was purely functional and spare, an open space of steel, glass. The Viennese architect Adolf Loos also began removing any ornament from his buildings and his Steiner House, in Vienna, was an example of what he called rationalist architecture, it had a simple stucco rectangual facade with square windows and no ornament. The fame of the new movement, which known as the Vienna Secession spread beyond Austria. Josef Hoffmann, a student of Wagner, constructed a landmark of early modernist architecture and this residence, built of brick covered with Norwegian marble, was composed of geometric blocks, wings and a tower
3.
Liverpool
–
Liverpool is a major city and metropolitan borough in North West England.24 million people in 2011. Liverpool historically lay within the ancient hundred of West Derby in the south west of the county of Lancashire and it became a borough from 1207 and a city from 1880. In 1889 it became a county borough independent of Lancashire, Liverpool sits on the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary and its growth as a major port is paralleled by the expansion of the city throughout the Industrial Revolution. Along with general cargo, freight, raw materials such as coal and cotton, the city was also directly involved in the Atlantic slave trade. Liverpool was home to both the Cunard and White Star Line, and was the port of registry of the ocean liner RMS Titanic and others such as the RMS Lusitania, Queen Mary, and Olympic. The city celebrated its 800th anniversary in 2007, and it held the European Capital of Culture title together with Stavanger, Norway, several areas of Liverpool city centre were granted World Heritage Site status by UNESCO in 2004. The Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City includes the Pier Head, Albert Dock, tourism forms a significant part of the citys economy. Liverpool is also the home of two Premier League football clubs, Liverpool and Everton, matches between the two being known as the Merseyside derby, the world-famous Grand National horse race takes place annually at Aintree Racecourse on the outskirts of the city. The city is home to the oldest Black African community in the country. Natives of Liverpool are referred to as Liverpudlians and colloquially as Scousers, a reference to scouse, the word Scouse has also become synonymous with the Liverpool accent and dialect. Pool is a place name element in England from the Brythonic word for a pond, inlet, or pit, cognate with the modern Welsh. The derivation of the first element remains uncertain, with the Welsh word Llif as the most plausible relative and this etymology is supported by its similarity to that of the archaic Welsh name for Liverpool Llynlleifiad. Other origins of the name have suggested, including elverpool. The name appeared in 1190 as Liuerpul, and it may be that the place appearing as Leyrpole, in a record of 1418. King Johns letters patent of 1207 announced the foundation of the borough of Liverpool, the original street plan of Liverpool is said to have been designed by King John near the same time it was granted a royal charter, making it a borough. The original seven streets were laid out in an H shape, Bank Street, Castle Street, Chapel Street, Dale Street, Juggler Street, Moor Street, in the 17th century there was slow progress in trade and population growth. Battles for the town were waged during the English Civil War, in 1699 Liverpool was made a parish by Act of Parliament, that same year its first slave ship, Liverpool Merchant, set sail for Africa. Since Roman times, the city of Chester on the River Dee had been the regions principal port on the Irish Sea
4.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
5.
Peter Ellis (architect)
–
Peter Ellis was a British architect from Liverpool. From the mid-1840s he lived at 40 Falkner Square, a house which he designed and his other well-known commission was 16 Cook Street, Liverpool, of 1866. This building has been noted for its surprisingly modern spiral staircase, cantilevered out from the building and clad with sheets of iron. Peter Ellis was born on 1 August 1805 at Shaws Brow, in 1822 they moved to Low Hill and it was whilst living there that Peter subsequently met Mary Helen Syers who was living in Everton Village and whom he married in 1836. In 1835 Peter acquired a lease on property and neighbouring building land in Sandon Street, the building was owned by Rev. Thomas Anderson and it was from him that Peter received the commission to design Oriel Chambers, the fire-proof replacement that was constructed upon the site. Whilst still at Orange Court, Peter was then commissioned by the accountants Paterson and Thomas to design 16 Cook Street, the extent to which the Oriel Chambers criticism was of primary significance in influencing either Peters future career or interests remains unclear. He died at the age of 79 at his home at 40 Falkner Square on 20 October 1884, the death certificate recording endocarditis and pneumonia as the causes. Mr. Ellis, for more than half a century, was at the head of the practice in his way of business in Liverpool. Peter outlived all his siblings but he and Mary died without having had the joy of bringing up a son or daughter and they lie at peace together in Toxteth Cemetery. Peter Elliss work may have influenced that of the American architect John Wellborn Root who came to Liverpool when 16 Cook Street was being constructed, for example, in the Rookery Building, Chicago, Root used a glass and iron spiral staircase similar to that in 16 Cook Street. Oriel Chambers, along with the work of Kahn, were real touchstones for the practice of Arup Associates, Ellis obituary appeared in the Liverpool Daily Post,21 October and 24 October,1884. Peter Ellis, of Liverpool, architect of Oriel Chambers and 16 Cook Street, adam Caruso, in, Mario Rinke, Joseph Schwartz, Before steel. The introduction of iron and its consequences, Niggli publishers,2010
6.
Curtain wall (architecture)
–
A curtain wall system is an outer covering of a building in which the outer walls are non-structural, but merely keep the weather out and the occupants in. As the curtain wall is non-structural it can be made of a lightweight material, when glass is used as the curtain wall, a great advantage is that natural light can penetrate deeper within the building. The curtain wall façade does not carry any dead load weight from the other than its own dead load weight. The wall transfers horizontal wind loads that are incident upon it to the building structure through connections at floors or columns of the building. A curtain wall is designed to resist air and water infiltration, sway induced by wind and seismic forces acting on the building, curtain-wall systems are typically designed with extruded aluminum members, although the first curtain walls were made of steel. The aluminium frame is infilled with glass, which provides an architecturally pleasing building. However, parameters related to solar gain control such as thermal comfort, other common infills include, stone veneer, metal panels, louvres, and operable windows or vents. Buildings were constructed with the walls of the building supporting the load of the entire structure. The exterior walls could be non-load-bearing and thus much lighter and more open than the masonry load-bearing walls of the past and this gave way to increased use of glass as an exterior façade, and the modern-day curtain wall was born. Oriel Chambers and 16 Cook Street, both built in Liverpool, England, by architect and civil engineer Peter Ellis, are characterised by their extensive use of glass in their facades. Towards the courtyards they even boasted metal-framed glass curtain walls, which makes two of the worlds first buildings to include this structural feature. The extensive glass walls allowed light to penetrate further into the building, utilizing more floor space, oriel Chambers comprises 43,000 sq ft set over five floors without an elevator which had only recently been invented and was not yet widespread. An early example of a curtain wall used in the classical style is the Kaufhaus Tietz department store on Leipziger Straße, Berlin. Some of the first curtain walls were made with steel mullions, eventually silicone sealants or glazing tape were substituted, using a glass mullion system. Some designs included a cap to hold the glass in place. The first curtain wall installed in New York City, in the Lever House building, was this type of construction, earlier modernist examples are the Bauhaus in Dessau and the Hallidie Building in San Francisco. During the 1970s began the use of aluminium extrusions for mullions. Aluminum offers the advantage of being able to be easily extruded into nearly any shape required for design
7.
Liverpool Town Hall
–
Liverpool Town Hall stands in High Street at its junction with Dale Street, Castle Street, and Water Street in Liverpool, Merseyside, England. It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building and it is not an administrative building but a civic suite, Lord Mayors parlour and Council chamber, local government administration is centred at the nearby Municipal Buildings. The town hall was built between 1749 and 1754 to a design by John Wood the Elder replacing an earlier town hall nearby, an extension to the north designed by James Wyatt was added in 1785. Following a fire in 1795 the hall was rebuilt and a dome designed by Wyatt was built. Minor alterations have subsequently been made, the streets surrounding its site have altered since its initiation, notably when viewed from Castle Street, the south-side, it appears as off-centre. The structures were removed 150 years after this to expose the building from this position, the ground floor contains the citys Council Chamber and a Hall of Remembrance for the Liverpool servicemen killed in the First World War. The upper floor consists of a suite of lavishly decorated rooms which are used for a variety of events, conducted tours of the building are arranged for the general public and the hall is licensed for weddings. The first recorded town hall in Liverpool was in 1515 and it was probably a thatched building and it was replaced in 1673 by a building slightly to the south of the present town hall. This town hall stood on pillars and arches of stone and under it was the exchange for merchants. Building of the present town began in 1749 on a site slightly to the north of its predecessor. The architect was John Wood the Elder, who has described as one of the outstanding architects of the day. It was completed and opened in 1754, the ground floor acted as the exchange, and a council room and other offices were on the upper floor. The ground floor had a courtyard surrounded by Doric colonnades but it was dark and confined. Above the building was a square dome with a cupola. The town hall was bombarded by striking seamen during the 1775 Liverpool Seamens Revolt, improvements began in 1785 with an extension to the north designed by James Wyatt. Buildings close to the west and north sides were demolished, in 1786 Woods square dome was demolished and plans were made by Wyatt for a new dome over the central courtyard. In 1795, before the new dome was built, the hall was damaged by a fire. Wyatts north extension was not significantly damaged, but Woods original building was gutted, the building was reconstructed and Wyatts new dome was added
8.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
9.
Listed building
–
A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
10.
Epigraphy
–
Specifically excluded from epigraphy are the historical significance of an epigraph as a document and the artistic value of a literary composition. A person using the methods of epigraphy is called an epigrapher or epigraphist, for example, the Behistun inscription is an official document of the Achaemenid Empire engraved on native rock at a location in Iran. Epigraphists are responsible for reconstructing, translating, and dating the trilingual inscription and it is the work of historians, however, to determine and interpret the events recorded by the inscription as document. Often, epigraphy and history are competences practiced by the same person, an epigraph is any sort of text, from a single grapheme to a lengthy document. Epigraphy overlaps other competences such as numismatics or palaeography, when compared to books, most inscriptions are short. Typically the material is durable, but the durability might be an accident of circumstance, epigraphy is a primary tool of archaeology when dealing with literate cultures. The US Library of Congress classifies epigraphy as one of the sciences of history. Epigraphy also helps identify a forgery, epigraphic evidence formed part of the discussion concerning the James Ossuary, the study of ancient handwriting, usually in ink, is a separate field, palaeography. The character of the writing, the subject of epigraphy, is a quite separate from the nature of the text. Texts inscribed in stone are usually for public view and so they are different from the written texts of each culture. Not all inscribed texts are public, however, in Mycenaean Greece the deciphered texts of Linear B were revealed to be used for economic. Informal inscribed texts are graffiti in its original sense, the science of epigraphy has been developing steadily since the 16th century. Principles of epigraphy vary culture by culture, and the infant science in European hands concentrated on Latin inscriptions at first, individual contributions have been made by epigraphers such as Georg Fabricius, August Wilhelm Zumpt, Theodor Mommsen, Emil Hübner, Franz Cumont, Louis Robert. The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, begun by Mommsen and other scholars, has published in Berlin since 1863. It is the largest and most extensive collection of Latin inscriptions, New fascicles are still produced as the recovery of inscriptions continues. The Corpus is arranged geographically, all inscriptions from Rome are contained in volume 6 and this volume has the greatest number of inscriptions, volume 6, part 8, fascicle 3 was just recently published. Specialists depend on such on-going series of volumes in which newly discovered inscriptions are published, often in Latin, Greek epigraphy has unfolded in the hands of a different team, with different corpora. The first is Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum of which four volumes came out, again at Berlin and this marked a first attempt at a comprehensive publication of Greek inscriptions copied from all over the Greek-speaking world
11.
Gable
–
A gable is the generally triangular portion of a wall between the edges of intersecting roof pitches. The shape of the gable and how it is detailed depends on the system used, which reflects climate, material availability. A gable wall or gable end more commonly refers to the wall, including the gable. A variation of the gable is a gable, which has a stairstep design to accomplish the sloping portion. Gable ends of more recent buildings are often treated in the way as the Classic pediment form. But unlike Classical structures, which operate through trabeation, the ends of many buildings are actually bearing-wall structures. Thus, the detailing can be ambiguous or misleading, gable style is also used in the design of fabric structures, with varying degree sloped roofs, dependent on how much snowfall is expected. Sharp gable roofs are a characteristic of the Gothic and classical Greek styles of architecture, the opposite or inverted form of a gable roof is a V-roof or butterfly roof. While a front-gabled building faces the street with its gable, a building faces it with its cullis. The terms are used in architecture and city planning to determine a building in its urban situation, front-gabled buildings are considered typical for German city streets in the medieval gothic period, while later Renaissance buildings, influenced by Italian architecture are often side-gabled. In America, front-gabled houses, such as the Gablefront house, were primarily between the early 19th century and 1920. A wimperg is a German and Dutch word for a Gothic ornamental gable with tracery over windows or portals and it was a typical element in Gothic Architecture especially in cathedral architecture. Wimpergs often had crockets or other elements in the Gothic style. The intention behind the wimperg was the perception of increased height, the gable end roof is a poor design for hurricane regions, as it easily peels off in strong winds. The part of the roof overhangs the triangular wall very often creates a trap that can catch wind like an umbrella. A series of ornamental timber gables, from existing examples in England and France of the 16th Century
12.
Oriel window
–
An oriel window is a form of bay window which projects from the main wall of a building but does not reach to the ground. Supported by corbels, brackets or similar, a window is most commonly found projecting from an upper floor but is also sometimes used on the ground floor. Oriel windows are seen in Arab architecture in the form of mashrabiya, in Islamic culture these windows and balconies project from the street front of houses, providing an area in which women could peer out and see the activities below while remaining invisible. Oriel College, Oxford, took its name from a balcony or oriel window forming a feature of a building occupied the site the college now stands on. Oriel Chambers in Liverpool was a controversial building when it was built. It is seen as an example of modernism. Bay window for more details Bow window Bretèche Turret window
13.
John Wellborn Root
–
John Wellborn Root was an American architect who was based in Chicago with Daniel Burnham. He was one of the founders of the Chicago School style, two of his buildings have been designated a National Historic Landmark, others have been designated Chicago landmarks and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1958, he received the AIA Gold Medal, John Wellborn Root was born in 1850 in Lumpkin, Georgia, the son of Sidney Root, a planter, and his wife, Mary Harvey Clark. He was named after an uncle, Marshall Johnson Wellborn. Root was raised in Atlanta, where he was first educated at home and his mother and sister went to Cuthbert, Georgia. While in Liverpool, Root studied at Clare Mount School, after Root returned to the U. S. he earned an undergraduate degree from New York University in 1869. After graduation, he took a job with the architect James Renwick, Jr. of Renwick, later he took a position with John Butler Snook in New York. While working for Snook, Root was a supervisor on the original Grand Central Depot, predecessor to Warren. Root was greatly influenced by the architecture of Henry Hobson Richardson, in 1871, Root moved to Chicago, where he was employed as a draftsman in an architectural firm. He met Daniel Burnham and two later in 1873, the young men formed the firm of Burnham and Root. During the economic downturn in 1873, Root earned extra income on jobs with other firms, Root developed the floating raft system of interlaced steel beams, to create a foundation for tall buildings that would not sink in Chicagos marshy soil. Roots first use of this system was for the Montauk Building in 1882. He later transferred use of the frame to the vertical load-bearing walls in the Phenix Building of 1887. Root, Burnham, Dankmar Adler, and Louis Sullivan formed the Western Association of Architects because they felt slighted by East Coast architects, Root served as president in 1886. In 1887, he was elected a director of the national American Institute of Architects and his work from his prime years has been recognized for significance by being designated as National Historic Landmark, National Register of Historic Places, and Chicago landmarks. He worked on the plan for the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, before it was constructed, Root died of pneumonia in 1891 at the age of 41. He was buried in Uptowns Graceland Cemetery, Root married Mary Louise Walker in 1879, but she died of tuberculosis six weeks later. In 1882, he married for a time, to Dora Louise Monroe
14.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
15.
Atlanta Campaign
–
The Atlanta Campaign was a series of battles fought in the Western Theater of the American Civil War throughout northwest Georgia and the area around Atlanta during the summer of 1864. Union Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman invaded Georgia from the vicinity of Chattanooga, Tennessee, beginning in May 1864, Johnstons Army of Tennessee withdrew toward Atlanta in the face of successive flanking maneuvers by Shermans group of armies. In July, the Confederate president, Jefferson Davis, replaced Johnston with the more aggressive John Bell Hood, Hoods army was eventually besieged in Atlanta and the city fell on September 2, setting the stage for Shermans March to the Sea and hastening the end of the war. The Atlanta Campaign followed the Union victory in the Battles for Chattanooga in November 1863, Chattanooga was known as the Gateway to the South, grants strategy was to apply pressure against the Confederacy in several coordinated offensives. While he, George G. Meade, Benjamin Butler, Franz Sigel, George Crook, at the start of the campaign, Shermans Military Division of the Mississippi consisted of three armies, Maj. Gen. James B. McPhersons Army of the Tennessee, including the corps of Maj. Gen. John A. Logan, Maj. Gen. Grenville M. Dodge, when McPherson was killed at the Battle of Atlanta, Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard replaced him. Maj. Gen. John M. Schofields Army of the Ohio, consisting of Schofields XXIII Corps and a cavalry division commanded by Maj. Gen. George Stoneman. Maj. Gen. George H. Thomass Army of the Cumberland, including the corps of Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard, Maj. Gen. John M. Palmer, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, and Brig. Gen. Washington L. Elliott. After Howard took army command, David S. Stanley took over IV Corps, however, by June, a steady stream of reinforcements brought Shermans strength to 112,000. Opposing Sherman, the Army of Tennessee was commanded first by Gen. Joseph E. Johnston, the four corps in the 50, 000-man army were commanded by, Lt. Gen. William J. Hardee. When Polk was killed on June 14, Loring briefly took over as commander of the corps but was replaced by Alexander P. Stewart on June 23. But in Georgia, he faced the more aggressive Sherman. Johnstons army repeatedly took up strongly entrenched defensive positions in the campaign, Sherman prudently avoided suicidal frontal assaults against most of these positions, instead maneuvering in flanking marches around the defenses as he advanced from Chattanooga towards Atlanta. Whenever Sherman flanked the defensive lines, Johnston would retreat to another prepared position, both armies took advantage of the railroads as supply lines, with Johnston shortening his supply lines as he drew closer to Atlanta, and Sherman lengthening his own. Johnston had entrenched his army on the long, high mountain of Rocky Face Ridge, the two columns engaged the enemy at Buzzard Roost and at Dug Gap. In the meantime, the column, under McPherson, passed through Snake Creek Gap and on May 9 advanced to the outskirts of Resaca. Fearing defeat, McPherson pulled his column back to Snake Creek Gap, on May 10, Sherman decided to take most of his men and join McPherson to take Resaca. The next morning, as he discovered Shermans army withdrawing from their positions in front of Rocky Face Ridge, Union troops tested the Confederate lines around Resaca to pinpoint their whereabouts
16.
Chicago school (architecture)
–
Chicagos architecture is famous throughout the world and one style is referred to as the Chicago School. The style is known as Commercial style. In the history of architecture, the Chicago School was a school of architects active in Chicago at the turn of the 20th century, a Second Chicago School later emerged in the 1940s and 1970s which pioneered new building technologies and structural systems such as the tube-frame structure. Contemporary publications used the phrase Commercial Style to describe the innovative tall buildings of the era rather than proposing any sort of unified school, sometimes elements of neoclassical architecture are used in Chicago School skyscrapers. Many Chicago School skyscrapers contain the three parts of a classical column, the Chicago window originated in this school. It is a window consisting of a large fixed center panel flanked by two smaller double-hung sash windows. The arrangement of windows on the facade typically creates a grid pattern, the Chicago window combined the functions of light-gathering and natural ventilation, a single central pane was usually fixed, while the two surrounding panes were operable. These windows were often deployed in bays, known as oriel windows, frank Lloyd Wright started in the firm of Adler and Sullivan but created his own Prairie Style of architecture. The Home Insurance Building, which some regarded as the first skyscraper in the world, was built in Chicago in 1885 and was demolished in 1931 and its first and purest expression was the 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments and their technological achievements. This was supported and enlarged in the 1960s due to the ideas of structural engineer Fazlur Khan and he introduced a new structural system of framed tubes in skyscraper design and construction. Closely spaced interconnected exterior columns form the tube, horizontal loads, for example wind, are supported by the structure as a whole. About half the surface is available for windows. Framed tubes allow fewer interior columns, and so create more floor space. Where larger openings like garage doors are required, the frame must be interrupted. The first building to apply the tube-frame construction was the DeWitt-Chestnut Apartment Building which Khan designed and was completed in Chicago by 1963. Today, there are different styles of architecture all throughout the city, such as the Chicago School, neo-classical, art deco, modern, architecture of Chicago Chicago Landmarks Early Commercial architecture Chicago Seven Palazzo style architecture Condit, Carl W. The Chicago school of architecture, a history of commercial and public building in the Chicago area, 1875-1925
17.
Atlantic
–
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
18.
Bay window
–
A bay window is a window space projecting outward from the main walls of a building and forming a bay in a room. Bay window is a term for all protruding window constructions. The most common inside angles are 90,135 and 150 degrees, a bay window with a flat front and angled sides is called canted. A bay window supported by a corbel, bracket or similar is called an oriel window, most medieval bay windows and up to the baroque era are oriel windows. They frequently appear as a highly ornamented addition to the rather than an organic part of it. Particularly during the Gothic period they frequently contain small house chapels, with the oriel window containing an altar, especially in Nuremberg these are even called Chörlein with the most famous example being the one from the parsonage of St. Sebaldus Church. Oriental oriel windows such as the Arab Mashrabiya are frequently made of wood, because there is a close similarity to the use of a balcony, it is difficult to define if they are indeed oriel windows or a special type of balcony. Bay windows became a popular feature of residential Victorian architecture in the British Isles from about the 1870s. They can be found in terraced houses, semis and detached houses as well as in blocks of flats, based on British models, their use spread to other English speaking countries like the USA, Canada and Australia. Bretèche Bay window caboose Oriel window Bow window Gagnon, Jerome, gaining bonus space and light with bay windows
19.
Burnham and Root
–
Burnham and Root was one of Chicagos most famous architectural companies of the nineteenth century. It was established by John Wellborn Root and Daniel Hudson Burnham, during their eighteen years of partnership, Burnham and Root designed and built residential and commercial buildings. Their success was crowned with the coordination of the Worlds Columbian Exposition in 1893, the two men met when they worked as apprentice draftsmen in the offices of Drake, Carter, and Wight in 1872. A year later established their own architecture office and began work by building private residences for the wealthy elite of Chicagos meat industry. Both of them married into wealthy families which allowed them to establish a basis for their business, Daniel Hudson Burnham was one of the handsomest men I ever saw, said Paul Starrett who joined Burnham and Root in 1888. It was easy to see how he got commissions and his very bearing and looks were half the battle. While Burnham was the designer and impressive salesperson, Root became the creative genius of the company. When Burnham and Root were together, one woman said I used always to think of big strong tree with lightning playing around it. Louis Sullivan, the architect, called Burnham a colossal merchandiser obsessed with building the biggest and costliest structures of the city. The most significant buildings designed by Burnham and Root were built in the late 1880s and that is when Roots designs actually paved the way for modern day skyscrapers. Until then, buildings relied on exterior masonry for support limiting their height to 12 stories, the invention of steel support beams gave him the possibility to build higher and to add more windows. The Rand McNally Building, completed in 1890, was the first ever steel-framed skyscraper in the world, another characteristic of his designs that revolutionized modern architecture is his invention of the urban office block floor plan as we know it. As commissions multiplied, Burnham and Root had the opportunity to experiment and refine their style to create, such buildings as the Great Northern hotel, the Argyle and the Pickwick demonstrate Roots singular style. Hence, the greatest architects of the time were invited to participate in the design of the Worlds Columbian Exposition, Root died in 1891, leaving his greatest project incomplete. Daniel Burnham, despite only having experience and no formal training in the field of architecture, was then given the responsibility to finish coordinating the fair. When it opened for six months, from June to November 1893, the Exposition was home to many innovations, among which the first Ferris wheel, which was the result of a challenge set out by Burnham to design a structure of comparable ingenuity and novelty. Following his success and the loss of his business partner, Burnham continued to operate under the name D. H. Burnham and Co. The projects begun by Root were completed, including the Masonic Temple in 1892 and it is then that Burnhams architectural talent became the driving force of the business, resulting in such iconic buildings such as the Flatiron Building in New York City
20.
Skyscraper
–
A skyscraper is a tall, continuously habitable building having multiple floors. When the term was used in the 1880s it described a building of 10 to 20 floors. Mostly designed for office, commercial and residential uses, a skyscraper can also be called a high-rise, for buildings above a height of 300 m, the term supertall can be used, while skyscrapers reaching beyond 600 m are classified as megatall. One common feature of skyscrapers is having a steel framework that supports curtain walls and these curtain walls either bear on the framework below or are suspended from the framework above, rather than resting on load-bearing walls of conventional construction. Some early skyscrapers have a frame that enables the construction of load-bearing walls taller than of those made of reinforced concrete. Modern skyscrapers walls are not load-bearing, and most skyscrapers are characterized by surface areas of windows made possible by steel frames. However, skyscrapers can have curtain walls that mimic conventional walls with a surface area of windows. Modern skyscrapers often have a structure, and are designed to act like a hollow cylinder to resist wind, seismic. To appear more slender, allow less wind exposure, and transmit more daylight to the ground, many skyscrapers have a design with setbacks, a relatively big building may be considered a skyscraper if it protrudes well above its built environment and changes the overall skyline. The maximum height of structures has progressed historically with building methods and technologies, the Burj Khalifa is currently the tallest building in the world. High-rise buildings are considered shorter than skyscrapers, the first steel-frame skyscraper was the Home Insurance Building in Chicago, Illinois in 1885. Even the scholars making the argument find it to be purely academic and this definition was based on the steel skeleton—as opposed to constructions of load-bearing masonry, which passed their practical limit in 1891 with Chicagos Monadnock Building. What is the characteristic of the tall office building. The force and power of altitude must be in it, the glory and it must be every inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exaltation that from bottom to top it is a unit without a single dissenting line. Some structural engineers define a highrise as any vertical construction for which wind is a significant load factor than earthquake or weight. Note that this criterion fits not only high-rises but some other tall structures, the word skyscraper often carries a connotation of pride and achievement. A loose convention of some in the United States and Europe draws the limit of a skyscraper at 150 m or 490 ft. The tallest building in ancient times was the 146 m Great Pyramid of Giza in ancient Egypt and it was not surpassed in height for thousands of years, the 14th century AD Lincoln Cathedral being conjectured by many to have exceeded it
21.
16 Cook Street
–
16 Cook Street, Liverpool is the worlds second glass curtain walled building. Designed by Peter Ellis in 1866, it is a Grade II* Listed Building, built two years after Oriel Chambers on Water Street, the architects only other work, it shows the development of Ellis style. Its floor to ceiling glass allows light to deep into the building, contrasting strongly with the adjacent structures. It has been suggested that American architect John Root was influenced by the construction of buildings, having studied in Liverpool at the time of their construction. Architecture of Liverpool Page on the Liverpool Architectural Society website Historic England
22.
Facade
–
A façade is generally one exterior side of a building, usually, but not always, the front. It is a loan word from the French façade, which means frontage or face. In architecture, the façade of a building is often the most important aspect from a design standpoint, from the engineering perspective of a building, the façade is also of great importance due to its impact on energy efficiency. For historical façades, many local zoning regulations or other laws restrict or even forbid their alteration. The word comes from the French foreign loan word façade, which in turn comes from the Italian facciata, from faccia meaning face, the earliest usage recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is 1656. It was quite common in the Georgian period for existing houses in English towns to be given a fashionable new façade, in modern highrise building, the exterior walls are often suspended from the concrete floor slabs. Examples include curtain walls and precast concrete walls, the façade can at times be required to have a fire-resistance rating, for instance, if two buildings are very close together, to lower the likelihood of fire spreading from one building to another. In general, the systems that are suspended or attached to the precast concrete slabs will be made from aluminium or stainless steel. In recent years more lavish materials such as titanium have sometimes been used, whether rated or not, fire protection is always a design consideration. The melting point of aluminium,660 °C, is reached within minutes of the start of a fire. Firestops for such building joints can be qualified, too, putting fire sprinkler systems on each floor has a profoundly positive effect on the fire safety of buildings with curtain walls. Some building codes also limit the percentage of area in exterior walls. When the exterior wall is not rated, the slab edge becomes a junction where rated slabs are abutting an unrated wall. For rated walls, one may also choose rated windows and fire doors, on a film set and within most themed attractions, many of the buildings are only façades, which are far cheaper than actual buildings, and not subject to building codes. In film sets, they are held up with supports from behind. Within theme parks, they are usually decoration for the interior ride/attraction/restaurant, by Ulrich Knaack, Tillmann Klein, Marcel Bilow and Thomas Auer. ISBN 978-3-7643-7961-2 ISBN 978-3-7643-7962-9 Giving buildings an illusion of grandeur Poole, the article outlines the development of the façade in ecclesiastical architecture from the early Christian period to the Renaissance
23.
Monadnock Building
–
The Monadnock Building is a skyscraper located at 53 West Jackson Boulevard in the south Loop area of Chicago, Illinois. The north half of the building was designed by the firm of Burnham & Root, the tallest load-bearing brick building ever constructed, it employed the first portal system of wind bracing in America. Its decorative staircases represent the first structural use of aluminum in building construction, the south half, constructed in 1893, was designed by Holabird & Roche and is similar in color and profile to the original, but the design is more traditionally ornate. When completed, it was the largest office building in the world, the success of the building was the catalyst for an important new business center at the southern end of the Loop. It was sold in 1979 to owners who restored the building to its original condition, the project was recognized as one of the top restoration projects in the USA by the National Trust for Historic Preservation in 1987. The building is divided into offices from 250 square feet to 6,000 square feet in size and it was listed for sale in 2007. The north half is an unornamented vertical mass of purple-brown brick, flaring out at the base and top. The south half is divided by brickwork at the base. Projecting window bays in both halves allow large exposures of glass, giving the building an appearance despite its mass. The Monadnock is part of the Printing House Row District, which includes the Fisher Building, the Manhattan Building. When it was built, many called the building too extreme. Others found in its lack of ornamentation the natural extension of its commercial purpose, early 20th-century European architects found inspiration in its attention to purpose and functional expression. It was one of the first buildings named a Chicago Architectural Landmark in 1958 and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970, and named as part of the National Historic Landmark South Dearborn Street – Printing House Row North Historic District in 1976. Modern critics have called it a classic, a triumph of unified design, the Monadnock was commissioned by Boston real estate developers Peter and Shepherd Brooks in the building boom following the Depression of 1873–79. It was Aldis, one of two men Louis Sullivan credited with being responsible for the office building, who convinced investors such as the Brooks brothers to build new skyscrapers in Chicago. By the end of the century, Aldis would create over 1,000,000 square feet of new office space and manage nearly one fifth of the office space in the Loop. Daniel Burnham and John Wellborn Root met as young draftsmen in the Chicago firm of Carter, Drake, at Aldiss urging, the Brooks brothers had retained the then-fledgling firm to design the Grannis Block, which was their first major commission. The Great Chicago Fire of 1871 had destroyed a 4-mile by 0, between 1881 and 1885, Aldis bought a series of lots in the area on Peter Brooks behalf, including a 70-by-200-foot site on the corner of Jackson and Dearborn streets
24.
Nikolaus Pevsner
–
Sir Nikolaus Bernhard Leon Pevsner CBE FBA was a German, later British scholar of history of art and, especially, of history of architecture. He is best known for his 46-volume series of county-by-county guides, The Buildings of England, the son of a Russian-Jewish fur haulier, Nikolaus Pevsner was born in Leipzig, Saxony. He attended the Thomas School and went on to art history at the Universities of Leipzig, Munich, Berlin. In 1923, he married Carola Kurlbaum, the daughter of distinguished Leipzig lawyer Alfred Kurlbaum and he worked as an assistant keeper at the Dresden Gallery. In 1928 he contributed the volume on Italian baroque painting to the Handbuch der Kunstwissenschaft and he taught at the University of Göttingen, offering a specialist course on English art and architecture. According to biographer Stephen Games, Pevsner welcomed many of the economic, however, due to Nazi race laws he was forced to resign his lectureship in 1933. Later that year he moved to England and his first post was an 18-month research fellowship at the University of Birmingham, found for him by friends in Birmingham and partly funded by the Academic Assistance Council. He was subsequently employed as a buyer of modern textiles, glass, since its first publication by Faber & Faber in 1936, it has gone through several editions and been translated into many languages. The English-language edition has also been renamed Pioneers of Modern Design, Pevsner was more German than the Germans to the extent that he supported Goebbels in his drive for pure non-decadent German art. He was reported as saying of the Nazis I want this movement to succeed, there is no alternative but chaos. There are things worse than Hitlerism, nonetheless he was included in the Nazi Black Book as hostile to the Hitler regime. In 1940, Pevsner was interned as an alien in Huyton. He was released three months on the intervention of, among others, Frank Pick, then Director-General of the Ministry of Information. He also completed for Penguin Books the Pelican paperback An Outline of European Architecture, Outline would eventually go into seven editions, be translated into 16 languages, and sell more than half a million copies. In 1942, Pevsner finally secured two regular positions, from 1936 onwards he had been a frequent contributor to the Architectural Review and from 1943 to 1945 he stood in as its acting editor while the regular editor J. M. Richards was on active service. Under the ARs influence, Pevsners approach to modern architecture became more complex and he was also closely involved with the Reviews proprietor, Hubert de Cronin Hastings, in evolving the magazines theories on Picturesque planning. In 1942, Pevsner was also appointed a lecturer at Birkbeck, University of London. He lectured at Cambridge for almost 30 years, having been Slade professor there for a six years from 1949 to 1955
25.
Adam Caruso
–
Caruso St John is an architectural firm established in 1990 by Adam Caruso and Peter St John. Caruso St John have gained a reputation for excellence in designing contemporary projects in the public realm. The practice came to attention with The New Art Gallery Walsall. Current and past clients include Tate Britain, the V&A, English Heritage and the Arts Council of England, as well as European housing developers Trudo, the SBB and the Gagosian Gallery. Caruso St John aims to have a range of work at a variety of scales and want to resist the trend of increased size. The practice is interested in the potential and physical qualities of construction. This attitude has developed out a fascination for materials, backed up with an involvement in academic, built projects incorporate this research and respond to their physical context and brief in unexpected ways. The projects stand out by resisting off the peg construction, both the New Art Gallery, Walsall and the Brick House, London have been short listed for the Stirling Prize, the UK’s most prestigious architecture award, in recognition of this ambition. The office of approximately 20 work in a studio in a 1930s factory building in East London which the practice converted to studio use for themselves in 2000. Both Adam Caruso and Peter St John have taught in architecture schools consistently throughout the lifetime of Caruso St John, Adam Caruso taught at the University of North London from 1990 to 2000, and was Professor of Architecture at the University of Bath from 2002 to 2005. In 2011 Adam Caruso was appointed Professor of Architecture and Construction at ETH Zürich, Peter St John taught at the University of North London from 1990 to 2000. In 2005 he was a critic at the Graduate School of Design at Harvard University. From 2007 to 2009 he was a professor at ETH Zürich
26.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
27.
Pound sterling
–
It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
28.
Barrister
–
A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation and their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the philosophy, hypothesis and history of law, and giving expert legal opinions. Often, barristers are also recognised as legal scholars, Barristers are distinguished from solicitors, who have more direct access to clients, and may do transactional-type legal work. It is mainly barristers who are appointed as judges, and they are hired by clients directly. In England and Wales, barristers may seek authorisation from the Bar Standards Board to conduct litigation and this allows a barrister to practise in a dual capacity, fulfilling the role of both barrister and solicitor. A barrister, who can be considered as a jurist, is a lawyer who represents a litigant as advocate before a court of appropriate jurisdiction, a barrister speaks in court and presents the case before a judge or jury. In some jurisdictions, a barrister receives additional training in law, ethics. In contrast, a solicitor generally meets with clients, does preparatory and administrative work, in this role, he or she may draft and review legal documents, interact with the client as necessary, prepare evidence, and generally manage the day-to-day administration of a lawsuit. Barristers usually have particular knowledge of law, precedent. When a solicitor in general practice is confronted with a point of law. In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners, and are prohibited from forming partnerships or from working as a barrister as part of a corporation, however, barristers normally band together into chambers to share clerks and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated, and have a corporate feel. In some jurisdictions, they may be employed by firms of solicitors, banks, in contrast, solicitors and attorneys work directly with the clients and are responsible for engaging a barrister with the appropriate expertise for the case. Barristers generally have little or no contact with their lay clients. All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the solicitor, in court, barristers are often visibly distinguished from solicitors by their apparel. For example, in Ireland, England, and Wales, a barrister usually wears a wig, stiff collar, bands. Since January 2008, solicitor advocates have also been entitled to wear wigs, in many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and solicitors are breaking down. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the courts, but in Great Britain this has now been abolished
29.
ITV (TV network)
–
ITV is a commercial TV network in the United Kingdom. Since the passing of the Broadcasting Act 1990 its legal name has been Channel 3, to distinguish it from the analogue channels at the time, namely BBC1, BBC2. ITV is a network of channels that operate regional television services as well as sharing programmes between each other to be displayed on the entire network. In recent years, several of companies have merged so currently the fifteen franchises are in the hands of two companies. With the exception of Northern Ireland, the ITV brand is the used by ITV plc for the Channel 3 service in these areas. In Northern Ireland, ITV plc uses the brand name UTV, STV Group plc, uses the STV brand for its two franchises of central and northern Scotland. The origins of ITV lie in the passing of the Television Act 1954, the act created the Independent Television Authority to heavily regulate the industry and to award franchises. The first six franchises were awarded in 1954 for London, the Midlands, the first ITV network to launch was Londons Associated-Rediffusion on 22 September 1955, with the Midlands and North services launching in February 1956 and May 1956 respectively. Following these launches, the ITA awarded more franchises until the country was covered by fourteen regional stations. Following the 1993 changes, ITV as a network began to consolidate with several companies doing so to save money by ceasing the duplication of services present when they were all separate companies. The ITV Network is not owned or operated by one company, since 2016 the fifteen licences are held by two companies, with the majority held by ITV Broadcasting Limited, part of ITV plc. The network is regulated by the media regulator Ofcom who is responsible for awarding the broadcast licences, the last major review of the Channel 3 franchises was in 1991, with all operators licences having been renewed between 1999 and 2002 and again from 2014 without a further contest. However, due to amalgamation of several of companies since the creation of ITV Network Limited. Approved by Ofcom, this results in ITV plc commissioning and funding the network schedule, all licensees have the right to opt out of network programming, however many do not due to pressures from the parent company or because of limited resources. The network also needs to produce accessible output containing subtitles, signing, in exchange for this programming, the ITV network is available on all platforms free to air and can be found at the top of the EPG of all providers. Since the launch of the platform in 1998, all of the ITV licensees have received gifted capacity on the terrestrial television platform. At present, the companies are able to broadcast additional channels and all choose to broadcast the ITV plc owned ITV2, ITV3, ITV4 and CITV in their region. UTV and STV previously broadcast their own services – UTV2 in Northern Ireland and S2 in central and northern Scotland – until 2002, the broadcasters all make use of the Digital 3&4 multiplex, shared with Channel 4
30.
ITV Granada
–
ITV Granada is the Channel 3 regional service for North West England. The licence for the region has been held by ITV Broadcasting Limited since November 2008 and it is the largest independent television-franchise producing company in the UK, accounting for 25% of the total broadcasting output of the ITV network. It had been held by Granada Television, which was founded by Sidney Bernstein and this was the only surviving company of the original four Independent Television Authority franchisees from 1954, Granada Media Group merged with Carlton Communications to form ITV plc in 2004. It covers Cheshire, Greater Manchester, Lancashire, Merseyside, northwestern Derbyshire, part of Cumbria, on 15 July 2009, the Isle of Man was transferred to ITV Granada from ITV Border. Broadcasting by Granada Television began on 3 May 1956 under the North of England weekday franchise and it was marked by a distinctive northern identity, and used stylised letter G logo forming an arrow pointing north, often with the tagline Granada, from the north. Granada plc merged with Carlton Communications to form ITV plc in 2004 after a duopoly had developed over the previous decade, Granada Television Ltd still legally exists. Along with most other companies owned by ITV plc, it is listed on www. companieshouse. gov. uk as a Dormant company. Other companies listed are Granada Television International and Granada Television Overseas Ltd, the North West region is regarded as ITVs most successful franchise. The Financial Times and The Independent once described Granada Television, the franchise holder. Nine Granada programmes were listed in the BFI TV100 in 2000, some of its most notable programmes include Coronation Street, Seven Up. The Royle Family, The Jewel in the Crown, Brideshead Revisited, World in Action, University Challenge, notable employees have included Paul Greengrass, Michael Apted, Mike Newell, Jeremy Isaacs, Andy Harries, Russell T Davies and Leslie Woodhead. Granada Television, a subsidiary of Granada Ltd, originated in Granada Theatres Ltd and it was founded in Dover in 1930 by Sidney Bernstein and his brother Cecil. The company was incorporated as Granada Ltd in 1934 and listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1935 and it is named after the Spanish city of Granada. Channel 59 from Winter Hill and started broadcasting in colour in the Autumn of 1969, the Bernsteins became involved in commercial television, a competitor to the cinema chains. Bernstein bid for the North of England franchise, which he believed would not affect the companys largely southern-based cinema chain, in 1954, the Independent Television Authority awarded Granada the North of England contract for Monday to Friday, with ABC serving the same area on weekends. The North and London were the two biggest regions, Granada preferred the North because of its tradition of home-grown culture, and because it offered a chance to start a new creative industry away from the metropolitan atmosphere of London. Compare this with London and its suburbs—full of displaced persons, and, of course, if you look at a map of the concentration of population in the North and a rainfall map, you will see that the North is an ideal place for television. Bernstein selected a base from Leeds and Manchester, Granada executive Victor Peers believed Manchester was the preferred choice even before executives toured the region to find a suitable site
31.
ITV Tyne Tees
–
ITV Tyne Tees, previously known as Tyne Tees, Channel 3 North East and Tyne Tees Television, is the ITV television franchise for North East England and parts of North Yorkshire. Tyne Tees is owned and operated by ITV plc under the licensee of ITV Broadcasting Limited. The analogue signals in the Tyne Tees region were switched off in 2012, making the station, along with ITV London and UTV, Tyne-Tees Television Ltd and Tyne-Tees Television Holdings still legally exist. Each of these companies is, along with most other companies owned by ITV plc. Tyne Tees has contributed programming to the ITV network and Channel 4. Some of Tyne Tees best known programming includes the music show The Tube, critically acclaimed adaptations of Catherine Cookson novels. The ownership and management structure of Tyne Tees has altered across its history, the two stations were managed by Trident Television during the 1970s, and the two stations were merged again in the 1990s to form Yorkshire-Tyne Tees Television. A series of takeovers and mergers across the ITV network, instigated by the large groups Granada and Carlton, Independent television was introduced to Britain in September 1955. Initially only available in the London region, commercial television steadily became available in other regions, after a financially difficult time for the first ITV companies, the Independent Television Authority decided to offer independent television to the rest of the country and advertised for bids. Several offers were submitted, including from the four companies. North East England was the last of the English regions without a television transmitter, Sir Richard Pease headed a local consortium that included film producer Sydney Box and News Chronicle executives George and Alfred Black. The contract was awarded on 12 December 1957, Tyne Tees is named after two of the regions three primary rivers. ITA considered the name, North East England, was imprecise. Some of the suggestions were rejected, Three Rivers Television for being obscure, and Tyne, Wear. Eventually, in October 1958, the name Tyne Tees was announced, the other major river, the Wear, was represented within Tyne Tees early signature tune Three Rivers Fantasy. The BBC transmitted their programmes from the Pontop Pike transmitting station in County Durham, the ITA built a new transmitter nearby at Burnhope, to cover an area from Alnwick to Northallerton, and west to Middleton-in-Teesdale. Television sets required a new aerial, the Yagi array, to receive the high frequency that the transmitter was using, Tyne Tees went on air at 5 pm on 15 January 1959, three years after the first British independent television station. The then-prime minister Harold Macmillan, who had been the Member of Parliament for the nearby Stockton-on-Tees for two decades, was interviewed live on the opening night and this was followed by a live variety show, named The Big Show, broadcast from a small studio
32.
Building Design
–
Building Design, or BD, is a weekly architectural magazine and digital title in the United Kingdom. BD was launched in 1970 by publisher Morgan Grampian as a closed circulation weekly as high-tech architecture was just starting to take-off and it ceased its print edition in March 2014, remaining a digital only publication. Unlike most other architectural publications BD’s editors, with a few exceptions, are journalists not architects. In 2006, the last year of the independent ABC circulation reports, by 2013 BD reported had a circulation of 7,698. Its website, bdonline. co. uk, has 89,000 registered users and receives around 45,000 unique visitors a week, BDs circulation figures are independently assured by PricewaterhouseCoopers. The magazine stopped free access to news, blogs and video content on its website in September 2010 when it introduced a subscription for full access, the publishing company is UBM Built Environment, a division of United Business Media, which also publishes Building and Property Week. BD hosts the Architect of the Year Awards and Young Architect of the Year in central London attended by approximately 6000 guests, the Architect of the Year Awards reward the UKs top architectural practices behind excellent built projects. The awards night is now one of the largest gatherings of architects in the UK, the Young Architect of the Year Award recognises and rewards Europes most promising new architects and practices. Previous winners have included Coffey Architects, Jonathan Hendry, Serie Architects, David Kohn Architects, Hackett Hall McKnight, Carmody Groarke, Nord, BD publishes an annual ranking of the worlds biggest architecture practices known as the World Architecture 100. The listing is distributed to the top FTSE100 companies as well as BD subscribers and is available to buy online, the Carbuncle Cup is BDs prize for the worst new architecture in the UK. It has been running since 2006, when it was launched as a counterpart to the Stirling Prize. A shortlist is announced each summer, based on nominations from the public, the winner is selected by a small group of architecture critics and professionals. The assistant editor is Elizabeth Hopkirk, the architecture critic is Ike Ijeh Past editors and staff include Amanda Baillieu, Paul Finch, Peter Murray, Martin Pawley, Hugh Pearman and Kieran Long. Building Design campaigned with the Twentieth Century Society for Robin Hood Gardens and it has likewise argued against the demolition the unnecessary demolition of old school buildings
33.
Alexandra Tower, Liverpool
–
Alexandra Tower is a residential tower located in the newly developed Princes Dock area of Liverpool, England. It was constructed between 2005 and 2008 and upon completion became the sixth tallest building in Liverpool, the tower has a total 27 floors, with 201 apartments, reaching a height of 88 metres. In March 2010, a 100 kilograms decorative glass panel shattered, the cause is not known, although it is thought that temperature fluctuations caused by overnight freezing and subsequent heating during the day may have been responsible. To date only some safety scaffolding remains in place to catch any falling debris, millennium Estates homepage AFL Architects homepage
34.
Beetham Tower, Liverpool
–
Beetham Tower, Liverpool, is a residential apartment building in the British city of Liverpool. Its close neighbour and the tallest building in Liverpool, the West Tower, was developed by the Beetham Organization. It is named after the developers, Beetham Organization, was built by Carillion and was completed in early 2004 and it is 90 metres tall and has 29 floors. The tower abuts the Radisson Blu Hotel, Liverpool and it lies alongside the River Mersey and the upper floors offer views of the Welsh mountains. Three other UK towers share the name, Beetham Tower, Birmingham Beetham Tower, Manchester Beetham Tower, London Beetham Tower
35.
Mann Island Buildings
–
The Mann Island Buildings are a group of buildings in Liverpool, England. They comprise three international style mixed use buildings on Mann Island, which lies on the waterfront between the Port of Liverpool Building and the Albert Dock, three proposals were submitted, all of which received criticism for their appearance and contrast to the citys famed historic skyline. The work of Alsop Architects was chosen to become the Fourth Grace, however, it was beset with difficulties and it was only after all of these ideas were scrapped when the £120 million Mann Island Development was chosen to become the new complex to occupy the site. At the same time, work began on a close neighbour to the Mann Island development - the new Museum of Liverpool. Although the buildings will have different heights and usage, each consists of 13 storeys. Once completed, the Mann Island Buildings will be home to 376 apartments,75,000 sq ft of retail/leisure units,114,000 sq ft of net office space and 20,000 sq ft of covered space. The three buildings are to the south of the Mann Island roadway, opposite the Port of Liverpool Building, No.15, next to the Museum of Liverpool, is called the Latitude building and No.11 is the Longitude building. Connecting the two is a glass atrium called Equator House which often hosts RIBA architectural displays and launch events for the Open Eye Gallery next-door. Both Latitude and Longitude are mixed commercial and residential spaces, with restaurants, cafés and galleries on the ground floor, No.1 Mann Island, next to the Strand, is occupied almost entirely by Merseytravel and the Liverpool City Region Combined Authority. Two levels of car-parking extend beneath the Latitude and Longitude buildings, critical response to the development has been mixed. Fourth Grace List of tallest buildings and structures in Liverpool
36.
Municipal Buildings, Liverpool
–
Municipal Buildings is a Grade II* listed building on Dale Street, Liverpool, England. The building was built by the council to accommodate the growing number of administrative staff. Work was started in 1860 by Liverpool Corporation surveyor John Weightman, the building was put up for sale by the council in 2016 as it was deemed surplus to requirements and too expensive to run and maintain. The sale of the building to a Singapore-based property developer was announced in January 2016, the property developers plan to turn the building into a 4 star hotel. The remaining 640 council staff currently working in the building are due to be moved to offices within the city ahead of the sale. The building has three storeys and is built of stone with a lead roof, the design of the building was influenced by both Italian and French Renaissance. Around the balcony are sixteen sandstone figures representing the arts, sciences and industries of Liverpool, in the centre of the building is the tower, with its balconies, clocks and five bells. The four quarter bells are hung for English-style Change Ringing, a two-stage pyramidal spire is situated atop the tower
37.
New Hall Place
–
New Hall Place is a 13-storey brutalist style office complex in the commercial district of Liverpool, England. It was developed by Royal Insurance as their office building. Following the 1990s merger of Royal Insurance with SunAlliance to form Royal & SunAlliance, numerous job losses followed largely through outsourcing, RSA staff numbers based in the building reduced from over 3000 to around 1200. In 2006 RSA sold the building to George Downing and leased back the parts of the still used by RSA. This allowed other tenants to move in such as the UK Border Agency, Downing renamed the building from New Hall Place to The Capital. From 2016 The Capital is now owned by an American company Trinistar, New management took over in early 2016 from Lambert Smith Hampton To MJ MAPP LTD. The design of New Hall Place is described as a brutalist response to the nearby Royal Liver Building in terms of massing and height. New Hall Place is situated on Old Hall Street and the three floors serve as The Capital Car Park — a 1,100 capacity secure guarded car park. One of two Liverpool exits from the Queensway Tunnel is located directly beneath New Hall Place
38.
One Park West
–
One Park West is a 17-storey building in central Liverpool, England, designed by architect César Pelli. Bordering Chavasse Park, it is part of Liverpool One, a 42-acre £920m redevelopment of Liverpools city centre, One Park West consists of 326 apartments, offices, restaurants, cafés and parking. Blocks B and A of One Park West are the 21st and 31st tallest buildings in Liverpool respectively, One Park West is the first Pelli-designed building in the UK outside London. Pelli Clarke Pelli Architects team worked in partnership with Liverpool-based architects Brock Carmichael Architects to take the project through to planning, the Strand and Park Towers border The Strand and Chavasse Park. The central tower rises the highest, forming the highest tower in Liverpool One and its raking corner feature is designed to define the edge of the park. The building is a frame construction, clad in a modern clear. This has expressed horizontal floor levels and raked and vertical mullions which allow recessed glazed sections, interior designers Kingston Shaw designed the two-bedroom show suite at One Park West, using a palette of colours selected to contrast with the building’s glass exterior. Contemporary artwork by local architect Trevor Skempton is also featured, Liverpool Ones Sony Centre provided state of the art audio-visual equipment for the apartment, and offers One Park West residents an exclusive discount on their goods. One Park West was launched at Tate Liverpool on Thursday 22 February 2007, developer the Grosvenor Group celebrated One Park Wests construction reaching its highest point with a topping-out ceremony on Thursday 7 February 2008. Members of the team and the leader of Liverpool City Council. The building was opened by Grosvenors owner, the Duke of Westminster. In 2009 One Park West was nominated for the Carbuncle Cup for the title of the worst new building in the UK, Pelli Clarke Pelli Architects Carbuncle Cup
39.
The Plaza, Liverpool
–
The Plaza is an 18-storey office complex in the L3 commercial district of Liverpool, England, United Kingdom. At 65 m, The Plaza is Liverpools joint 14th tallest building and it dominates the citys skyline, especially since it has a length of over 125 m - which is two times the buildings height. Construction of The Plaza was completed in 1965, and the building was refurbished and renovated in 2005 to its current appearance. Office space in the building is owned and leased by Bruntwood. Originally the head office of now defunct catalogue retailer, Littlewoods and named after company founder John Moores, however, as stated earlier, the newly renovated building is now home to numerous companies and organisations. List of tallest buildings and structures in Liverpool Littlewoods John Moores
40.
Port of Liverpool Building
–
The Port of Liverpool Building is a Grade II* listed building in Liverpool, England. It is located at the Pier Head and, along with the neighbouring Royal Liver Building and Cunard Building, is one of Liverpools Three Graces and it is also part of Liverpools UNESCO-designated World Heritage Maritime Mercantile City. The building was designed by Sir Arnold Thornely and F. B, hobbs and was developed in collaboration with Briggs and Wolstenholme. It was constructed between 1904 and 1907, with a concrete frame that is clad in Portland Stone. The building was the headquarters of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board for 87 years, from 1907 to 1994, when the company relocated to new premises at Seaforth Dock. In 2001 it was sold to Downing, a Liverpool-based property developer, the Port of Liverpool Building is in the Edwardian Baroque style and is noted for the large dome that sits atop it, acting as the focal point of the building. It is approximately rectangular in shape with canted corners that are topped with stone cupolas, at 220 feet the building is the fourteenth tallest building in Liverpool. Like the neighbouring Cunard Building, it is noted for the ornamental detail both on the inside and out, and in particular for the many references and expensive decorative furnishings. In 1898 the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board decided to close down and infill Georges Dock, in 1900 a committee was formed by the MDHB to plan and develop a new building for the company. Under the leadership of Robert Gladstone, a competition was launched for local architects to submit designs for the new building. Alfred Waterhouse, a local architect, was brought in to help judge the competition. In total, seven entries were submitted, with the design being that of the architects Sir Arnold Thornely. Hobbs, which had developed in collaboration with Briggs and Wolstenholme. Due to boundary changes of the land on which the building was to be built, amendments were made to the design, most notably with the central dome, which was only added at the last minute. In 1903, with the design now confirmed, the MDHB requested that a number of builders submit a document for the construction of the building to the revised design. Over 30 builders were contacted, with William Brown & Son of Manchester winning the contract to construct the new building. Work began in 1904, with the first nine months of construction focusing on laying the buildings foundations, the buildings frame was built from reinforced concrete, which was then clad in Portland Stone, a design that meant the building was more fire resistant than with other structural forms. It was completed in 1907 at a cost of approximately £250,000, although when the cost of furniture, fittings and professional fees was taken into account, the total cost was nearer £350,000
41.
Radio City Tower
–
Radio City Tower is a radio and observation tower in Liverpool, England, built in 1969 and opened by Queen Elizabeth II. It was designed by James A. Roberts Associates in Birmingham and it is 138 metres tall, and is the second tallest free-standing building in Liverpool and the 32nd tallest in the United Kingdom. When considering the height of the building, however, it has a 10m long antenna on the roof, making it the tallest structure in Liverpool. Near the top of the tower was a restaurant, the facade and floor of the restaurant revolving as one unit. There are 558 stairs up to the top, and two shafts which reach the top in 30 seconds. The tower is structurally independent of the adjacent shopping centre, with a foundation onto sandstone. The foundation is 60 feet in diameter,17 feet deep and it has a tapering shaft that was built using slip-formed concrete. The crows nest structure at the top was added after the shaft was formed. On Saturday 23 April 1977, there was a sponsored abseil from the level of the tower. It was done as part of the associated with the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II in that year. It was done by Birkenhead-based group, The Peninsula Outdoor Pursuits Club with some assistance from others. The abseil, and a practice session were filmed for BBC Look North, with BBC reporter, Alistair Macdonald. Details of the practice were broadcast on Tuesday 19 April, the ropes used were donated by Edelrid ropes through the kind assistance of Caving Supplies of Buxton, who also loaned other necessary equipment. Each descent took almost half an hour and about 10 to 15 people went down, two of those descending had intended to re-ascend, but the descents took too long, leaving no time for what would have been quite lengthy ascents. According to one of those who abseiled, There were waitresses and a chef watching from the restaurant level, once clear of the base of the crows nest structure, there was a beautiful view as it was a clear sunny day. The original restaurant closed in 1979 for health and safety issues and it was re-opened, with a reduced capacity and additional fire prevention measures, during the early 1980s. The restaurant was eventually re-fitted as a Buck Rogers space-themed restaurant in 1983, after this the observation deck and the restaurant remained closed. In the following years, the tower lay empty and derelict, often dubbed an eyesore or a White Elephant, an attempt to increase its attractiveness was made when blue UFO style neon strip lights were added to the perimeter of the tower in 1994
42.
Royal Liver Building
–
The Royal Liver Building /ˈlaɪvər/ is a Grade I listed building in Liverpool, England. It is located at the Pier Head and along with the neighbouring Cunard Building and Port of Liverpool Building is one of Liverpools Three Graces and it is also part of Liverpools UNESCO-designated World Heritage Maritime Mercantile City. One of the first buildings in the world to be built using reinforced concrete, the Royal Liver Building stands at 98.2 m tall to the top of the spires, and 50.9 m to the main roof. The Royal Liver Building is now only the joint-fourth tallest structure in the City of Liverpool, having been overtaken in height by West Tower, Radio City Tower. Today the Royal Liver Building is one of the most recognisable landmarks in the city of Liverpool and is home to two fabled Liver Birds that watch over the city and the sea. Legend has it that were these two birds to fly away, then the city would cease to exist. In 1907 the Royal Liver Group had over 6,000 employees, designed by Walter Aubrey Thomas, the foundation stone for the building was laid on 11 May 1908 and just 3 years later, on 19 July 1911, the building was officially opened by Lord Sheffield. This is reflected in the buildings Grade I listed building status and it stands at 98.2 m tall and has 13 floors. The building is crowned by a pair of towers, as a ship passed along the river. The clocks were made by Gent and Co. of Leicester, the clock faces are 7.6 m in diameter, larger than those of Londons famous landmark, the Great Westminster Clock, holding the distinction of being the largest electronically driven clocks in the UK. They were originally named George clocks, because they were started at the time that King George V was crowned on 22 June 1911. In 1953 electronic chimes were installed to serve as a memorial to the members of the Royal Liver Friendly Society who died during the two World Wars, during hours of darkness, the clock dials are illuminated. Atop each tower stand the mythical Liver Birds, designed by Carl Bernard Bartels, the birds are named Bella and Bertie, looking to the sea and inland, respectively. Popular legend has it that while one giant bird looks out over the city to protect its people, yet another local legend, reflecting Liverpudlians cynicism, avers that every time a virgin walks across the Pier Head, the Liver Birds flap their wings. It is also said that, if one of the birds were to fly away the city of Liverpool would cease to exist, additionally, however, their heads are three-and-a-half feet long, their wing spread is twelve feet and their legs measure two feet in circumference. The two birds - officially cormorants - have identical and almost traditional poses, standing upright with half-raised wings. During the early 1950s the sixth floor was occupied and used by No 3 Movements Unit of the Royal Air Force, overseeing and controlling the movement of RAF personnel, the building remains the head office for the Royal Liver Assurance. In October 2016, the building was put up for sale for the first time in its history, the owner instructed CBRE Group to list the sale with a guide price of more than £40m
43.
Mercure Liverpool Atlantic Tower Hotel
–
The Mercure Liverpool Atlantic Tower Hotel is large 4-star hotel located in Liverpool, England. Opened in 1972, it is situated on Chapel Street next to Saint Nicholas Church, the building was designed to resemble the prow of a ship to reflect Liverpools maritime history
