1.
Osaka Castle Park
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Osaka Castle Park is a public urban park and historical site situated at Osaka-Jō in Chūō-ku, Osaka, Japan. It lies on the south of the Ōkawa and occupies an area in the center of the city of Osaka. This park is the second largest park in the city, the park was constructed on a site with a long history. In the fifteenth century, a militant temple, Ishiyama Hongan-ji, was built here, in 1583, Toyotomi Hideyoshi destroyed Ishiyama Hongan-ji and built Osaka Castle here. From 1870 to 1945 the Osaka Imperial Arsenal used a large area, in 1931, Osaka Castle Park was opened to the public, but most of the area was used by the Imperial Japanese Army. After World War II, most of the complex was removed and replaced by the public urban park. In the park, theres Osaka Castle Hall, an athletic field, baseball field, football field, open air music theatre, open-air concert hall. From the top of tower, the vista includes Osaka Bay to Mount Ikoma. Many busking groups perform in the park, in spring, cherry blossom and plum blossom viewing is popular at this park. Media related to Osaka Castle at Wikimedia Commons Osaka Castle The 100 Views of Nature in Kansai Official page
2.
Osaka
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Osaka is a designated city in the Kansai region of Japan. Historically a merchant city, Osaka has also known as the nations kitchen. Some of the earliest signs of habitation in the Osaka area at the Morinomiya ruins comprise shell mounds, sea oysters. It is believed that what is today the Uehonmachi area consisted of a land with an inland sea in the east. During the Yayoi period, permanent habitation on the plains grew as rice farming became popular, by the Kofun period, Osaka developed into a hub port connecting the region to the western part of Japan. The large numbers of increasingly larger tomb mounds found in the plains of Osaka are seen as evidence of political-power concentration, in 645, Emperor Kōtoku built his Naniwa Nagara-Toyosaki Palace in what is now Osaka, making it the capital of Japan. The city now known as Osaka was at this time referred to as Naniwa, although the capital was moved to Asuka in 655, Naniwa remained a vital connection, by land and sea, between Yamato, Korea, and China. Naniwa was declared the capital again in 744 by order of Emperor Shōmu, and remained so until 745, in 1496, Jōdo Shinshū Buddhists established their headquarters in the heavily fortified Ishiyama Hongan-ji, located directly on the site of the old Naniwa Imperial Palace. Oda Nobunaga began a siege campaign on the temple in 1570 which ultimately resulted in the surrender of the monks. Toyotomi Hideyoshi constructed Osaka Castle in its place in 1583, Osaka was long considered Japans primary economic center, with a large percentage of the population belonging to the merchant class. Over the course of the Edo period, Osaka grew into one of Japans major cities and returned to its ancient role as a lively and its popular culture was closely related to ukiyo-e depictions of life in Edo. By 1780 Osaka had cultivated a vibrant arts culture, as typified by its famous Kabuki, in 1837 Ōshio Heihachirō, a low-ranking samurai, led a peasant insurrection in response to the citys unwillingness to support the many poor and suffering families in the area. Approximately one-quarter of the city was razed before shogunal officials put down the rebellion, Osaka was opened to foreign trade by the government of the Bakufu at the same time as Hyōgo on 1 January 1868, just before the advent of the Boshin War and the Meiji Restoration. Osaka residents were stereotyped in Edo literature from at least the 18th century, jippenisha Ikku in 1802 depicted Osakans as stingy almost beyond belief. Edo writers aspired to samurai culture, and saw themselves as poor but generous, chaste, Edo writers by contrast saw zeeroku as obsequious apprentices, stingy, greedy, gluttonous, and lewd. The modern municipality was established in 1889 by government ordinance, with an area of 15 square kilometres, overlapping todays Chūō. Later, the city went through three major expansions to reach its current size of 223 square kilometres, Osaka was the industrial center most clearly defined in the development of capitalism in Japan. It became known as the Manchester of the Orient, the rapid industrialization attracted many Korean immigrants, who set up a life apart for themselves
3.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
4.
Japanese castle
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Japanese castles were fortresses constructed primarily of wood and stone. They evolved from the wooden stockades of earlier centuries, and came into their best-known form in the 16th century. Castles in Japan were built to guard important or strategic sites, such as ports, river crossings, or crossroads, and almost always incorporated the landscape into their defenses. Though they were built to last and used more stone in their construction than most Japanese buildings, castles were constructed primarily of wood. This was especially true during the Sengoku period, when many of these castles were first built, however, many were rebuilt, either later in the Sengoku period, in the Edo period that followed, or more recently, as national heritage sites or museums. Today there are more than one hundred castles extant, or partially extant, in Japan, some castles, such as the ones at Matsue and Kōchi, both built in 1611, remain extant in their original forms, not having suffered any damage from sieges or other threats. Hiroshima Castle, on the end of the spectrum, was destroyed in the atomic bombing. The character for castle, 城, by itself read as shiro, is read as jō when attached to a word, thus, for example, Osaka Castle is called Ōsaka-jō in Japanese. Originally conceived as fortresses for military defense, Japanese castles were placed in locations, along trade routes, roads. Though castles continued to be built with these considerations, for centuries, fortresses were built as centres of governance. By the Sengoku period, they had come to serve as the homes of daimyōs, to impress and to intimidate rivals not only with their defences but also with their sizes, architecture, and elegant interiors. Azuchi served as the center of Odas territories, and as his lavish home. Before the Sengoku period, most castles were called yamajirō, though most later castles were built atop mountains or hills, these were built from the mountains. Trees and other foliage were cleared, and the stone and dirt of the mountain itself was carved into rough fortifications, ditches were dug, to present obstacles to attackers, as well as to allow boulders to be rolled down at attackers. Moats were created by diverting mountain streams, buildings were made primarily of wattle and daub, using thatched roofs, or, occasionally, wooden shingles. Small ports in the walls or planks could be used to deploy bows or fire guns from, the main weakness of this style was its general instability. Thatch caught fire more easily than wood, and weather. Eventually, stone began to be used, encasing the hilltop in a layer of fine pebbles
5.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
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Toyotomi Hideyoshi was a preeminent daimyō, warrior, general, samurai, and politician of the Sengoku period who is regarded as Japans second great unifier. He succeeded his former lord, Oda Nobunaga, and brought an end to the Warring States period. The period of his rule is called the Momoyama period. After his death, his young son Hideyori was displaced by Tokugawa Ieyasu, Hideyoshi is noted for a number of cultural legacies, including the restriction that only members of the samurai class could bear arms. He financed the construction, restoration and rebuilding of many temples standing today in Kyoto, Hideyoshi played an important role in the history of Christianity in Japan when he ordered the execution by crucifixion of twenty-six Christians. Very little is known for certain about Hideyoshi before 1570, when he begins to appear in surviving documents and his autobiography starts in 1577 but in it Hideyoshi spoke very little about his past. According to tradition, he was born in Owari Province, the home of the Oda clan and he was born of no traceable samurai lineage, being the son of a peasant-ashigaru named Yaemon. He had no surname, and his given name was Hiyoshi-maru although variations exist. Many legends describe Hideyoshi being sent to study at a temple as a young man, under the name Kinoshita Tōkichirō, he first joined the Imagawa clan as a servant to a local ruler named Matsushita Yukitsuna. He traveled all the way to the lands of Imagawa Yoshimoto, daimyō of Suruga Province, in 1558 he joined the Oda clan, now headed by Oda Nobunaga, as an ashigaru. According to his biographers, he supervised the repair of Kiyosu Castle, a described as apocryphal. In 1561, Hideyoshi married One who was Asano Nagakatsus adopted daughter and he carried out repairs on Sunomata Castle with his younger brother Toyotomi Hidenaga and the bandits Hachisuka Masakatsu and Maeno Nagayasu. Hideyoshis efforts were well received because Sunomata was in enemy territory and he constructed a fort in Sunomata, according to legend overnight, and discovered a secret route into Mount Inaba after which much of the garrison surrendered. Hideyoshi was very successful as a negotiator, in 1564, he managed to convince, mostly with liberal bribes, a number of Mino warlords to desert the Saitō clan. Hideyoshi approached many Saitō clan samurai and convinced them to submit to Nobunaga, including the Saitō clans strategist, the new surname included two characters, one each from Odas two other right-hand men, Niwa Nagahide and Shibata Katsuie. Hideyoshi led troops in the Battle of Anegawa in 1570 in which Oda Nobunaga allied with Tokugawa Ieyasu to lay siege to two fortresses of the Azai and Asakura clans and he participated in the 1573 Siege of Nagashima. In 1573, after victorious campaigns against the Azai and Asakura, initially based at the former Azai headquarters in Odani, Hideyoshi moved to Kunitomo, and renamed the city Nagahama in tribute to Nobunaga. Hideyoshi later moved to the port at Imahama on Lake Biwa, from there he began work on Imahama Castle and took control of the nearby Kunitomo firearms factory that had been established some years previously by the Azai and Asakura
6.
Burdock piling
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Burdock piling is an advanced Japanese technique for building stone walls, named after the resemblance of the rough stones used, to the ovate shapes of the blossoms of Japanese burdock plants. It was used to build ishi gaki, sloped stone walls make up the foundations of many Japanese castles. Large rocks are fitted together over a mound of earth, and this stone fill is called, kuri ishi, because of their small size. No mortar was used in the building of walls, which allowed the individual stones to move slightly during earthquakes. This technique grew from an earlier Japanese wall-building technique known as disordered piling
7.
Moat
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A moat is a deep, broad ditch, either dry or filled with water, that is dug and surrounds a castle, fortification, building or town, historically to provide it with a preliminary line of defence. In some places evolved into more extensive water defences, including natural or artificial lakes, dams. In older fortifications, such as hillforts, they are referred to simply as ditches. In later periods, moats or water defences may be largely ornamental and they could also act as sewerage. Some of the earliest evidence of moats has been uncovered around ancient Egyptian castles, one example is at Buhen, a castle excavated in Nubia. Other evidence of ancient moats is found in the ruins of Babylon, and in reliefs from ancient Egypt, Assyria, and other cultures in the region. Evidence of early moats around settlements has been discovered in archaeological sites throughout Southeast Asia, including Noen U-Loke, Ban Non Khrua Chut, Ban Makham Thae. The use of the moats could have been either for defensive or agriculture purposes, moats were excavated around castles and other fortifications as part of the defensive system as an obstacle immediately outside the walls. In suitable locations they might be filled with water, a moat made access to the walls difficult for siege weapons, such as siege towers and battering rams, which needed to be brought up against a wall to be effective. A water-filled moat made the practice of mining, digging tunnels under the castles in order to effect a collapse of the defences, segmented moats have one dry section and one section filled with water. Dry moats cut across the part of a spur or peninsula are called neck ditches. Moats separating different elements of a castle, such as the inner and outer wards are cross ditches, the shared derivation implies that the two features were closely related and possibly constructed at the same time. The term moat is also applied to natural formations reminiscent of the artificial structure, the walls were further protected from infantry attack by wet or dry moats, sometimes in elaborate systems. When this style of fortification was superseded by lines of forts in the mid-19th century. The Walls of Benin were a combination of ramparts and moats, called Iya and it was considered the largest man-made structure lengthwise, second only to the Great Wall of China and the largest earthwork in the world. With more recent work by Patrick Darling, it has established as the largest man-made structure in the world. It enclosed 6,500 km² of community lands and its length was over 16,000 km of earth boundaries. It was estimated that earliest construction began in 800 and continued into the mid-15th century, the walls are built of a ditch and dike structure, the ditch dug to form an inner moat with the excavated earth used to form the exterior rampart
8.
Yodo-dono
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Yodo-dono or Yodogimi was a prominently placed figure in late-Sengoku period. She was a concubine and second wife of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who was then the most powerful man in Japan and she also became the mother of his son and successor, Hideyori. She was also known as Lady Chacha, after the death of Hideyoshi, she took the tonsure, becoming a Buddhist nun and taking the name Daikōin. In 1614, she led a Anti-Shogunate rebellion, the great wealth and changing fortunes of her husband and son affected Yodo-donos life as well. Surviving record books from luxury goods provide insight into patterns of patronage and taste amongst the privileged class of women like Yodo-dono. Her mother, Oichi was the sister of Oda Nobunaga. After Nagamasas death, Toyotomi Hideyoshi became the father and protector of Chacha. Her status changed when she became his concubine and her status and her name were changed again when Yodo-dono became the mother of a male heir for the aging Taiko. Yodo-donos middle sister, Ohatsu, was the wife of Kyōgoku Takatsugu, Yodo-donos youngest sister, Oeyo, also known as Ogō, was the principal wife of Shogun Tokugawa Hidetada and the mother of his successor Tokugawa Iemitsu. In 1570, Chachas father, Nagamasa, broke his alliance with Oda Nobunaga, Nobunaga, however, requested the safe return of his sister, Oichi. Chacha, along with her mother and her two sisters, left the castle with her, Odani castle fell, and amongst those who died were Nagamasa and Manpukumaru, Chachas only brother. Nobunagas death in 1582 caused open hostilities between Shibata Katsuie and Hashiba Hideyoshi over the issue of succession, katsuies forces were defeated at the Battle of Shizugatake, and he was forced retreat to Kitanosho castle. With Hideyoshis army laying siege to his home, Katsuie set the castle ablaze, he, however, before Oichi died, she passed Chacha, Oeyo, and Ohatsu to the care and protection of Hideyoshi. Yodo-dono became Hideyoshis concubine and soon moved to Yodo Castle, Hideyoshis wife, Nene, was said to have been unable to conceive, and thus Lady Yodo inherited many of her privileges. She had two sons with Hideyoshi, Tsurumatsu, who died young, and Hideyori, born in 1593, Hideyoshi was also the enemy of her parents, first her father, then her step-father and mother. In 1594, the moved to Fushimi Castle, but tragedy befell when Hideyoshi died in 1598. Yodo-dono moved to Osaka Castle with her son Hideyori and plotted the restoration of the Toyotomi clan, Tokugawa Ieyasu, who seized control from Hideyori after the death of his father, now viewed Hideyori as an obstacle to his unification of Japan. He laid siege to Osaka Castle in 1614, but the attack fell through, however, in 1615, Ieyasu broke the truce and once again attacked Osaka Castle, and this time he succeeded
9.
Ishiyama Hongan-ji
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The Ishiyama Hongan-ji was the primary fortress of the Ikkō-ikki, leagues of warrior monks and commoners who opposed samurai rule during the Sengoku period. It was established in 1496, at the mouth of the Yodo River, at the time, this was just outside the remains of the ancient capital of Naniwa, in Settsu Province. In fact, recent archaeological research has determined that the temple was established atop the ruins of the old imperial palace, the city has since grown around the site, incorporating the Ishiyama. Rennyo, the great revivalist abbott of Jōdo Shinshū, retired to the area in 1496, although Rennyo sought isolation in retiring to this quiet place, he very quickly attracted a great number of devotees and followers. The tiny temple Rennyo built for his own personal devotions was expanded, by the time of Rennyos death, three years later, the general shape and size of the Ishiyama Hongan-ji was already in place. After the 1532 destruction of Yamashina Mido in Kyoto, the Ishiyama Hongan-ji acted as the temple for the Ikkō sect. Contributions from devotees were collected through a system of brokers, primarily based in Sakai in nearby Izumi Province. The cathedral-fortress was considered impenetrable, due largely to its location and orientation, in addition, roughly a hundred monks were on patrol at any given time, and upwards of ten thousand could be summoned to battle simply by ringing a bell. The monks of the fortress not only from Osaka and the surrounding areas. The monks also had many allies, including the Mōri clan, ironically, both Uesugi Kenshin and Takeda Shingen, both of whom were rivals of Oda Nobunaga, simply by keeping Nobunaga and each other occupied, did the Ikki a great service. In August 1580, the Abbot Kōsa was persuaded to surrender, at the time of the surrender, the entire temple complex was set aflame. According to some sources, this was done from within, to deny Nobunaga any true material gains from having defeated the Ikki, three years later, Toyotomi Hideyoshi began the construction of Osaka Castle on the same site. Siege of Ishiyama Hongan-ji Turnbull, Stephen
10.
Azuchi Castle
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Azuchi Castle was one of the primary castles of Oda Nobunaga. It was built from 1576 to 1579, on the shores of Lake Biwa, unlike earlier castles and fortresses, Azuchi was not intended to only be a military structure, cold, dark, and foreboding. Nobunaga intended it as a mansion, which would impress and intimidate his rivals, not only with its defenses, in addition to being one of the first Japanese castles with a tower keep, Azuchi was unique in that its uppermost story was octagonal. In addition, the facade of Azuchi, unlike the white or black of other castles, was colorfully decorated with tigers. There were five main features of Azuchi Castle that differentiated it from earlier castle designs. Firstly, it was a structure, with the walls of the castle ranging from 18 feet to 21 feet in thickness. The second feature of Azuchi Castle is the predominant use of stone, the walls were constructed from huge granite stones fitted carefully together without the use of mortar. A third innovation of the Azuchi Castle was the central tower. The tower allowed for increased visibility for the use of guns against an opposing force, builder’s plans for the castle show the donjon to be 138 feet tall, with seven levels. Fourthly, Azuchi Castle had irregularly formed inner citadels and these inner citadels gave defenders ample defensive positions against intruders. The location of Azuchi Castle was also a novel feature and he had trouble convincing people to move into these homes at first, however. By 1582, the inhabitants numbered roughly 5,000. In the summer of 1582, just after Nobunagas death at Honnō-ji, the castle was set aflame, though some accounts claim this might have been the work of looting townspeople, or of one of Nobunagas sons. Mitsuhide, therefore, never managed to occupy the castle, the Azuchi-Momoyama Period of Japanese history takes its name, in part, from this castle. In 1976, the Japanese architectural historian Naitō Akira published what he believed to be a summary of the features of Azuchi Castle. It had seven levels, although from the outside only five were apparent. The interior had some unexpected, unprecedented and unique features, the centre of the structure rose without a ceiling, up to level of the fifth floor, almost 62 feet from the ground. All that remains of the castle today is the stone base, however, an approximate reproduction of Azuchi, based on illustrations and historical descriptions, stands in Ise Sengoku Village, a samurai theme park near Ise
11.
Oda Nobunaga
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Oda Nobunaga was a powerful Daimyō of Japan in the late 16th century who attempted to unify Japan during the late Sengoku period. Nobunaga is regarded as one of three unifiers of Japan along with his retainers Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu, Nobunaga was widely known as one of the most brutal figures in history, eliminating anyone who stood in his way. He was both a ruler and keen businessman, strategizing at both the micro- and macroeconomic scales. He met his demise when his retainer Akechi Mitsuhide rebelled against him at Honnō-ji, Oda Nobunaga was the first for whom this goal seemed attainable. Nobunaga had gained control over most of Honshu before his death during the 1582 Honnō-ji incident and it is not certain whether Nobunaga was killed in the attack or else committed seppuku. The motivations behind Mitsuhides betrayal was never revealed to anyone who survived the incident, following the incident, Akechi Mitsuhide declared himself master over Nobunagas domains, but was quickly defeated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who regained control of and greatly expanded the Oda holdings. Oda Nobunaga was born on June 23,1534, in the Owari domain and he was the second son of Oda Nobuhide, a deputy shugo with land holdings in Owari Province. He is said to have born in Nagoya Castle, although this is subject to debate. Through his childhood and early years, he was well known for his bizarre behavior. He was known to run around with other youths from the area, with the introduction of firearms into Japan, however, he became known for his fondness of tanegashima firearms. In 1551, Oda Nobuhide died unexpectedly, Nobunaga was said to have acted outrageously during his funeral, throwing ceremonial incense at the altar. This convinced many Oda retainers of Nobunagas mediocrity and lack of discipline, alienated, they then began to side with his soft-spoken and well-mannered brother, Nobuyuki. Hirate Masahide, a mentor and retainer to Nobunaga, was ashamed by Nobunagas behavior. This had an effect on Nobunaga, who later built a temple to honor Masahide. Although Nobunaga was Nobuhides legitimate successor, the Oda clan was divided into factions. Oda Nobutomo, the deceased Nobuhides brother and deputy to the shugo, used the weak Yoshimune as his puppet, Nobutomo murdered Yoshimune when it was discovered that he supported and attempted to aid Nobunaga. This also ensured that the Imagawa clan would have to stop attacking Owaris borders, although Nobuyuki and his supporters were still at large, Nobunaga brought an army to Mino Province to aid Saitō Dōsan after Dōsans son, Saitō Yoshitatsu, turned against him. The campaign failed, as Dōsan was killed in the Battle of Nagara-gawa, a few months later Nobuyuki, with support from Shibata Katsuie and Hayashi Hidesada, rebelled against Nobunaga
12.
Gold leaf
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Gold leaf is gold that has been hammered into thin sheets by goldbeating and is often used for gilding. Gold leaf is available in a variety of karats and shades. The most commonly used gold is 22-karat yellow gold, Gold leaf is a type of metal leaf, but the term is rarely used when referring to gold leaf. The term metal leaf is used for thin sheets of metal of any color that do not contain any real gold. Real yellow gold leaf is about 91. 7% pure gold, silver colored white gold is approximately 50% pure gold. Layering gold leaf over a surface is called gold leafing or gilding, traditional water gilding is the most difficult and highly regarded form of gold leafing. It has remained unchanged for hundreds of years and is still done by hand. Gold leaf is used in art in a raw state. It has been used in jewellery in various periods, often as small pieces hanging freely. Gold glass is gold leaf held between two pieces of glass, and was used for decorated Ancient Roman vessels, where some of the gold was scraped off to form an image, Gold leaf is also used in Buddhist art to decorate statues and symbols. Gold leafing can also be seen on domes in religious and public architecture, from the ancient temples to modern day buildings, gold leaf has been an integral component of architecture to designate important structures since the dawn of humankind. Due to gold’s resilience, golden-domed buildings can stand up to weather, deterioration and even modern pollution, Gold in architecture became an integral component of Byzantine and Roman churches and basilicas in 400 AD, most notably Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. The church was built by Pope Sixtus III and is one of the earliest examples of gold mosaics, the mosaics were made of stone, tile or glass backed on gold leaf walls, giving the church a beautifully intricate backdrop. The 14th century campanile, or bell tower, is the highest in Rome, the apse mosaic, the Coronation of the Virgin, is from 1295, signed by the Franciscan friar, Jacopo Torriti. It is also the location of ceremonial spaces, such as the Hall of Honour, the Memorial Chamber. Capping the room is a ceiling with deep octagonal coffers, each filled with heraldic symbols, including maple leaves, fleur-de-lis, lions rampant, clàrsach, Welsh Dragons. This plane rests on six pairs and four pilasters, each of which is capped by a caryatid. Below the windows is an architrave, broken only by baldachins at the base of each of the above pilasters
13.
Toyotomi Hideyori
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Toyotomi Hideyori was the son and designated successor of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the general who first united all of Japan. His mother, Yodo-dono, was the niece of Oda Nobunaga, when Hideyoshi died in 1598, the five regents he had appointed to rule in Hideyoris place began jockeying amongst themselves for power. Tokugawa Ieyasu seized control in 1600, after his victory over the others at the Battle of Sekigahara, Hideyoris arranged marriage to Senhime, the seven-year-old granddaughter of Ieyasu, was designed to mitigate Toyotomi clan dissension and plotting. In this period, the boy practiced calligraphy with phrases wishing for peace throughout the world. However, Ieyasu continued to view the young Hideyori as a potential threat, Tokugawa forces attacked Hideyori in the Siege of Osaka in the winter of 1614. The attack failed, but Hideyori was induced to sign a truce, in April 1615, Ieyasu received word that Toyotomi Hideyori was gathering even more troops than in the previous November, and that he was trying to stop the filling of the moat of Osaka Castle. Toyotomi forces began to attack contingents of the Shoguns forces near Osaka, there was no time to set up a proper defense of the castle, and it was soon set ablaze and pummeled by artillery fire. Hideyori and his mother committed seppuku, and the final major uprising against Tokugawa rule for another 250 or so years was put to an end and his widow remarried but later became a Buddhist nun. Recognizing that they had a numerical disadvantage, they decided to attempt a tactic of inducing surprise. When the confusion was to be at its height, Hideyori would have marched out of Osaka castle with his home troops and would in theory be the final blow to the Tokugawa. What happened, according to Murdoch, was that Akashi was not able to get behind the Tokugawa troops, having been discovered and engaged before he emerged from the lanes. Whats more, the plans fell apart as Moris Ronin, ever eager to fight, began shooting at the Tokugawa ranks, Sanada at once told the ronin to stop but they only doubled their efforts. Mori Katsunaga, deciding to take advantage of his ronins eagerness, upon this, Sanada realized in order to keep any structure of his original plan, he too, would need to engage alongside the ronin. Hideyori began moving with his troops to leave Osaka, meanwhile, the Osaka troops had been doing quite well in spite of the numerical disadvantage. Not only did the Jesuits write this, but, in another account, ono Harunagas son entered the castle and immediately dispatched a letter from Tokugawa to his father. The letter said Do not let Hideyori leave the castle, in the castle is a conspiracy and as soon as Hideyori leaves it he will be attacked from the rear. It is because of this letter, according to Siebold, that Hideyoris portion of the plan miscarried and he was just about to leave when he was brought word of its contents, and at this point, stalled in entering the fray. Eventually, despite the ferocity and initial victories of the Osaka troops, let Hideyori defend the castle to the last, when it fell, it would be time to take a decision
14.
Tokugawa Ieyasu
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Tokugawa Ieyasu was the founder and first shogun of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan, which effectively ruled Japan from the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. Ieyasu seized power in 1600, received appointment as shogun in 1603, abdicated from office in 1605 and his given name is sometimes spelled Iyeyasu, according to the historical pronunciation of he. Ieyasu was posthumously enshrined at Nikkō Tōshō-gū with the name Tōshō Daigongen and he was one of the three unifiers of Japan, along with his Former Lord Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Tokugawa Ieyasu was born in Okazaki Castle in Mikawa on the 26th day of the month of the eleventh year of Tenbun. His mother and father were step-siblings and they were just 17 and 15 years old, respectively, when Ieyasu was born. Two years later, Odai-no-kata was sent back to her family, as both husband and wife remarried and both went on to have further children, Ieyasu in the end had 11 half-brothers and sisters. The Matsudaira family was split in 1550, one wanted to be vassals of the Imagawa clan. As a result, much of Ieyasus early years were spent in danger as wars with the Oda and this family feud was the reason behind the murder of Ieyasus paternal grandfather, Matsudaira Kiyoyasu. Unlike his father and the majority of his branch of the family, Ieyasus father, Hirotada, in 1548, when the Oda clan invaded Mikawa, Hirotada turned to Imagawa Yoshimoto, the head of the Imagawa clan, for help to repel the invaders. Yoshimoto agreed under the condition that Hirotada send Ieyasu to Sunpu as a hostage, Oda Nobuhide, the leader of the Oda clan, learned of this arrangement and had Ieyasu abducted from his entourage en route to Sunpu. Ieyasu was just five years old at the time, Nobuhide threatened to execute Ieyasu unless his father severed all ties with the Imagawa clan. Hirotada replied that sacrificing his own son would show his seriousness in his pact with the Imagawa clan, despite this refusal, Nobuhide chose not to kill Ieyasu, but instead held him for the next three years at the Mansho Temple in Nagoya. In 1549, when Ieyasu was 6, his father Hirotada was murdered by his own treacherous vassals, at about the same time, Oda Nobuhide died during an epidemic. Nobuhides death dealt a blow to the Oda clan. An army under the command of Imagawa Sessai laid siege to the castle where Oda Nobuhiro, Nobuhides eldest son, with the castle about to fall, Sessai offered a deal to Oda Nobunaga, Nobuhides second son. Sessai offered to give up the siege if Ieyasu was handed over to the Imagawa, Nobunaga agreed, and so Ieyasu was taken as a hostage to Sunpu. Here he lived a good life as hostage and potentially useful future ally of the Imagawa clan until 1556 when he was age 13 years old. In 1556 he came of age, and, following tradition, one year later, at the age of 13, he married his first wife, Lady Tsukiyama, and changed his name again to Matsudaira Kurandonosuke Motoyasu
15.
Battle of Sekigahara
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The Battle of Sekigahara was a decisive battle on October 21,1600 that preceded the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate. Japan had a period of peace after the battle. Oda Nobunaga had slowly consolidated control over much of Japan and was in control of the shogun, Ashikaga tried to escape this predicament in 1573 by attacking Oda, but failed and was exiled, thus ending his shogunate. Nobunaga ruled unopposed until he was betrayed by his own retainer Akechi Mitsuhide in 1582, while under attack in Kyoto, Nobunaga committed suicide by seppuku. Toyotomi Hideyoshi quickly avenged his master Nobunaga and consolidated control over Japan, Hideyoshi had risen from humble roots to become the ruler of Japan. The death of Hideyoshi created a vacuum in Japan, which ultimately was resolved by the outcome at Sekigahara. With no appointed shogun over the armies, this left a vacuum in the Japanese government. Most notably, Katō Kiyomasa and Fukushima Masanori were publicly critical of the bureaucrats, especially Ishida Mitsunari, Tokugawa Ieyasu took advantage of this situation, and recruited them, redirecting the animosity to weaken the Toyotomi clan. Tokugawa Ieyasu was unrivaled in terms of seniority, rank, reputation, rumors started to spread stating that Ieyasu, at that point the only surviving ally of Oda Nobunaga, would take over Hideyoshis legacy just as Nobunagas was taken. This was especially evident amongst the loyalist bureaucrats, who suspected Ieyasu of agitating unrest amongst Toyotomis former vassals. Later, a conspiracy to assassinate Ieyasu surfaced, and many Toyotomi loyalists, including Toshiies son, Toshinaga, were accused of taking part. However, Uesugi Kagekatsu, one of Hideyoshis appointed regents, defied Ieyasu by building up his military, afterwards, Ieyasu summoned the help of various supporters and led them northward to attack the Uesugi clan. Many of them were at that moment besieging Hasedō though, Ishida Mitsunari, grasping the opportunity created by the chaos, rose up in response and created an alliance to challenge Ieyasus supporters. Mitsunari, in his home Sawayama Castle, met with Ōtani Yoshitsugu, Mashita Nagamori, here, they forged the alliance, and invited Mōri Terumoto, who actually did not take part in Sekigahara, to be its head. Thus formed what came to be referred to as the Western Army, Mori seized Osaka Castle for their base of operations, since most of Tokugawa’s forces had vacated the area to attack Uesugi. Ishida wanted to reinforce Mori at the impregnable Osaka Castle and this would let Mitsunari control the traditional capital city of Kyoto and challenge Tokugawa’s power. To this end, Mitsunari’s forces headed for Gifu Castle in order to use it as an area to move on Kyoto. Back in Edo, Ieyasu received news of the situation in the Kansai region, Tokugawa himself commanded 30,000 men and his subordinates led another 40,000 men
16.
Siege of Osaka
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The Siege of Osaka was a series of battles undertaken by the Tokugawa shogunate against the Toyotomi clan, and ending in that clans destruction. Divided into two stages, and lasting from 1614 to 1615, the siege put an end to the last major armed opposition to the shogunates establishment. The end of the conflict is called the Genna Armistice. When Toyotomi Hideyoshi died in 1598, Japan came to be governed by the Council of Five Elders, after defeating Ishida Mitsunari in the battle of Sekigahara in 1600, Ieyasu essentially seized control of Japan for himself, and abolished the Council. In 1603, the Tokugawa shogunate was established, with its capital at Edo, in 1614, the Toyotomi clan rebuilt Osaka Castle. At the same time, the head of the clan sponsored the rebuilding of Hōkō-ji in Kyoto. These temple renovations included the casting of a bronze bell, with inscriptions that read May the state be peaceful and prosperous. The shogunate interpreted kokka ankō as shattering Ieyasus name to him, and also interpreted kunshin hōraku to mean Toyotomis force will rise again. Tensions began to grow between the Tokugawa and the Toyotomi clans, and only increased when Toyotomi Hideyori began to gather a force of ronin, the siege began on the 19th of November, when Ieyasu led three thousand men across the Kizu River, destroying the fort there. A week later, he attacked the village of Imafuku with 1,500 men, with the aid of a squad wielding arquebuses, the shogunate forces claimed another victory. Several more small forts and villages were attacked before the siege on Osaka Castle itself began on 4 December, the Sanada-maru was an earthwork barbican defended by Sanada Yukimura and 7,000 men, on behalf of the Toyotomi. The Shoguns armies were repelled, and Sanada and his men launched a number of attacks against the siege lines. Ieyasu then resorted to artillery as well as men to dig under the walls, on 22 January the Winter Siege was ended, with Toyotomi Hideyori pledging to not rise in rebellion. The walls of the outer defenses were torn down. In April 1615, Ieyasu received word that Toyotomi Hideyori was gathering more troops than in the previous November. Toyotomi forces began to attack contingents of the Shoguns forces near Osaka, on May 26 at the Battle of Kashii Osaka forces under the command of Ono Harufusa and Ban Danemon engaged with forces of Asano Nagaakira, an ally of the Shogun. Osaka forces sustained a loss and Ban Danemon was killed, on June 2, the battle of Dōmyōji took place. Osaka forces were trying to stop the Tokugawa forces approaching from Yamato Province along the Yamato-gawa river, two of Osaka generals, Gotō Matabei and Susukida Kanesuke were killed in action
17.
Toyotomi clan
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The Toyotomi clan was a Japanese clan that ruled over Japan before the Edo period. The most influential figure within the Toyotomi was Toyotomi Hideyoshi, one of the three unifiers of Japan, Oda Nobunaga was another primary unifier and the ruler of the Oda clan at the time. Hideyoshi joined Nobunaga at an age, but was not highly regarded because of his peasant background. Nevertheless, Hideyoshis increasing influence allowed him to seize a significant degree of power from the Oda clan following Oda Nobunagas death in 1582. As the virtual ruler of most of Japan, Hideyoshi created a new clan name Toyotomi in 1584, when Hideyoshi died in 1598, his son Toyotomi Hideyori was still an infant. Five regents were appointed to rule until his maturity, and conflicts among them began quickly, in 1600, Tokugawa Ieyasu deposed Hideyori and took power after winning the Battle of Sekigahara. In 1614, Hideyori came into conflict with the Tokugawa clan, as a result of the siege, Hideyori was forced to commit seppuku. After his death, the Toyotomi clan dissolved, leaving the Tokugawa clan to solidify their rule of Japan, a rumour said that Toyotomi Hideyoris son Toyotomi Kunimatsu escaped execution, and another rumour said that Hideyori had an illegitimate son named Amakusa Shiro. Toyotomi Hideyoshi Toyotomi Hideyori Toyotomi Hidetsugu Toyotomi Hidenaga
18.
Tokugawa Hidetada
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Tokugawa Hidetada was the second shogun of the Tokugawa dynasty, who ruled from 1605 until his abdication in 1623. He was the son of Tokugawa Ieyasu, the first shogun of the Tokugawa shogunate. Tokugawa Hidetada was born to Tokugawa Ieyasu and the Lady Saigō on May 2,1579, by killing his wife and son, Ieyasu declared his loyalty to Nobunaga. In 1589, Hidetadas mother fell ill, her health rapidly deteriorated, later Hidetada with his brother, Matsudaira Tadayoshi was raised by Lady Chaa one of Ieyasus concubine. The traditional power base of the Tokugawa clan was Mikawa, in 1590, the new ruler of Japan, Toyotomi Hideyoshi enlisted Tokugawa Ieyasu and others in attacking the domain of the Hōjō in what became known as the Siege of Odawara. Hideyoshi enlisted Ieyasu for this campaign by promising to exchange the five provinces under Ieyasus control for the eight Kantō provinces, in order to keep Ieyasu from defecting to the Hōjō side, Hideyoshi took the eleven-year-old Nagamaru as a hostage. In 1592 Hideyoshi presided over Nagamarus coming of age ceremony, it was then that Ieyasus son dropped his name, Nagamaru. He was named the heir of the Tokugawa family, being the eldest surviving son of Ieyasu, in 1593, Hidetada returned to his fathers side. In 1590 Hidetada married O-Hime, daughter of Oda Nobukatsu and adopted daughter of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, O-Hime died in 1591, and was given the posthumous Buddhidt name Shunshoin. In 1595, Hidetada married Oeyo, daughter of Azai Nagamasa and their wedding was held in Fushimi Castle. Father, Tokugawa Ieyasu Mother, Saigō-no-Tsubone Adopted Mother, Lady Chaa Wife, O-Hime, in 1595, Hidetada married Oeyo of the Oda clan and they had two sons, Tokugawa Iemitsu and Tokugawa Tadanaga. They also had two daughters, one of whom, Sen hime, married twice, the other daughter, Kazuko hime, married Emperor Go-Mizunoo. Knowing his death would come before his son Toyotomi Hideyori came of age, Hideyoshi named five regents—one of whom was Hidetadas father, Hideyoshi hoped that the bitter rivalry among the regents would prevent any one of them from seizing power. But after Hideyoshi died in 1598 and Hideyori became nominal ruler, Tokugawa Ieyasu was one of the strongest of the five regents, and began to rally around himself an Eastern faction. A Western faction rallied around Ishida Mitsunari, the two factions clashed at the Battle of Sekigahara, which set the stage for Tokugawa rule. In 1600 Hidetada led 16,000 of his fathers men in a campaign to contain the Western-aligned Uesugi clan in Shinano, Ieyasu then ordered Hidetada to march his troops to Sekigahara in anticipation of the decisive battle against the Western faction. But the Sanada Clan managed to tie Hidetadas forces down, meaning that he arrived too late to assist in his fathers narrow, Hidetada and Ieyasus relationship never recovered. In 1603 Emperor Go-Yōzei granted Ieyasu the title of shogun, thus Hidetada became the heir to the shogunate
19.
Seto Inland Sea
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The Seto Inland Sea, also known as Setouchi or often shortened to Inland Sea, is the body of water separating Honshū, Shikoku, and Kyūshū, three of the four main islands of Japan. The region that includes the Seto Inland Sea and the areas of Honshū, Shikoku. It serves as a waterway, connecting the Pacific Ocean to the Sea of Japan and it connects to Osaka Bay and provides a sea transport link to industrial centers in the Kansai region, including Osaka and Kobe. Before the construction of the Sanyō Main Line, it was the transportation link between Kansai and Kyūshū. The Setouchi region is known for its climate, with a stable year-round temperature. The sea is also famous for its periodic red tides caused by dense groupings of certain phytoplankton that result in the death of large numbers of fish, the International Hydrographic Organizations definition of the limits of the Seto Inland Sea is as follows, On the West. The Southeastern limit of the Japan Sea, a line running from Takura Saki in Honsyû to Oishi Hana in the island of Awazi, through this island to Sio Saki and on to Oiso Saki in Sikoku. A line joining Sada Misaki in Sikoku and Seki Saki in Kyûsyû, the Seto Inland Sea is 450 km long from east to west. The width from south to north varies from 15 to 55 km, in most places, the water is relatively shallow. The average depth is 37.3 m, the greatest depth is 105 m, the Naruto Strait connects the eastern part of the Seto Inland Sea to the Kii Channel, which in turn connects to the Pacific Ocean. The western part of the Seto Inland Sea connects to the Sea of Japan through the Kanmon Straits, each part of the Seto Inland Sea has a separate name in Japanese. There are also many straits located between the islands, as well as a number of smaller ones that pass between islands or connect the Seto Inland Sea to other seas or the Pacific. Almost 3,000 islands are located in the Seto Inland Sea, many of the smaller islands are uninhabited. Over 500 marine species are known to live in the Seto Inland Sea, examples are the ayu, an amphidromous fish, the horseshoe crab, the finless porpoise, and the great white shark, which has occasionally attacked people in the Seto Inland Sea. In the past whales entered the sea to feed or breed, however due to whaling and pollution, they have disappeared from the Seto Inland Sea. It is believed that in the last ice age the sea level was lower than today, after the ice age, sea water poured into a basin between the Chūgoku mountains and Shikoku mountains and formed the Seto Inland Sea as we know it today. From ancient times, the Seto Inland Sea served as a transport line between its coastal areas, including what is today the Kansai region and Kyūshū. It was also a transport line between Japan and other countries, including Korea and China
20.
Tenshu
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Tenshu is an architectural typology found in Japanese castle complexes. They are easily identifiable as the highest tower within the castle, further, tenshu are typically decorated with varying patterns of dormer gables, and are capped with hip-and-gabled roofs with shachihoko finials. Not all Japanese castles originally possessed tenshu, many castles have lost their tenshu. First, the term was reserved for those castles under the direct control of Nobunaga or one of his vassals. Second, in its earliest uses there was no standard for writing the term. The earliest variants include 天主, 殿主, 殿守, ” or phonetically as てんしゅ, the first known use of the current standard “天守” appears in a letter dated the 27th day, 10th month of Tensho 7 issued by Nobunaga. While this way of writing tenshu gradually became the standard during the reign of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the older manner of writing is preferred when discussing certain castles. One important example of this is the Azuchi Castle tenshu which is referred as “天主. ”The history of tenshu as an architectural typology seems to have begun earlier than the use of the term. Towers at Tamonyama Castle and Gifu Castle are known to have had the character of a tenshu. Azuchi Castle is often credited as the birthplace of the tenshu, given the earliest usages of the name, however, it seems more likely that Azuchi played a key role in linking the typology and the name. The Compact Nelson Japanese-English Dictionary, Charles E. Tuttle Company, Tokyo 1999, ISBN 4-8053-0574-6 Kenkyushas New Japanese-English Dictionary, Kenkyusha Limited, Tokyo 1991, ISBN 4-7674-2015-6
21.
Fall of Osaka Castle
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On February 2,1868, the Tokugawa-held Osaka Castle was captured by pro-Imperial Kangun forces. The fall followed the Tokugawa defeat in the Battle of Toba–Fushimi, troops loyal to the bakufu tried to regroup under Tokugawa Yoshinobu. At Osaka Castle, Tokugawa Yoshinobu gathered his advisors and military leaders to plan strategy and, to boost morale, advised that he would personally take to the field as commander of bakufu forces. On January 31,1868, Tokugawa Yoshinobu slipped away from Osaka Castle accompanied by the daimyōs of Aizu, as Kaiyō maru had not arrived, he took refuge for the night on an American warship, USS Iroquois, anchored in Osaka Bay. The Kaiyō maru arrived two hours later and picked up the Tokugawa party, when the remnants of his forces learned that the Shogun had abandoned them, they departed Osaka Castle, which was later surrendered to Imperial forces without resistance. The castle was seized and burnt on Sunday 2 February 1868, the Castle of Osaka was symbolic as it was the power-base of the Tokugawa Bakufu in Western Japan. It was also significant and it had been the location of the Siege of Osaka. The Castle of Osaka was burnt and reduced to ruins by the new government, and was later used as a ground for military barracks
22.
Meiji Restoration
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The Meiji Restoration, also known as the Meiji Ishin, Renovation, Revolution, Reform, or Renewal, was an event of change that restored practical imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Although there were Emperors before the Meiji Restoration, the events restored practical abilities, Meiji government also made education compulsory for both boys and girls at minimal fees. The goals of the government were expressed by the new emperor in the Charter Oath. The Restoration led to changes in Japans political and social structure. In Japan however, unlike China, foreign ideas were not associated with opium addiction. Figures like Shimazu Nariakira concluded that if we take the initiative, we can dominate, if we do not, we will be dominated, leading Japan to throw open its doors to foreign technology. Observing Japans response to the powers, Li Hongzhang considered Japan Chinas principal security threat as early as 1863. The word Meiji means enlightened rule and the goal was to modern advances with traditional eastern values. The main leaders of this were Itō Hirobumi, Matsukata Masayoshi, Kido Takayoshi, Itagaki Taisuke, Yamagata Aritomo, Mori Arinori, Ōkubo Toshimichi, and Yamaguchi Naoyoshi. The foundation of the Meiji restoration was the 1866 Satsuma-Chōshū Alliance between Saigō Takamori and Kido Takayoshi, leaders of the reformist elements in the Satsuma Domain and Chōshū Domain. These two leaders supported the Emperor Kōmei and were brought together by Sakamoto Ryōma for the purpose of challenging the ruling Tokugawa shogunate, after Emperor Kōmeis death on January 30,1867, Emperor Meiji ascended the throne on February 3. This period also saw Japan change from being a society to having a market economy. The Tokugawa Shogunate came to its end on November 9,1867, when Tokugawa Yoshinobu. Shortly thereafter in January 1868, the Boshin War started with the Battle of Toba–Fushimi in which Chōshū and this forced the Emperor to strip Yoshinobu of all power, setting the stage for official restoration. We shall henceforward exercise supreme authority in all the internal and external affairs of the country, consequently the title of Emperor must be substituted for that of Taikun, in which the treaties have been made. Officers are being appointed by us to the conduct of foreign affairs and it is desirable that the representatives of the treaty powers recognize this announcement. All Tokugawa lands were seized and placed under control, thus placing them under the prerogative of the new Meiji government. With Fuhanken sanchisei, the areas were split into three types, urban prefectures, rural prefectures and the already existing domains
23.
Reinforced concrete
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The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets. Reinforcing schemes are designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, Reinforced concrete may also be permanently stressed, so as to improve the behaviour of the final structure under working loads. In the United States, the most common methods of doing this are known as pre-tensioning and post-tensioning, durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress for example. François Coignet was a French industrialist of the century, a pioneer in the development of structural. Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures, in 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four story house at 72 rue Charles Michels in the suburbs of Paris. Coignets descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete, in 1854, English builder William B. Wilkinson reinforced the concrete roof and floors in the two-storey house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, in 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing concrete columns and girders with iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, before 1877 the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire and reintroduced in the mid to late 1800s, was not yet a proven scientific technology. His work played a role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven. Without Hyatts work, more dangerous trial and error methods would have largely depended on for the advancement in the technology. G. A. Wayss was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron, in 1879 Wayss bought the German rights to Moniers patents and in 1884 started the first commercial use for reinforced concrete in his firm Wayss & Freytag. Up until the 1890s Wayss and his firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Moniers system of reinforcing, ernest L. Ransome was an English-born engineer and early innovator of the reinforced concrete techniques in the end of the 19th century. With the knowledge of reinforced concrete developed during the previous 50 years, ransomes key innovation was to twist the reinforcing steel bar improving bonding with the concrete. Gaining increasing fame from his concrete constructed buildings Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in North America, one of the first concrete buildings constructed in the United States, was a private home, designed by William Ward in 1871. The home was designed to be fireproof for his wife, one of the first skyscrapers made with reinforced concrete was the 16-storey Ingalls Building in Cincinnati, constructed in 1904. Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames, Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete. Designing and implementing the most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures, small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building
24.
West Japan Railway Company
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West Japan Railway Company, also referred to as JR-West, is one of the Japan Railways Group companies and operates in western Honshu. It has its headquarters in Kita-ku, Osaka, Hokuriku Shinkansen Sanyo Shinkansen Hakata Minami Line JR-Wests highest-grossing line is the Sanyo Shinkansen high-speed rail line between Osaka and Fukuoka. The Sanyo Shinkansen alone accounts for about 40% of JR-Wests passenger revenues, the company also operates Hakata Minami Line, a short commuter line with Shinkansen trains in Fukuoka. The Urban Network is JR-Wests name for its rail lines in the Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto metropolitan area. These lines together comprise 610 km of track, have 245 stations, Urban Network stations are equipped to handle ICOCA fare cards. Train control on these lines is highly automated, and during peak hours trains run as often as two minutes. JR-Wests Urban Network competes with a number of commuter rail operators around Osaka, the Big 4 being Hankyu Railway/Hanshin Railway, Keihan Railway, Kintetsu. JR-Wests market share in the region is roughly equal to that of the Big 4 put together, largely due to its comprehensive network and those in italics are announcement names. These lines mainly handle business and leisure travel between cities and rural areas in western Japan. They account for about 20% of the companys passenger revenues, fukuchiyama Line Includes JR Takarazuka Line. Hakubi Line Hokuriku Main Line Includes Biwako Line, honshi-Bisan Line, Chayamachi — Kojima Nicknamed Seto-Ōhashi Line Kansai Main Line, Kameyama — JR Namba Includes Yamatoji Line. Kisei Main Line, Shingū — Wakayamashi Includes Kinokuni Line, sanin Main Line Includes Sagano Line. Sanyō Main Line, Kobe — Shimonoseki, Hyōgo — Wadamisaki, takayama Main Line, Inotani — Toyama Tōkaidō Main Line, Maibara — Kobe Includes Biwako Line, JR Kyoto Line, and JR Kobe Line. Initially, it was a wholly owned subsidiary of the JNR Settlement Corporation, for the first four years of its existence, JR-West leased its highest-revenue line, the Sanyō Shinkansen, from the separate Shinkansen Holding Corporation. JR-West purchased the line in October 1991 at a cost of 974.1 billion JPY in long-term payable debt, JNRSC sold 68. 3% of JR-West in an initial public offering on the Tokyo Stock Exchange in October 1996. JRTT offered all of its shares in JR-West to the public in an international IPO in 2004, JR-West is now listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange, Nagoya Stock Exchange, Osaka Securities Exchange and the Fukuoka Stock Exchange
25.
Osaka Loop Line
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The Osaka Loop Line is a railway line in Japan operated by West Japan Railway Company. Part of a second, proposed outer loop line, the Osaka Higashi Line, from Hanaten to Kyuhoji was opened on March 15,2008. This entry covers the central loop line. This loop line consists of two tracks around the heart of metropolitan Osaka, most trains consist of 8 carriages, with distinctive orange colour with white JR graphics on the front, rear and sides. The train schedule varies, but on average, two trains leave Tennōji Station and Ōsaka Station every seven minutes, in opposite directions, on this line, JR West operates several types of trains. The line serves as a link between Ōsaka Station in northern Osaka, and Tennōji in southern central Osaka. Some Limited Express trains linking north and south of the Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto area use the line as a bypass between the Tōkaidō Main Line in the north and the Hanwa Line in the south. Traffic is heavier in the half, Osaka - Kyōbashi - Tennōji. Instead, the outer circle and the inner circle are used to refer to the direction. The outer is clockwise, the inner counterclockwise, if rules, such as the registration of the line at Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport apply, the inner loop is down. Local trains are operated all day, some operate over the complete loop, while some serve the eastern half between Osaka and Tennōji via Kyōbashi. Eight-car EMUs of 103 series and 201 series are used, Trains of the Sakurajima Line are now operated through to the loop line to/from Kyōbashi and Tennoji. Eight-car 103 series and 201 series EMUs are used, through trains to the Kansai Main Line began operated in 1973. In the loop, Yamatoji Rapids pass some stations while Regional Rapids stop all, for Yamatoji Rapid,6 or 8-car 221 series EMUs are used, while 8-car 103 series of light green livery and 6 or 8-car 221 series are for Regional Rapid. This pattern commenced in 1989, but increased significantly in 1994 on the opening of Kansai Airport, 8-car 223 series and 225 series EMUs in 4+4 formations are used for Kansai Airport and Kishūji rapids. 113 series 4-car units were used for rapids of Shin-Ōsaka - Kii-Tanabe in early morning, on the loop, aside from Tennōji, limited numbers of trains stop only at Nishi-Kujō. This route was introduced in 1989 on the completion of a track from the Hanwa Line to platforms of the Kansai Main Line at Tennōji. Until then no through operations were possible from the Hanwa Line,281 series EMUs are used for Haruka,283 series EMUs,287 series EMUs and 289 series EMUs for Kuroshio
26.
Cherry blossom
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A cherry blossom is the flower of any of several trees of genus Prunus, particularly the Japanese cherry, Prunus serrulata, which is called sakura after the Japanese. Currently it is distributed, especially in the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere including Japan, China, Korea, Europe, West Siberia, India, Canada. Along with the chrysanthemum, the blossom is considered the national flower of Japan. Many of the varieties that have cultivated for ornamental use do not produce fruit. Edible cherries generally come from cultivars of the related species Prunus avium, Cherry blossom are also closely related to other Prunus trees such as the almond, peach, plum and apricot and more distantly to apples, pears and roses. Hanami is the practice of picnicking under a blooming sakura or ume tree. The custom is said to have started during the Nara Period when it was ume blossoms that people admired in the beginning, but by the Heian Period, cherry blossoms came to attract more attention and hanami was synonymous with sakura. From then on, in both waka and haiku, flowers meant cherry blossoms, the custom was originally limited to the elite of the Imperial Court, but soon spread to samurai society and, by the Edo period, to the common people as well. Tokugawa Yoshimune planted areas of cherry trees to encourage this. Under the sakura trees, people had lunch and drank sake in cheerful feasts, the blossoming begins in Okinawa in January and typically reaches Kyoto and Tokyo at the end of March or the beginning of April. It proceeds into areas at the altitudes and northward, arriving in Hokkaidō a few weeks later. Japanese pay close attention to these forecasts and turn out in numbers at parks, shrines. Hanami festivals celebrate the beauty of the blossom and for many are a chance to relax. The custom of hanami dates back centuries in Japan. The eighth-century chronicle Nihon Shoki records hanami festivals being held as early as the third century AD, most Japanese schools and public buildings have cherry blossom trees outside of them. Since the fiscal and school year both begin in April, in parts of Honshū, the first day of work or school coincides with the cherry blossom season. The Japan Cherry Blossom Association developed a list of Japans Top 100 Cherry Blossom Spots with at least one location in every prefecture, the association of the cherry blossom with mono no aware dates back to 18th-century scholar Motoori Norinaga. There is at least one popular song, originally meant for the shakuhachi, titled Sakura
27.
Hanami
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Hanami is the Japanese traditional custom of enjoying the transient beauty of flowers, flowers are in this case almost always referring to those of the cherry or, less frequently, plum trees. From the end of March to early May, cherry trees bloom all over Japan, the blossom forecast cherry blossom front is announced each year by the weather bureau, and is watched carefully by those planning hanami as the blossoms only last a week or two. In modern-day Japan, hanami mostly consists of having an outdoor party beneath the sakura during daytime or at night, in some contexts the Sino-Japanese term kanō is used instead, particularly for festivals. Hanami at night is called yozakura night sakura, in many places such as Ueno Park temporary paper lanterns are hung for the purpose of yozakura. On the island of Okinawa, decorative electric lanterns are hung in the trees for evening enjoyment, such as on the trees ascending Mt. Yae, near Motobu Town, or at the Nakijin Castle. A more ancient form of hanami also exists in Japan, which is enjoying the plum blossoms instead and this kind of hanami is popular among older people, because they are calmer than the sakura parties, which usually involve younger people and can sometimes be very crowded and noisy. The practice of hanami is many centuries old, the custom is said to have started during the Nara period when it was ume blossoms that people admired in the beginning. But by the Heian period, sakura came to more attention. From then on, in both waka and haiku, flowers meant sakura, Hanami was first used as a term analogous to cherry blossom viewing in the Heian era novel The Tale of Genji. Although a wisteria viewing party was described, the terms hanami. Sakura originally was used to divine that years harvest as well as announce the rice-planting season, people believed in kami inside the trees and made offerings. Afterwards, they partook of the offering with sake, emperor Saga of the Heian period adopted this practice, and held flower-viewing parties with sake and feasts underneath the blossoming boughs of sakura trees in the Imperial Court in Kyoto. Poems would be written praising the delicate flowers, which were seen as a metaphor for itself, luminous and beautiful yet fleeting. This was said to be the origin of Hanami in Japan, the custom was originally limited to the elite of the Imperial Court, but soon spread to samurai society and, by the Edo period, to the common people as well. Tokugawa Yoshimune planted areas of cherry trees to encourage this. Under the sakura trees, people had lunch and drank sake in cheerful feasts, dead bodies are buried under the cherry trees. Is a popular saying about hanami, after the sentence of the 1925 short story Under the Cherry Trees by Motojirō Kajii. The Japanese people continue the tradition of hanami, gathering in great numbers wherever the flowering trees are found, thousands of people fill the parks to hold feasts under the flowering trees, and sometimes these parties go on until late at night
28.
Taiko
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Taiko are a broad range of Japanese percussion instruments. The process of constructing taiko varies between manufacturers, and preparation of both the body and skin can take several years depending on methodology. Taiko have a origin in Japanese folklore, but historical records suggest that taiko were introduced to Japan through Korean. Some taiko are similar to instruments originating from India, archaeological evidence also supports that taiko were present in Japan during the 6th century in the Kofun period. Their function has varied through history, ranging from communication, military action, theatrical accompaniment, in modern times, taiko have also played a central role in social movements for minorities both within and outside Japan. Kumi-daiko performance, characterized by an ensemble playing on different drums, was developed in 1951 through the work of Daihachi Oguchi and has continued with such as Kodo. Other performance styles, such as hachijō-daiko, have emerged from specific communities in Japan. Kumi-daiko performance groups are not only in Japan, but also in the United States, Australia, Canada. Taiko performance consists of components in technical rhythm, form, stick grip, clothing. Ensembles typically use different types of barrel-shaped nagadō-daiko as well as smaller shime-daiko, many groups accompany the drums with vocals, strings, and woodwind instruments. The origin of the instruments is unclear, though there have been many suggestions, historical accounts, of which the earliest date from 588 CE, note that young Japanese men traveled to Korea to study the kakko, a drum that originated in South China. This study and appropriation of Chinese instruments may have influenced the emergence of taiko, certain court music styles, especially gigaku and gagaku, arrived in Japan through both Korea and China. In both traditions, dancers were accompanied by instruments that included drums similar to taiko. This evidence was substantiated by the discovery of statues in the Sawa District of Gunma Prefecture. Two of these figures are depicted playing drums, one of them, wearing skins, is equipped with a barrel-shaped drum hung from his shoulder and this statue is titled Man Beating the Taiko and is considered the oldest evidence of taiko performance in Japan. Similarities between the playing style demonstrated by this haniwa and known music traditions in Korea and China further suggest influences from these regions, the Nihon Shoki, the second oldest book of Japanese classical history, contains a mythological story describing the origin of taiko. The myth tells how Amaterasu, who had sealed herself inside a cave in anger, was beckoned out by an elder goddess Ame-no-Uzume when others had failed, Ame-no-Uzume accomplished this by emptying out a barrel of sake and dancing furiously on top of it. Historians regard her performance as the creation of taiko music
29.
The Amazing Race 20
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The Amazing Race 20 is the twentieth installment of the reality television show The Amazing Race. The Amazing Race 20 features eleven teams of two, each with a relationship, in a race around the world. The twentieth Race premiered on Sunday, February 19,2012 and it aired on CBS in the United States on Sunday nights at 8,00 p. m. ET/PT with the two-hour season finale on May 6,2012. The show is hosted by Phil Keoghan, married couple Rachel and Dave Brown, Jr. were the winners of The Amazing Race 20. They also set a record on the American version of the show for winning the most legs in a single season, CBS renewed the series for its 20th season in June 16,2011. This season spans a little over 36,000 miles in twenty-two cities and five continents with first-time visits to Paraguay and it featured tasks where teams are forced to skydive in Argentina, visit a famous castle that inspired Disney in Germany and train with Maasai warriors in Tanzania. Italy was also confirmed for this season, in Leg 8, two teams survived a Double U-Turn and were not eliminated. During Leg 10, Bopper and Mark won the Fast Forward, yet were eliminated on the same leg and it also includes a pair of federal agents, United States Border Patrol agents, and dating divorcees. After the completion of the race, fan favorites William Bopper Minton, the following teams participated in the Race, each listed along with their placements in each leg and relationships as identified by the program. Note that this table is not necessarily reflective of all content broadcast on television due to inclusion or exclusion of some data, placements are listed in finishing order, A red team placement means the team was eliminated. A green ƒ indicates that the team won a Fast Forward, a purple ε indicates that the team decided to use the Express Pass on that leg. An underlined blue placement indicates that the team came in last on a non-elimination leg and had to perform a Speed Bump during the next leg of the race. Episode titles are taken from quotes made by the racers. Trips are sponsored by Travelocity Leg 1 – The Express Pass – an item that can be used on the race to any one task of the teams choosing up until the 8th leg. The first six teams were given tickets to a connecting flight to Saltas Martín Miguel de Güemes International Airport. One team member had to use a map to navigate to a skydiving drop zone, meanwhile. Once the team was reunited, the master gave them their next clue. This clue sent them to Patios de Cafayate Winery where teams had to make 120 empanadas,60 filled with meat and 60 filled with cheese and they were left to figure out that the two types had different crimping patterns
30.
Toho
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Toho Co. Ltd. is a Japanese film, theater production, and distribution company. It has its headquarters in Yūrakuchō, Chiyoda, Tokyo, and is one of the companies of the Hankyu Hanshin Toho Group. Other famous directors, including Yasujirō Ozu, Kenji Mizoguchi, Masaki Kobayashi, Tohos most famous creation is Godzilla, who features in 29 of the companys films. Godzilla, Mothra, King Ghidorah, Mechagodzilla, and Rodan are described as Tohos Big Five because of the numerous appearances in all three eras of the franchise, as well as spin-offs. Toho has also involved in the production of numerous anime titles. Its subdivisions are Toho-Towa Distribution, Toho Pictures Incorporated, Toho International Company Limited, Company Limited, and Toho Music Corporation & Toho Costume Company Limited. The company is the largest shareholder of Fuji Media Holdings Inc, Toho was created by the founder of Hankyu Railway, Ichizo Kobayashi, in 1932 as the Tokyo-Takarazuka Theater Company. It was known as the Toho Theatre from the late 1960s until the 1970s, Toho also had a theater in San Francisco and opened a theater in New York City in 1963. The Shintoho Company, which existed until 1964, was named New Toho because it broke off from the original company, the company has contributed to the production of some American films, including Sam Raimis 1998 film, A Simple Plan. Detective Conan, Captured in Her Eyes Pocket Monsters, Lord of the Unknown Tower – Entei Godzilla vs. Takao vs. Godzilla, Mothra, Mechagodzilla, doraemon, Nobitas Space Heroes Assassination Classroom Crayon Shin-chan, My Moving Story. Godman Warrior Of Love, Rainbowman Meteor Man Zone Ike, jenny Belle and Sebastian Igano Kabamaru Touch Kimagure Orange Road Godzilla Midori Days Psycho-Pass Yowamushi Pedal Akame ga Kill. Blood Blockade Battlefront My Hero Academia Three Leaves, Three Colors Little Witch Academia In more recent years and for a period, one of their first video game was the 1990 NES game titled Circus Caper. Later, they followed with a series of games based on Godzilla and it also published games such as Super Aleste. They even worked with Bandai on Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, released in Japan in 1988, Tohos headquarters, the Toho Hibiya Building, are in Yūrakuchō, Chiyoda, Tokyo. The company moved into its current headquarters in April 2005, tohoScope Tomisaburo Wakayama Mushroom Clouds and Mushroom Men - The Fantastic Cinema of Ishiro Honda, Peter H. Brothers. Toho Studios Story, A History and Complete Filmography Stuart Galbraith IV Official website Official Tohos YouTube channel, Toho Pictures official website TOHO-TOWA Company, Limited official website TOWA PICTURES Company, Ltd. official website Toho at Anime News Networks encyclopedia
31.
Tokusatsu
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Tokusatsu is any Japanese live-action film or television drama that features considerable use of special effects. Tokusatsu entertainment often deals with science fiction, fantasy or horror, some tokusatsu television programs combine several of these subgenres, for example the Ultraman and Super Sentai series. Tokusatsu is one of the most popular forms of Japanese entertainment, tokusatsu has origins in early Japanese theater, specifically in kabuki and in bunraku, which used some of the earliest forms of special effects, specifically puppetry. Modern tokusatsu, however, did not begin to take shape until the early 1950s, with the conceptual and creative birth of Godzilla, the special effects artist Eiji Tsuburaya and the director Ishirō Honda became the driving forces behind 1954s Godzilla. Godzilla forever changed the landscape of Japanese science fiction, fantasy, however, in 1957 Shintoho produced the first film serial featuring the superhero character Super Giant, signaling a shift in popularity that favored masked heroes over giant monsters. Along with the anime Astro Boy, the Super Giant serials had an effect on the world of tokusatsu. The following year, Moonlight Mask premiered, the first of numerous televised superhero dramas that would make up one of the most popular tokusatsu subgenres, suitmation in Japanese identifies the process in tokusatsu movies and television programs used to portray a monster using suit acting. The exact origin of the remains unknown. At the least, it was used to promote the Godzilla suit from The Return of Godzilla, the many productions of tokusatsu series have general themes common. Kaiju productions primarily feature monsters, or giant monsters, such series include Ultra Q, the Godzilla films, the Gamera series, the Daimajin series, and films such as Frankenstein Conquers the World, War of the Gargantuas, and The X from Outer Space. Kaijin productions primarily feature a supervillain as their central character and this category includes films such as The Secret of the Telegian, The Human Vapor, The H-Man, Half Human, and Tomei Ningen. Since about 1960, several long-running television series have combined other themes, Tsuburaya Productions has had the Ultra Series starting with Ultra Q and Ultraman in 1966. P Productions began their foray into tokusatsu in 1966 with the series Ambassador Magma and they also had involvement in the Lion-Maru series that concluded in November 2006. Toei Company has several series that fall under their Toei Superheroes category of programming, starting in 1961 with the single series, Moonlight Mask. Toei also produced several television series based on Ishinomoris works, including Android Kikaider and Kikaider 01, Robot Detective, Inazuman and Inazuman Flash. Toei was involved in the Spider-Man television series, which influenced their subsequent Super Sentai series, in 2003, TV Asahi began broadcasting the Super Sentai and Kamen Rider series in a one-hour block known as Super Hero Time. Toho, the creators of Godzilla, had their hands in creating the Chouseishin Series of programs from 2003 to 2006, Toeis tokusatsu productions were not limited to action-oriented superheroes and robots. Robocon, featuring friendly robot-suited actors, were successful, in 2006, Keita Amemiyas Garo, a mature late-night tokusatsu drama was released, starting a franchise composed of television series and films
32.
Godzilla Raids Again
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Godzilla Raids Again is a 1955 Japanese kaiju film featuring Godzilla, produced by and distributed by Toho. It is the film in the Godzilla franchise and its Shōwa series. This version features heavy alterations from the Japanese original. S, television as Gigantis the Fire Monster. Two pilots, Shoichi Tsukioka and Koji Kobayashi, are hunting for schools of fish for a tuna cannery company in Osaka, Kobayashis plane malfunctions and is forced to land near Iwato Island, an uninhabited strip of rocks formed by volcanic eruptions. Tsukioka then looks for Kobayashi and finds him safe, with only a wrist sprain, while talking, the two men hear some strange sounds and find two monsters fighting. Tsukioka immediately recognizes one of the monsters to be Godzilla, the two monsters fall from a cliff into the ocean. Tsukioka and Kobayashi report to the authorities in Osaka, and find out that the other monster Godzilla was fighting is Anguirus, a group of scientists with the two pilots research Anguirus in a book written by a Polish scientist. Godzilla and Anguirus lived around the same time millions of years ago, archaeologist Kyohei Yamane, who experienced Godzillas attack in 1954, is also present at the meeting, and shows a film of the original Godzilla attacking Tokyo. He confirms that this Godzilla is a member of the same species. Yamane states that there is no way to kill Godzilla, and that Daisuke Serizawa, Godzilla arrives on the shore of Osaka. While a blackout of all city lights is enforced, JASDF jets are sent to shoot flares from their planes to lead Godzilla away from the shore, Godzilla sees the flames, and, as Yamane predicted, starts to leave. Meanwhile, a prison truck transports dangerous criminals to another part of the country, all of the criminals, using body language, convey to each other that the cover of darkness caused by the citys blackout provides a great opportunity to escape from prison. The prisoners beat up the two policemen guarding them inside the truck, and run away, a few of them find a gasoline truck, and use it to escape. The truck crashes into a building and starts a massive fire. The fire, much brighter than the planes flares, attracts Godzilla back to the shore of Osaka, a few minutes later, Anguirus swims to shore and attacks Godzilla. The two creatures fight a battle, while destroying several buildings, including the tuna cannery that Tsukioka. In the course of the battle, the criminals are drowned in the subway when it is flooded by the thrashing of the two monsters, Godzilla finally bites Anguirus neck, and throws it upside down into a moat near Osaka Castle. Godzilla then fires his atomic ray at Anguirus, burning him to death in the ruins of the famed castle, Kobayashi is transferred to a Hokkaido plant
33.
Godzilla
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Godzilla is a fictional giant monster originating from a series of tokusatsu films of the same name from Japan. It first appeared in Ishirō Hondas 1954 film Godzilla, the character is commonly alluded by the epithet King of the Monsters, a phrase first used in Godzilla, King of the Monsters. The Americanized version of Hondas original 1954 film, with the nuclear bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Lucky Dragon 5 incident still fresh in the Japanese consciousness, Godzilla was conceived as a metaphor for nuclear weapons. In the various stories it has appeared in, Godzilla has been featured alongside many supporting characters, Godzilla is also shown to have allies, such as Mothra, Rodan and Anguirus, and offspring, such as Minilla and Godzilla Junior. One popular story is that Gojira was actually the nickname of a corpulent stagehand at Toho Studio, kimi Honda, the widow of the director, dismissed this in a 1998 BBC documentary devoted to Godzilla, The backstage boys at Toho loved to joke around with tall stories. Godzillas name was written in ateji as Gojira, where the kanji are used for phonetic value, the Japanese pronunciation of the name is, the Anglicized form is /ɡɒdˈzɪlə/, with the first syllable pronounced like the word god, and the rest rhyming with gorilla. In the Hepburn romanization system, Godzillas name is rendered as Gojira, within the context of the Japanese films, Godzillas exact origins vary, but it is generally depicted as an enormous, violent, prehistoric sea monster awakened and empowered by nuclear radiation. Although the specific details of Godzillas appearance have varied slightly over the years, to emphasise the monsters relationship with the atomic bomb, its skin texture was inspired by the keloid scars seen on survivors in Hiroshima. The basic design has a reptilian visage, a robust build, an upright posture, in the original film, the fins were added for purely aesthetic purposes, in order to further differentiate Godzilla from any other living or extinct creature. Godzillas signature weapon is its atomic breath, a nuclear blast that it generates inside of its body, toho’s special effects department has used various techniques to render the breath, from physical gas-powered flames to hand-drawn or computer-generated fire. Godzilla is shown to possess immense strength and muscularity. Haruo Nakajima, the actor who played Godzilla in the films, was a black belt in Judo. Godzilla can breathe underwater, and is described in the film by the character Dr. Yamane as a transitional form between a marine and a terrestrial reptile. Godzillas allegiance and motivations have changed from film to film to suit the needs of the story, although Godzilla does not like humans, it will fight alongside humanity against common threats. However, it makes no effort to protect human life or property. It is not motivated to attack by predatory instinct, it doesnt eat people, and instead sustains itself on radiation and an omnivorous diet. When inquired if Godzilla was good or bad, producer Shogo Tomiyama likened it to a Shinto God of Destruction which lacks moral agency and cannot be held to human standards of good and he totally destroys everything and then there is a rebirth. Something new and fresh can begin, the creature in the 1998 Godzilla film was depicted laying eggs through parthenogenesis
34.
Anguirus
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Anguirus is a fictional character who first appeared in Tohos 1955 kaiju film Godzilla Raids Again. It is the monster to appear in Toho kaiju films. Anguirus appeared only a year after Godzilla, though being the first monster Godzilla ever fought, he has allied with Godzilla in several other films against more dangerous threats. WatchMojo. com listed Anguirus as #5 on their Top 10 Godzilla Villains list, the dinosaur Angilosaurus lived from 150-70 million years ago, and its remains were affected by the same hydrogen bombs that awoke Godzilla. In the English-dubbed version of Godzilla Raids Again, the name of the dinosaur is pronounced ANG-will-o-Saw-rus and they ruled the Earth at one time, according to the film, then disappeared suddenly. From an unnamed textbook in the movie, a scientist reads that these creatures may return from hibernation due to radioactive fallout, anguiras is said to have brains in several parts of its body, including the head, abdomen, and the chest. Anguirus was the first enemy that Godzilla ever faced, Godzilla and Anguirus battled in Osaka, and after a fierce struggle Godzilla won with a bite to the neck and incinerated Anguirus body by using its atomic breath. This costume was re-used throughout the remainder of the Showa series and it helped Godzilla repel the space monsters, Gigan and King Ghidorah, in 1972s Godzilla vs. Gigan. It and Godzilla then returned to Monster Island, which was disturbed by nuclear bomb tests in 1973s Godzilla vs. Megalon. Rodan, perched on a mountain above, toppled down on top of Anguirus, Anguirus tunneled its way to a snowy region, where it witnessed Mechagodzillas first emergence in Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla. It followed Mechagodzilla underground to Japan where it revealed itself to call upon the real Godzilla, however, Mechagodzilla was too powerful for Anguirus, and severely injured it, breaking its jaw in a bloody display. Anguirus was forced to retreat underground, although it managed to tip off humanity that its opponent was not the true Godzilla, Showa Anguirus was 60 meters tall and weighed 30,000 metric tons. After a 30-year absence, Anguirus made a return in the 2004 film, Godzilla and he appears in Shanghai, and tramples everything in its path, then engaged the flying UN battleship, Karyu. The Xiliens appeared suddenly and teleported Anguirus and the monsters away. They told the humans that they eliminated the monsters to save Earth, but this was discovered to be a ruse. In Shanghai, the Xiliens use their ships to attack the Karyu. While the Karyu was distracted, Anguirus jumped and curled himself into a ball, Karyu went spinning in the air before colliding into the Oriental Pearl Tower. Anguirus, King Caesar, and Rodan are pitted against Godzilla at Mt. Fuji and it successfully defeats all three monsters
35.
Himeji Castle
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Himeji Castle is a hilltop Japanese castle complex located in the city of Himeji, Hyōgo, Japan. The castle is regarded as the finest surviving example of prototypical Japanese castle architecture, the castle is frequently known as Hakuro-jō or Shirasagi-jō because of its brilliant white exterior and supposed resemblance to a bird taking flight. Himeji Castle dates to 1333, when Akamatsu Norimura built a fort on top of Himeyama hill, the fort was dismantled and rebuilt as Himeyama Castle in 1346, and then remodeled into Himeji Castle two centuries later. Himeji Castle was then remodeled in 1581 by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Several buildings were added to the castle complex by Honda Tadamasa from 1617 to 1618. For over 400 years, Himeji Castle has remained intact, even throughout the bombing of Himeji in World War II. Himeji Castle is the largest and most visited castle in Japan, the area within the middle moat of the castle complex is a designated Special Historic Site and five structures of the castle are also designated National Treasures. Along with Matsumoto Castle and Kumamoto Castle, Himeji Castle is considered one of Japans three premier castles, in order to preserve the castle buildings, it underwent restoration work for several years and reopened to the public on March 27,2015. The works also removed decades of dirt and grime, restoring the formerly gray roof to its brilliant white color. Himeji Castles construction dates to 1333, when a fort was constructed on Himeyama hill by Akamatsu Norimura, in 1346, his son Sadanori demolished this fort and built Himeyama Castle in its place. In 1545, the Kuroda clan was stationed here by order of the Kodera clan, in 1580, Kuroda Yoshitaka presented the castle to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and in 1581 Hideyoshi significantly remodeled the castle, building a three-story keep with an area of about 55 m2. Following the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, Tokugawa Ieyasu granted Himeji Castle to his son-in-law, Ikeda Terumasa, the expenditure of labor involved in this expansion is believed to have totaled 25 million man-days. Ikeda died in 1613, passing the castle to his son, in 1617, Honda Tadamasa and his family inherited the castle, and Honda added several buildings to the castle complex, including a special tower for his daughter-in-law, Princess Sen. In the Meiji Period, many Japanese castles were destroyed, Himeji Castle was abandoned in 1871 and some of the castle corridors and gates were destroyed to make room for Japanese army barracks. The entirety of the complex was slated to be demolished by government policy, but it was spared by the efforts of Nakamura Shigeto. A stone monument honoring Nakamura was placed in the complex within the first gate. Although Himeji Castle was spared, Japanese castles had become obsolete, when the han feudal system was abolished in 1871, Himeji Castle was put up for auction. The castle was purchased by a Himeji resident for 23 Japanese yen, the buyer wanted to demolish the castle complex and develop the land, but the cost of destroying the castle was estimated to be too great, and it was again spared
36.
Jurakudai
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The Jurakudai or Jurakutei was a lavish palace constructed at the order of Toyotomi Hideyoshi in Kyoto, Japan. Construction began in 1586, when Hideyoshi had taken the post of kanpaku, the location is in present-day Kamigyō, on the site where the Imperial palace had stood in the Heian period. Hideyoshi moved to Jurakudai from Osaka Castle following completion, just after his victory over the Shimazu family in Kyūshū and he made it the base for his administration. In 1588, Hideyoshi held an entertainment of the reigning Emperor Go-Yōzei before the assembled daimyo. He also met Tokugawa Ieyasu here and he provided quarters for Sen no Rikyu within the grounds, and hosted the famous Great Kitano Tea Ceremony in nearby Kitano in 1587. Hideyoshi resigned the post of Kanpaku in 1591, and his nephew Toyotomi Hidetsugu assumed the position, Hidetsugu hosted a second visit by the same emperor. Said to have had gold leaf on the tiles, the Jurakudai was extremely lavish. Although it was a palace, it had defensive ramparts and moats typical of a castle. Some buildings of the Jurakudai survive, among them the Hiun-kaku at Nishi Hongan-ji, the Karamon at Daitoku-ji, recent excavations have yielded some tiles bearing gold leaf. Media related to Jurakudai at Wikimedia Commons Discovery of tiles
37.
Fushimi Castle
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Fushimi Castle, also known as Momoyama Castle or Fushimi-Momoyama Castle, is a castle in Kyotos Fushimi Ward. The current structure is a 1964 replica of the built by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The construction of the castle was begun in 1592, the year after Hideyoshis retirement from the regency. Twenty provinces furnished workers for the construction, which numbered between 20,000 and 30,000, though bearing the external martial appearance of a castle, the structure was intended as a retirement palace for Hideyoshi, and was furnished and decorated as such. It is particularly famous for its tea room in which both the walls and the implements were covered in gold leaf. It was rebuilt afterwards, and came to be controlled by Torii Mototada. In 1600, the fell in a famous and significant siege by Ishida Mitsunari. Torii Mototada, in an act of honor and bravery, defended the castle for eleven days, delaying Ishidas forces. This had an effect on the Battle of Sekigahara, which came soon afterwards. In 1623, the castle was dismantled, and many of its rooms, in 1912, the tomb of Emperor Meiji was built on the original site of the castle. The castle was not rebuilt until 1964, when a replica was created very nearby and primarily in concrete. The new structure served as a museum of the life and campaigns of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and the attraction of a small theme park called Castle Land. Jurakudai—Hideyoshis previous luxurious residence from 1587 to 1594 Bryant, Anthony J. Sekigahara 1600, schmorleitz, Morton S. Castles in Japan. Tokyo, Charles E. Tuttle Co. pp. 78–80, sengokuDaimyo. com, The website of Samurai Author and Historian Anthony J. Bryant
38.
Tourism in Japan
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Japan attracted 19.73 million international tourists in 2015. Japan has 19 World Heritage Sites, including Himeji Castle, Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto, the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015 ranks Japan 9th out of 141 countries overall, which was the best in Asia. Japan gained relatively high scores in almost all aspects, especially health and hygiene, safety and security, cultural resources, despite these restrictions, porter stations and horse stables, as well as places for lodging and food were available on well-traveled routes. During this time, Japan was a country to foreigners. Its early leaders included Shibusawa Eiichi and Ekida Takashi, in 2016,24,039,000 foreign tourists visited Japan. Domestic tourism remains a part of the Japanese economy and Japanese culture. Children in many middle schools see the highlight of their years as a visit to Tokyo Disneyland or perhaps Tokyo Tower, in inbound tourism, Japan was ranked 28th in the world in 2007. In 2009, the Yomiuri Shimbun published a modern list of famous sights under the name Heisei Hyakkei, neighbouring South Korea is Japans most important source of foreign tourists. In 2010, the 2.4 million arrivals made up 27% of the tourists visiting Japan, the Japanese government hopes to receive 40 million foreign tourists every year by 2020. They are parts of the Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara, ikaruga — Hōryū-ji and Hōki-ji are Buddhist Monuments in the Hōryū-ji Area. Yoshino — Kimpusen-ji, Yoshimizu Shrine, Yoshino Mikumari Shrine, etc and they are parts of the Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range. Shingū — Kumano Hayatama Taisha and Kumano River Nachikatsuura — Nachi Falls, Kumano Kodō and they are parts of the Gusuku Sites and Related Properties of the Kingdom of Ryukyu. In September 2011 some 539,000 foreign people visited Japan and this decline was largely attributed to the Fukushima nuclear accident and the stronger yen made a visit to Japan more expensive. To boost tourism the Japanese Tourism Agency announced in October 2011 a plan to give 10,000 round-trip air tickets to Japan to encourage visitors to come, in 2012 free tickets would be offered if the winners would write online about their experiences in Japan. They also would need to some questions about how they felt while visiting Japan after the earthquake. About US$15 million would be spent on this program, on December 26,2011, The Japan Tourism Agency reported on their site that the Fly to Japan. Project, which would have given out 10,000 round-trip tickets to Japan, was not approved by the government for fiscal year 2012. jnto. go. jp/eng/ttp/sta/PDF/E2016
39.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
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