1.
Ostrogski coat of arms
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Ostrogski is a Polish coat of arms of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. A variant of the Leliwa and Ogończyk coat of arms, traditional Ostrogski coat of arms was described in his work Kasper Niesiecki, while its iconographic representation is seen on the Ostroh Bible. According to Niesiecki the first Ostrogski coat of arms was Pogoń Ruska coat of arms where the Saint George pierces a dragon. During the Battle of Vedrosha on July 14,1500 the Grand Hetman of Lithuania Konstanty Ostrogski was taken a prisoner by the Muscovite forces and later sent to Vologda. Nikolay Karamzin sites that on October 18,1506 Ostrogski pledged his allegiance to the Grand Prince of Moscow Vasili III as a boyar, Ostrogski was sent then to the Sloboda Ukraine to fight Tatars, but managed to escape and returned to Lithuania in 1507. After Konstanty Ostrogski returned from the Muscovite captivity he adopted a new coat of arms, the new coat of arms was created as a mix of Leliwa and Ogończyk coat of arms, in remembrance of his two sons Eliasz and Konstanty. To the similarity of the description points Roman Klymkevych
2.
Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
3.
Ruthenia
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Ruthenia is a proper geographical exonym for Kievan Rus and other, more local, historical states. It was applied to the area where Ruthenians lived, the word Ruthenia originated as a Latin rendering of the region and people known originally as Rus. A group of Varangians known as the Rus settled in Novgorod in 862 under the leadership of Rurik. In European manuscripts dating from the 13th century, Ruthenia was used to describe Rus, a territory long disputed as an early part of Hungary, and from the 10th century Ruthenia and Poland, formed the Chervian Towns, now mostly in Poland, partly in Ukraine. This laid the foundation of the modern Russian state, the Muscovy population was Eastern Orthodox and used the Greek transcription of Rus, being Rossia, rather than the Latin Ruthenia. Due to their usage of the Latin script rather than the Cyrillic script, other spellings were also used in Latin, English and other languages during this period. The use of the term Ruthenia in the lands of ancient Rus survived longer as a used by Ukrainians for Ukraine. By 1840 the superior term, Малая Русь, Little Rus, or Rus Minora, for Ruthenians became derogative in the Russian Empire, and they began calling themselves Ukrainians, for Ukrayina. In the 1880s and 1900s, the popularity of the ethnonym Ukrainian spread, in time the term Ruthenian became restricted to western Ukraine, an area then part of the Austro-Hungarian state. By the early 20th century, the term Ukraine had replaced Ruthenia in Galicia/Halychyna, rusin has been one of official self-identifications of the Rus population in Poland. Until 1939, for many traditional Ruthenians and Polish, the word Ukrainiec meant a person involved in or friendly to a nationalist movement, however, some other Slavish languages definitely separate the Ruthenian meaning from its Russian neighbour. While Galician Ruthenians considered themselves to be Ukrainians, the Carpatho-Ruthenians were the last East Slavic people that kept the ancient historic name, nowadays, the term Rusyn is used to describe the ethnicity and language of Ruthenians who are not forced to the Ukrainian national identity. Carpatho-Ruthenia formed part of the Hungarian Kingdom from the late 11th century, in May 1919, it was incorporated with nominal autonomy into Czechoslovakia. After this date, Ruthenian people have been divided among three orientations, on 15 March 1939 the Ukrainophile president of Carpatho-Ruthenia, Avhustyn Voloshyn, declared its independence as Carpatho-Ukraine. On the same day Hungarian Army fascist regular troops, allies of Adolf Hitler, in 1944 the Soviet Army occupied Carpatho-Ruthenia, and in 1946, annexed it to the Ukrainian SSR. Officially, there were no Rusyns in the USSR, in fact, Soviet and some modern Ukrainian politicians, as well as Ukrainian government claim that Rusyns are part of the Ukrainian nation. Nowadays some of the population in the Zakarpattya oblast of Ukraine consider themselves Rusyns yet they are still a part of the whole Ukrainian national identity, a Rusyn minority remained after World War II in northeastern Czechoslovakia. According to critics, the Ruthenians rapidly became Slovakized, in 1995 the Ruthenian written language became standardized
4.
Ostroh
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Ostroh is a historic city located in Rivne Oblast of western Ukraine, located on the Horyn River. Ostroh is the center of the Ostroh Raion and is itself designated as a special administrative subordination within the oblast. The current estimated population is around 15,202, the Ostroh Academy was established here in 1576, the first higher educational institution in modern Ukraine. Furthermore, in the 16th century, the first East Slavic books, the Hypatian Codex first mentions Ostroh in 1100, as a fortress of the Volhynian princes. Since the 14th century, it was the seat of the powerful Ostrogski princely family, upon the familys demise in the 17th century, Ostroh passed to the family of Zasławski and then Lubomirski. In the second half of the 14th century, Ostroh, together with the whole of Volhynia, was annexed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Following the Union of Lublin, the became part of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. Ostroh, known in Polish as Ostrog, received Magdeburg rights in 1585, in the 17th century, the town was surrounded by fortifications, with a moat, a rampart and five bastions. In 1609–1753, it was the capital of the Ostrogski family fee tail, founded by Voivode Janusz Ostrogski, furthermore, the town had a Calvinist academy, among its lecturers was Andrzej Wegierski. During the Khmelnytsky Uprising, the town was burned by the Cossacks, Ostrog slowly recovered, and in the second half of the 18th century, it became the seat of a Jesuit college. In 1793, the town was annexed by the Russian Empire, railroad lines, built in the 19th century, missed Ostrog, and as a result, the town stagnated. In the interbellum period, Ostrog belonged to County of Zdolbunow, the town was an important garrison of the Polish Army, and the Border Protection Corps. Here, the KOP Battalion “Ostrog” was stationed, as well as the 19th Volhynian Uhlan Regiment, on July 7,1920, during the Polish-Soviet War, a battle between a Polish unit under Wincenty Krajowski, and the Bolsheviks of Semyon Budyonny’s 1st Cavalry Army took place. As in 1919 -1939 Ostrog was located in proximity to the Polish - Soviet border. Following the 1939 Soviet invasion of Poland, Ostrog was annexed by the Soviet Union, an unknown number of the town’s residents were forcibly sent to Siberia. The Nazi German occupation of southern Soviet Union resulted in the establishment of the Reich Commissariat Ukraine, in the autumn of 1941 several large-scale mass murders took place in Volhynia-Poldolia. On 1 September,19412,500 Jews were shot in Ostrog, six weeks later the ghetto was disbanded and another 3,000 people were killed. During the first six months of the German-Soviet war 300,000 Jews were killed in the territory of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, in total 1,430,000 Ukrainian Jews were murdered in the Holocaust
5.
Feodor Ostrogski
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Prince Feodor Ostrogski was a powerful magnate in Volhynia of Rurikid stock, son of Daniil Ostrogski. In some sources hes called Teodor, Fedko or Frederic and he was active in the Hussite Wars and assisted Sigismund Korybut. In 1386 Grand Duke of Lithuania Jogaila granted him possession of Ostrog castle, in addition to Ostrog, Feodor became owner of Korets, Iziaslav, and other towns. The Crooked Castle was captured and its commander, Karigaila, brother of Jogaila, was killed, the Upper castle, with Polish staff and lower, commanded by Feodor, were rescued. In 1422 Feodor travelled to Bohemia in the entourage of Sigismund Korybut and was sent by him as an ambassador to the Hussites and he fought in the Battle of Ústí. A folk song about this battle mentions Frederic, Ruthenian Prince of Ostrog, in 1430 with Sigismund Korybut and Hussites he captured Gliwice and they made this town their stronghold, their participation in the Hussite assault on Saxony is however doubtful. A year later with Sigismund Korybut he attacked the Hungarian monastery in Lechnica, in the 1430s he supported Grand Duke Švitrigaila and the Teutonic Order in the civil war against Sigismund Kęstutaitis and war against Poland. On 30 November 1432 he was defeated at Kopestrzyn by Ruthenian voivode Wincenty z Szamotuł, in 1433 he led Czech and Polish Hussites from Greater Poland in battles against Poland and Neumark, they captured Drawno, Dobiegniew, Złocieniec and Santok, Gorzów Wielkopolski was rescued. Then they were joined by Hussites from Lesser Poland and after a siege of Chojnice castle captured Tczew. After he captured Jasieniec on 13 September, an armistice was agreed. On expiry of the truce, Ostrogski burned and looted Brest-Litovsk, Castle was not captured, however, due to Masovian Dukes relief. At that time he was imprisoned with Teodor Korybut by their own suzerain, Švitrigaila. It is not certain if Feodor Ostrogski switched sides and because of it was imprisoned and he was probably married to Agata Czurylowna and father to Wasyl Krasny Ostrogski. He died as a monk and was buried at the Kievan Cave Monastery under the name Teodosii and was later canonized, house of Ostrogski Lithuanian nobility List of szlachta
6.
Konstanty Ostrogski
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Kostanty Iwanowicz Ostrogski was a magnate of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later a Grand Hetman of Lithuania from 11 September 1497 until his death. As a speaker of the Ruthenian language he is considered to be one of the precursors of the Ukrainian language and he started his military career under king John I of Poland. He took part in campaigns against the Tatars and Muscovy. For his victory near Ochakiv against the forces of Mehmet Girey he was awarded with the title of Grand Hetman of Lithuania and he was the first person to receive this title. However, during a war with Muscovy he was defeated in the Battle of Vedrosha, in 1503 he managed to escape and joined king Sigismund I the Old, who allowed him to resume his post as a Hetman. As one of the military leaders of the alliance he continued to wage war against Muscovy. In 1514 another war with Muscovy started and Ostrogski became the commander in chief of all the Polish, among his subordinates were Jerzy Radziwiłł, Janusz Świerczowski, Witold Sampoliński and the future Hetman of the Crown Jan Tarnowski. On 8 September 1514 he achieved a significant victory in the Battle of Orsha, however, in 1517 his attempt to besiege the Russian fortress of Opochka became a serious defeat that destroyed any hopes to reconquer Smolensk. He had two wives, Tatiana Koretska and Aleksandra Słucka and he had two sons, Ilia Ostrogski with Koretska, and Konstanty Wasyl Ostrogski with Słucka. He died in 1530 as a military commander. Despite his steady loyalty to the Catholic monarch as well as an old feud with an Orthodox Muscovy and he gave generously for construction of Orthodox churches and sponsored the creation of many church-affiliated schools for the orthodox children. As one of the wealthiest Orthodox nobles he was buried in the Kiev Pechersk Lavra in Kiev, the town of Starokostiantyniv still bears his name. He is one of the characters on the painting by Jan Matejko. Lithuanian nobility House of Ostrogski List of szlachta Ostrozky, Kostiantyn family Ostrozki
7.
House of Sanguszko
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Sanguszko is a Polish noble and aristocratic family of the Ruthenian stock from the Gediminid dynasty. Like other princely houses of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, its origin are considered murky, present historical opinion holds in favour of their descent from Algirdas grandson Alexander Feodorovich, lord of Kovel and Liuboml, whose name can be shortened to Sangush. The family supposedly descends from two lines, associated with two of his sons, Alexander and Michael, the senior line, called the Sanguszko-Koszyrski, has been extinct since the death of Adam Aleksander Sanguszko in 1653. Prince Paweł Karol Sanguszko-Lubartowicz, a Court and Grand Marshal of Lithuania, greatly expanded his holdings through his marriage with Marianna Lubomirska. His chief residence at Slavuta was embellished with a collection of Persian carpets. Hieronymous Sanguszko founded the Slavuta stud, establishing the family as breeders of Arabian horses, after partitions of Poland, Eustachy Erazm Sanguszko fought in the Kościuszko Uprising and Napoleons Russian campaign. His son, Prince Roman Sanguszko, was a Polish officer who participated in the November Uprising and his life is the subject of Prince Roman one of Joseph Conrads short stories. With the incorporation of Galicia into Ukraine, the Sanguszkos lost their Gumniska and Slavuta estates, as well as a palace in Lviv, by the later 20th century, the family was represented by a single person, Prince Paul, who resides in São Paulo. His mother came of the Polignac lineage
8.
Ostroh Castle
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The Ostroh Castle is a castle in the city of Ostroh, located in the Rivne Oblast of western Ukraine. In the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, the castle was the key stronghold of the powerful House of Ostroh, the castle itself is located in a relatively small elevated oval plaza. The first wooden fortifications were built in the area before the 1241 Mongol invasion of Rus, the ruins were later reconstructed by Knyaz Daniil from the Ostrogky family on the citys Sudovy Hill. Since then, more additions and reconstructions were carried out, although the complex still retains its Medieval architecture, the castle complex consists of four main structures, the Guard Tower where the castles museum is located, the Bohoyavlenska Church, the New Tower, and the Belltower. A small park sits next to the castle, separated by a small moat. A monument was placed in the park in 1978, commemorating the 400 anniversary of the foundation of the Ostroh Academy, a building used to stand in the same location, in which the Azbuka and the Ostrog Bible were printed by Ivan Fedorov. Seven Wonders of Ukraine Starokostiantyniv Castle - another castle of the Ostrogski family Castle complex of the city of Ostroh, national Taras Shevchenko University of Kyiv
9.
Ostrogski Palace
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Ostrogski Palace, or Ostrogski Castle, is a mansion in the city center of Warsaw, on ulica Tamka. Begun by the powerful Ostrogski family who gave their name to the building, it houses the Fryderyk Chopin Society. The spot for the palace, a lot of land on the Vistula escarpment directly below the Nowy Świat, was bought by Prince Janusz Ostrogski in early 17th century. For that he financed a bastion on which the manor was to be constructed, however, it was not until after his death that the manor itself was started. Designed by Tylman of Gameren, the built on top of the bastion was to become one of the wings of a huge future palace. However, it was never completed and was bought by deputy chancellor of the crown Jan Gniński, in 1725 the palace was bought by yet another magnate family, the Zamoyski, who made it a seat of their jurydyka. However, as the unfinished manor lacked many features of an 18th-century magnate palace, it never served its original purpose, since 1778 it was divided onto small flats and started serving as a hostel for students, owned by Marcin Nikuta. Converted into a hospital by the French in 1806, between 1812 and 1817 it was abandoned and gradually fell into disrepair. During the November Uprising it was bought by the Polish government, turned over to civilian authorities in 1836, it continued to be a hospital until 1859, when it was bought by the Musical Institute. It was there that both Stanisław Moniuszko and Ignacy Jan Paderewski received their education, in late 19th century an additional story was added and in 1913 a new, much larger seat for the Institute was built adjacent to the palace. Since then it has housed the Fryderyk Chopin Society, the Fryderyk Chopin Museum at the Fryderyk Chopin Society in Warsaw was established in the 1930s. At that time, thirteen valuable manuscripts were purchased from Ludwika Ciechomska, granddaughter of Ludwika Jędrzejewicz, Chopins sister, the creation of a Collection of Photographs, Recordings and a Library was started prior to 1939. In 1945, the Fryderyk Chopin Institute opened again in Warsaw and this was also the home of the Museum, Library and Collections of Photographs and Recordings. The rich plafonds, stucco and Pompeian style frescoes are a setting for the rooms of the Fryderyk Chopin Museum. The cellars below the bastion are supposedly home to a Golden Duck, national Chopin Institute, the current owner of the palace Modern and pre-war pictures
10.
Polish language
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Polish is a West Slavic language spoken primarily in Poland and is the native language of the Poles. It belongs to the Lechitic subgroup of the West Slavic languages, Polish is the official language of Poland, but it is also used throughout the world by Polish minorities in other countries. It is one of the languages of the European Union. Its written standard is the Polish alphabet, which has 9 additions to the letters of the basic Latin script, Polish is closely related to Kashubian, Silesian, Upper Sorbian, Lower Sorbian, Czech and Slovak. It is also the second most widely spoken Slavic language, after Russian, in history, Polish is known to be an important language, both diplomatically and academically in Central and Eastern Europe. Today, Polish is spoken by over 38.5 million people as their first language in Poland. It is also spoken as a language in western parts of Belarus and Ukraine, west and central Lithuania, as well as the northern parts of the Czech Republic. There are 55 million Polish language speakers around the world, Polish began to emerge as a distinct language around the 10th century, the process largely triggered by the establishment and development of the Polish state. With Christianity, Poland also adopted the Latin alphabet, which made it possible to write down Polish, the precursor to modern Polish is the Old Polish language. Ultimately, Polish is thought to descend from the unattested Proto-Slavic language, Poland is the most linguistically homogeneous European country, nearly 97% of Polands citizens declare Polish as their first language. Elsewhere, Poles constitute large minorities in Lithuania, Belarus, Polish is the most widely used minority language in Lithuanias Vilnius County and is found elsewhere in southeastern Lithuania. There are significant numbers of Polish speakers among Polish emigrants and their descendants in many other countries, in the United States, Polish Americans number more than 11 million but most of them cannot speak Polish fluently. The largest concentrations of Polish speakers reported in the census were found in three states, Illinois, New York, and New Jersey. Enough people in these areas speak Polish that PNC Financial Services offer services available in Polish at all of their machines in addition to English and Spanish. According to the 2011 census there are now over 500,000 people in England, in Canada, there is a significant Polish Canadian population, There are 242,885 speakers of Polish according to the 2006 census, with a particular concentration in Toronto and Montreal. The geographical distribution of the Polish language was affected by the territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II. Poles settled in the Recovered Territories in the west and north and this tendency toward a homogeneity also stems from the vertically integrated nature of the authoritarian Polish Peoples Republic. The inhabitants of different regions of Poland still speak standard Polish somewhat differently, first-language speakers of Polish have no trouble understanding each other, and non-native speakers may have difficulty distinguishing regional variations
11.
Lithuanian language
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Lithuanian is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognized as one of the official languages of the European Union. There are about 2.9 million native Lithuanian speakers in Lithuania, Lithuanian is a Baltic language, related to Latvian. It is written in a Latin alphabet, Lithuanian is often said to be the most conservative living Indo-European language, retaining many features of Proto-Indo-European now lost in other Indo-European languages. Anyone wishing to hear how Indo-Europeans spoke should come and listen to a Lithuanian peasant, among Indo-European languages, Lithuanian is extraordinarily conservative, retaining many archaic features otherwise found only in ancient languages such as Sanskrit or Ancient Greek. For this reason, it is one of the most important sources in the reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European language despite its late attestation, the Proto-Balto-Slavic languages branched off directly from Proto-Indo-European, then branched into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. Proto-Baltic branched off into Proto-West Baltic and Proto-East Baltic, according to some glottochronological speculations, the Eastern Baltic languages split from the Western Baltic ones between AD400 and AD600. The Greek geographer Ptolemy had already written of two Baltic tribe/nations by name, the Galindai and Sudinoi in the 2nd century AD, the differentiation between Lithuanian and Latvian started after AD800, for a long period, they could be considered dialects of a single language. At a minimum, transitional dialects existed until the 14th or 15th century, also, the 13th- and 14th-century occupation of the western part of the Daugava basin by the German Sword Brethren had a significant influence on the languages independent development. The earliest surviving written Lithuanian text is a translation dating from about 1503–1525 of the Lords Prayer, the Hail Mary, printed books existed after 1547, but the level of literacy among Lithuanians was low through the 18th century, and books were not commonly available. Brought into the country by book smugglers despite the threat of prison sentences. Jonas Jablonskis made significant contributions to the formation of the standard Lithuanian language and his proposal for Standard Lithuanian was based on his native Western Aukštaitijan dialect with some features of the eastern Prussian Lithuanians dialect spoken in Lithuania Minor. These dialects had preserved archaic phonetics mostly intact due to the influence of the neighbouring Old Prussian language, Lithuanian has been the official language of Lithuania since 1918. During the Soviet era, it was used in official discourse along with Russian, Lithuanian is one of two living Baltic languages, along with Latvian. An earlier Baltic language, Old Prussian, was extinct by the 18th century, such an opinion was first represented by the likes of August Schleicher, and to a certain extent, Antoine Meillet. Endzelīns thought that the similarity between Baltic and Slavic was explicable through language contact while Schleicher, Meillet and others argued for a kinship between the two families. An attempt to reconcile the opposing stances was made by Jan Michał Rozwadowski and he proposed that the two language groups were indeed a unity after the division of Indo-European, but also suggested that after the two had divided into separate entities, they had posterior contact. The genetic kinship view is augmented by the fact that Proto-Balto-Slavic is easily reconstructible with important proofs in historic prosody, vyacheslav Ivanov and Vladimir Toporov believed in the unity of Balto-Slavic, but not in the unity of Baltic. In the 1960s, they proposed a new division, that into East-Baltic, West-Baltic, the Ivanov–Toporov theory is gaining ground among students of comparative-historic grammar of Indo-European language, and seems to be replacing the previous two stances in most PIE textbooks
12.
Ukrainian language
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Ukrainian /juːˈkreɪniən/ is an East Slavic language. Written Ukrainian uses a variant of the Cyrillic script, historical linguists trace the origin of the Ukrainian language to the Old East Slavic of the early medieval state of Kievan Rus. After the fall of the Kievan Rus as well as the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, the Modern Ukrainian language has been in common use since the late 17th century, associated with the establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate. From 1804 until the Russian Revolution, the Ukrainian language was banned from schools in the Russian Empire and it has always maintained a sufficient base in Western Ukraine, where the language was never banned, in its folklore songs, itinerant musicians, and prominent authors. The Ukrainian language retains a degree of intelligibility with Belarusian and Russian. The first theory of the origin of Ukrainian language was suggested in Imperial Russia in the middle of the 18th century by Mikhail Lomonosov and this theory posits the existence of a common language spoken by all East Slavic people in the time of the Rus. Another point of view developed during the 19th and 20th centuries by linguists of Imperial Russia, like Lomonosov, they assumed the existence of a common language spoken by East Slavs in the past. This general point of view is the most accepted amongst academics worldwide, the supporters of this theory disagree, however, about the time when the different languages were formed. Soviet scholars set the divergence between Ukrainian and Russian only at time periods. During the time of the incorporation of Ruthenia into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and this point of view is, however, at variance with some historical data. In fact, several East Slavic tribes, such as Polans, Drevlyans, Severians, Dulebes, White Croats, Tiverians, notably, some Ukrainian features were recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic as far back as the language can be documented. In contrast, Ahatanhel Krymsky and Alexei Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century, Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky went even further, denying the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko, Vsevolod Hantsov, Olena Kurylo, Ivan Ohienko, according to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to a migration of the population within the territory of todays Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was supported by George Shevelovs phonological studies. During the 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of Galicia-Vollhynia and their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts, examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh, rura, rynok, kushnir, and majster
13.
Belarusian language
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Belarusian is an official language of Belarus, along with Russian, and is spoken abroad, chiefly in Russia, Ukraine, and small parts in far-eastern Poland. Following independence, it became known as Belarusian. Belarusian is one of the East Slavic languages and shares many grammatical and lexical features with other members of the group, to some extent, Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian are mutually intelligible. Its predecessor stage is known as Ruthenian, in turn descended from Old East Slavic, at the 1999 Belarus Census, the Belarusian language was declared as a language spoken at home by about 3,686,000 Belarusian citizens. About 6,984,000 of Belarusians declared it their mother tongue, other sources put the population of the language as 6,715,000 in Belarus and 9,081,102 in all countries. According to a study done by the Belarusian government in 2009, 72% of Belarusians speak Russian at home,29. 4% of Belarusians can write, speak, and read Belarusian, while 52. 5% can only read and speak it. Although closely related to other East Slavic languages, especially Ukrainian, Belarusian phonology is distinct in a number of ways, the phoneme inventory of the modern Belarusian language consists of 45 to 54 phonemes,6 vowels and 39 to 48 consonants, depending on how they are counted. When the nine geminate consonants are excluded as mere variations, there are 39 consonants, the number 48 includes all consonant sounds, including variations and rare sounds, which may be semantically distinct in the modern Belarusian language. The Belarusian alphabet is a variant of the Cyrillic script, which was first used as an alphabet for the Old Church Slavonic language, the modern Belarusian form was defined in 1918, and consists of thirty-two letters. Before that, Belarusian had also written in the Belarusian Latin alphabet, the Belarusian Arabic alphabet. The Glagolitic script had been used, sporadically, until the 11th or 12th century, there are several systems of romanizing written Belarusian text in existence, see Romanization of Belarusian. Standardized Belarusian grammar in its form was adopted in 1959. It was developed from the form set down by Branislaw Tarashkyevich. Historically, there had existed several other alternative standardized forms of Belarusian grammar and it is mainly based on the Belarusian folk dialects of Minsk-Vilnius region. Belarusian grammar is mostly synthetic and partly analytic, and overall is similar to Russian grammar. The most significant instance of this is in the representation of vowel reduction, and in particular akannye, the merger of unstressed /a/ and /o/, Belarusian always spells this merged sound as ⟨a⟩, whereas Russian uses either ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩, according to what the underlying phoneme is. This can significantly complicate the task of foreign speakers in learning these paradigms, besides the literary norm, there exist two main dialects of the Belarusian language, the North-Eastern and the South-Western. In addition, there exist the transitional Middle Belarusian dialect group, the North-Eastern dialect is chiefly characterized by the soft sounding R and strong akanye, and the South-Western dialect is chiefly characterized by the hard sounding R and moderate akanye
14.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
15.
Poles
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The Poles are a nation and West Slavic ethnic group native to Poland who share a common ancestry, culture, history and are native speakers of the Polish language. The population of Poles in Poland is estimated at 37,394,000 out of a population of 38,538,000. Polands population inhabits several historic regions, including Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Mazovia, Silesia, Pomerania, Kuyavia, Warmia, Masuria, a wide-ranging Polish diaspora exists throughout Europe, the Americas and in Australasia. Today the largest urban concentration of Poles is the Katowice urban agglomeration of 2.7 million inhabitants, Poland was also for centuries a refuge for many Jews from all over Europe, a large number emigrated in the twentieth century to Israel. Several prominent Israeli statesmen were born in Poland, including Israels founder David Ben-Gurion, former President of Israel Shimon Peres, the Slavic people have been in the territory of modern Poland for over 1500 years. In the 9th and 10th centuries the tribes gave rise to developed regions along the upper Vistula, the last tribal undertaking resulted in the 10th century in a lasting political structure and state, Poland, one of the West Slavic nations. After 1945 the so-called autochthonous or aboriginal school of Polish prehistory received official backing in Poland, Polish people are the sixth largest national group in the European Union. Estimates vary depending on source, though available data suggest a number of around 60 million people worldwide. There are almost 38 million Poles in Poland alone, there are also Polish minorities in the surrounding countries including Germany, and indigenous minorities in the Czech Republic, Lithuania, Ukraine, and Belarus. There are some smaller indigenous minorities in nearby countries such as Moldova, the term Polonia is usually used in Poland to refer to people of Polish origin who live outside Polish borders, officially estimated at around 10 to 20 million. There is a notable Polish diaspora in the United States, Brazil, France has a historic relationship with Poland and has a relatively large Polish-descendant population. Poles have lived in France since the 18th century, in the early 20th century, over a million Polish people settled in France, mostly during world wars, among them Polish émigrés fleeing either Nazi occupation or later Soviet rule. In the United States, a significant number of Polish immigrants settled in Chicago, Ohio, Detroit, New York City, Orlando, Pittsburgh, Buffalo, the highest concentration of Polish Americans in a single New England municipality is in New Britain, Connecticut. The majority of Polish Canadians have arrived in Canada since World War II, the number of Polish immigrants increased between 1945 and 1970, and again after the end of Communism in Poland in 1989. In Brazil the majority of Polish immigrants settled in Paraná State, smaller, but significant numbers settled in the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Espírito Santo and São Paulo. The city of Curitiba has the second largest Polish diaspora in the world and Polish music, dishes and it is estimated that over half a million Polish people have come to work in the United Kingdom from Poland. Since 2011, Poles have been able to work throughout the EU and not just in the United Kingdom, Ireland. The Polish community in Norway has increased substantially and has grown to a number of 120,000
16.
Ruthenians
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Ruthenians and Ruthenes are archaic English-language exonyms for a Slavic population known in medieval times as the Rus in various parts of Eastern Europe. Along with Lithuanians, Samogitians and Litvins constituted main population of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, from the 9th century, the state of, which was known later as Kievan Rus was known in Western Europe by a variety of names derived from Rus. From the 12th century, Rus was usually known in Western Europe by the Latinised name Ruthenia, in their broadest usage, Ruthenians or Ruthenes were used to refer to peoples now called Belarusians, Russians, members of the Rusyn minority and Ukrainians. By the end of the 18th century, the modern Ukrainian language had been codified, at the same time, however, many Rusyns did not accept the name Ukrainian or never regarded themselves as such, especially those in Carpathian Ruthenia and the Pannonian Rusyns. Contact with neighbouring languages, such as Slovak, Polish, Hungarian, Romanian and German had created significant linguistic rifts between the Rusyn language and Ukrainian, by the mid-19th century, the Rusyns of Galicia and Lodomeria had codified their language. Many people identifying as Rusyns now regard themselves as a minority, the majority of them live in south-western Ukraine, eastern Slovakia, south-east Poland, north-east Hungary, and north-west Romania. The related Pannonian Rusyns live in a region of Serbia and Croatia. Ruthenians and Ruthenes are now used by Rusyns or Ukrainians. From the 12th century, the land of Rus was usually known in Western Europe by the Latinised name Ruthenia, geographically, Ruthenia is a cross-border region centred on the northern Carpathian Mountains, including western Ukraine, eastern Slovakia, and southern Poland. This area coincides, to a degree, with a region sometimes known in English as Galicia. The name Ruthenian is also used by the Pannonian Rusyn minority in Serbia and Croatia, in contrast, the Rusyns of Romania are more likely to identify as Ukrainian. One of the earliest references to Rus in a Latinised form was in the 5th century, ruteni, a misnomer that was also the name of an extinct and unrelated Celtic tribe in Ancient Gaul, was used in reference to Rus is in the Annales Augustiani of 1089. An alternative early modern Latinisation, Rucenus was, according Boris Unbegaun and it too was applied to Rusyns and Ukrainians equally. However according to research studies is to come to conclusion that even after the 16th century the word Rutheni was associated with all East Slavs. Vasili III of Russia, who ruled the Grand Duchy of Moscow in the 16th century, was known in European Latin sources as Rhuteni Imperator, according to Jacques Margeret Moscovitae called themselves in the 16th century Ruthenians. Professor David Frick from the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute has also found in Vilnius the documents from 1655, at the request of Mykhajlo Levitsky, in 1843 the term Ruthenian became the official name for the Rusyns and Ukrainians within the Austrian Empire. For example, Ivan Franko and Stepan Bandera in their passports were identified as Ruthenians, by 1900 more and more Ruthenians began to call themselves with the self-designated name Ukrainians. A number of Ukrainian members of the intelligentsia, such as Mykhailo Drahomanov and Ivan Franko, perceived the term as narrow-minded, provincial and Habsburg
17.
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
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The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 13th century until 1795. The state was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic Baltic tribes from Aukštaitija, the Grand Duchy later expanded to include large portions of the former Kievan Rus and other Slavic lands, including territory of present-day Belarus, parts of Ukraine, Poland and Russia. At its greatest extent in the 15th century, it was the largest state in Europe and it was a multi-ethnic and multi-confessional state with great diversity in languages, religion, and cultural heritage. Consolidation of the Lithuanian lands began in the late 12th century, Mindaugas, the first ruler of the Grand Duchy, was crowned as Catholic King of Lithuania in 1253. The pagan state was targeted in the crusade by the Teutonic Knights. The multi-ethnic and multi-confessional state emerged only at the reign of Gediminas. The reign of Vytautas the Great marked both the greatest territorial expansion of the Grand Duchy and the defeat of the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410 and it also marked the rise of the Lithuanian nobility. After Vytautass death, Lithuanias relationship with the Kingdom of Poland greatly deteriorated, Lithuanian noblemen, including the Radvila family, attempted to break the personal union with Poland. However, the unsuccessful Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars with the Grand Duchy of Moscow forced the union to remain intact, eventually, the Union of Lublin of 1569 created a new state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In this federation, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania maintained its political distinctiveness and had separate government, laws, army, shortly after, the unitary character of the state was confirmed by adopting the Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations. The newly reformed Commonwealth was invaded by Russia in 1792 and partitioned between the neighbours, with a truncated state remaining only nominally independent, after the Kościuszko Uprising, the territory was partitioned among the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and Austria in 1795. The Statutes of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania name the name of the state as Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia. The title of Grand Duchy was consistently applied to Lithuania from the 14th century onward, in the 12th century, Slavic chronicles refer to Lithuania as one of the areas attacked by the Rus. Pagan Lithuanians initially paid tribute to Polotsk, but they grew in strength. The sudden spark of military raids marked consolidation of the Lithuanian lands in Aukštaitija, the Livonian Order and Teutonic Knights, crusading military orders, were established in Riga in 1202 and in Prussia in 1226. The Christian orders posed a significant threat to pagan Baltic tribes, the peace treaty with Galicia–Volhynia of 1219 provides evidence of cooperation between Lithuanians and Samogitians. This treaty lists 21 Lithuanian dukes, including five senior Lithuanian dukes from Aukštaitija, although they had battled in the past, the Lithuanians and the Žemaičiai now faced a common enemy. Likely Živinbudas had the most authority and at least several dukes were from the same families, the formal acknowledgment of common interests and the establishment of a hierarchy among the signatories of the treaty foreshadowed the emergence of the state
18.
Janusz Ostrogski
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Prince Janusz Ostrogski was a Polish–Lithuanian noble and statesman. He served as a voivode of Volhyn, as a castellan of Kraków, Ostrogski was one of the richest magnates of the Commonwealth, and the last of the male line of the family. Upon his death his estate passed to the Zasławskis, Janusz was of the princely Ostrogski family, the son of Konstanty Wasyl and Sophie née Tarnowski. He had four siblings, brothers Aleksander and Konstanty and sisters Katarzyna and he spend his early childhood in Dubno, and then lived at the court of Holy Roman Emperor in Vienna. In 1579 he converted from Orthodoxy to Roman Catholicism, in 1577, he led the defense of Dubno against the Tatars. During the Livonian War in 1579, he participated in campaigns in Chernigov. On 2 February 1593 together with Alexander Vyshnevetsky he won the battle with the Cossack army under the command of C, for the protection of state borders and their own possessions in 1609, he founded Ostrogski ordination, the capital of which over time became Dubno. In addition, he funded churches in Mezhyrechchy and Astrovtsy, orthodox clerics in his province did not interfere. Cherished treasures of the ancestors, especially the gold medal with the image of his father, Prince Constantine-Basil. This medal is now in the Hermitage, ostrogskis wives were, Suzanne Sered, children, Eleanor and Euphrosyne Catherine Lubomirski Teafiliya Tarlo, children, Janusz Vladimir Ostrogski family Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Encyclopedia. At 3 tons / ed. GP Pashkov et al, at 6 m. T.1, А-Беліца / Belarus. Barbara Sawczyk, Maria Sąsiadowicz, Ewa Stańczyk
19.
Rurik dynasty
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The Rurik dynasty or Rurikids was a dynasty founded by the Varangian prince Rurik, who established himself in Novgorod around the year AD862. They ruled until 1610 and the Time of Troubles, following which they were succeeded by the Romanovs and they are one of Europes oldest royal houses, with numerous existing cadet branches. The Rurikid dynasty was founded in 862 by Rurik, a Varangian prince, come and reign as princes and have authority over us. Three brothers came with their kin and all the Rus in response to this invitation, Rurik set up rule in Novgorod, giving more provincial towns to his brothers. The Rurikid Dynasty DNA Project of FamilyTreeDNA commercial genetic genealogy company reports that Y-DNA testing of the descendants of Rurikids suggests their non-Slavic origin, Rurik and his brothers founded a state that later historians called Kievan Rus′. By the middle of the century, Kievan Rus′ had dissolved into independent principalities. The dynasty followed agnatic seniority and the izgoi principle, in addition, a line of Polotsk princes assimilated themselves with the princes of Lithuania. In the 10th century the Council of Liubech made some amendments to a succession rule, vsevolods line eventually became better known as the Monomakhovychi and was the predominant one. The line of Svyatoslav later became known as Olegovychi and often claim to the lands of Chernihiv. The Izyaslavychi who ruled Turov and Volhynia were eventually replaced by a Monomakhovychi branch, the Rurikid dynasty… attempted to impose on their highly diverse polity the integrative concept of russkaia zemlia and the unifying notion of a Rus′ people. But Kievan Rus′ was never really a unified polity and it was a loosely bound, ill-defined, and heterogeneous conglomeration of lands and cities inhabited by tribes and populous groups whose loyalties were primarily territorial. This caused the Rurik dynasty to effectively dissolve into several sub-dynasties ruling smaller states in the 10th and 11th centuries and these were the Olgoviches of Severia who ruled in Chernigov, Yuryeviches who controlled Vladimir-Suzdal, and Romanoviches in Galicia-Volhynia. The Olgoviches descended from Oleg I of Chernigov, a son of Sviatoslav II of Kiev and they continued to rule until the early 14th century when they were torn apart by the emerging Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Grand Duchy of Moscow. Vsevolod I of Kiev was the father of Vladimir II Monomakh, two of Vladimir IIs sons were Mstislav I of Kiev and Yuri Dolgorukiy. The Romanoviches were the line of Roman the Great, descended from Mstislav I of Kiev through his son Iziaslav II of Kiev and his grandson Mstislav II of Kiev, father of Roman the Great. The older Monomakhovychi line that ruled Principality of Volhynia, they were crowned kings of Galicia and Volhynia. Romanovychi displaced the line of Izyaslavychi from Turov and Volhynia as well as Rostyslavychi from Galicia. The last were two brothers of Romanovychi, Andrew and Lev II, who ruled jointly and were trying to repel Mongol incursions
20.
Sviatopolk II of Kiev
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Sviatopolk II Iziaslavich was supreme ruler of the Kievan Rus for 20 years, from 1093 to 1113. He was not a prince, and his reign was marked by incessant rivalry with his cousin Vladimir Monomakh. Upon his death the Kievan citizens raised a rebellion against the Jewish merchants and Varangian officials who speculated in grain, Sviatopolk was the son of Iziaslav Iaroslavich by his concubine. During his brother Iaropolks life, Sviatopolk was not regarded as a claimant to the Kievan throne. In 1069 he was sent to Polotsk, a city taken by his father from the local ruler Vseslav. Upon his brothers death he succeeded him in Turov, which would remain in possession of his descendants until the 17th century, when Vsevolod Iaroslavich died in 1093, Sviatopolk was acknowledged by other princes as the senior son of Veliki Kniaz and permitted to ascend the Kievan throne. Although he participated in the princely congresses organized by Vladimir Monomakh, for instance, he sided with his cousin David of Volhynia and his son-in-law Bolesław III Wrymouth in capturing and blinding one of Galician princes. He also sided with Vladimir Monomakh in several campaigns against the Kypchaks but was defeated in the Battle of the Stugna River, Sviatopolks Christian name was Michael, so he encouraged embellishment of St Michaels Abbey in Kiev, which has been known as the Golden-Roofed up to the present. The history now known as the Primary Chronicle was compiled by the monk Nestor during Sviatopolks reign, Sviatopolk married firstly a Bohemian princess, probably a daughter of Duke Spytihněv II. They had three children, Zbyslava, married to king Boleslaw III of Poland on November 15,1102, predslava, married to Prince Álmos of Hungary on August 21,1104. Iaroslav, Prince of Volynia and Turov was married three times - to Hungarian, Polish Sophia, and Kievan princesses, in consequence of Iaroslavs early death, his descendants forfeited any right to the Kievan throne and had to content themselves with Turov and Pinsk. Secondly, in 1094 Sviatopolk married to a daughter of Tugor Khan of the Kypchaks and they had four children, Anna, married to Sviatoslav Davydych from Chernihiv who turned into a monk upon her death and later became Saint Nikolai Svyatoslav Davydych of Chernihiv. Maria, married Piotr Włostowic, castellan of Wroclaw and Polish palatine, bryachislav, possibly dethroned Iaroslav as the Prince of Turov in 1118. Izyaslav, possibly the Prince of Turov in 1123, some sources claim that Sviatopolk used to have an out of wedlock son Mstislav who ruled Novgorod-Sieversky in 1095–1097 and later Volyn. It seems that he later was murdered in Volodymyr-Volynski, there are little or no information on most of Svitopolks children except Iaroslav and Zbyslava. Iaroslav and his children continued to rule the Principality of Turov. List of Ukrainian rulers List of Russian rulers Detailed biography
21.
Slonim
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Slonim is a city in Grodno Region, Belarus, capital of the Slonim district. It is located at the junction of the Shchara and Isa rivers,143 km southeast of Grodno, the population in 2015 was 49,739. Slonim has been known by several versions of its name, Сло́нім, Słonim, Slonim was first mentioned in chronicles in 1252 as Uslonim and in 1255 as Vslonim. According to one version, the name of the city originates from the Slavic word zaslona, another version, proposed by Jazep Stabroŭski, states that Slonim is a derivative from Uzslenimas in the Lithuanian language simply means beyond the valley. Some 19th century European historians also tried to connect the name Slonim to the root word slon, however, this hypothesis has never been taken seriously. The earliest record is of a fort on the left bank of the Shchara river in the 11th century. The area was disputed between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kievan Rus in early history and it changed several times. In 1040, the Kievans won control of the area after a battle, the Ruthenians retook the area early in the 13th century but were expelled by a Tartar invasion in 1241 and the town was pillaged. When, later in the year, the Tartars withdrew, Slonim became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania once again, in 1569, Lithuania and Poland united and Slonim became an important regional centre within the newly established Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. From 1631 to 1685 the city flourished as the seat of the Lithuanian diet, Slonim was in the area annexed by Russia. Ogiński also built a complex, combining an opera theater, a school of music and a school of ballet. Russian control lasted until 1915, when the German army captured the town, after the First World War, the Slonim area was disputed between the Soviet Union and the newly recreated state of Poland. The town suffered badly in the Polish-Soviet war of 1920 and it was ceded by the Bolsheviks to Poland in the 1921 Peace of Riga and became a part of Nowogródek Voivodeship of the Second Polish Republic. Slonim was one of the towns in Poland that had a significant Jewish population. The imposing Great Synagogue, built in 1642, survived the destruction, the 10 small synagogues around the Great Synagogue called Stiblach did not survive. In 1939, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union resulted in the invasion of Poland by the two powers and its division between them, Slonim was in the area designated by the Pact to fall within the Soviet sphere of influence. The Soviets placed that area within the Byelorussian SSR, two years later, Germany invaded the Soviets and Slonim was captured. The Słonim Jews were herded into the Słonim Ghetto set up at the Na Wyspie neighbourhood across the bridge on the Szczara River, soon thereafter, 70% of Slonims Jews had been killed by the Einsatzgruppen, including 9,000 on 14 November 1941
22.
Liubartas
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Demetrius of Liubar or Liubartas was Prince of Lutsk and Liubar, Prince of Zhytomyr, Grand Prince of Volhynia, Grand Prince of Galicia and Volhynia. The origin of Liubartas is uncertain and it is known that he was the youngest son of Gediminas, Grand Duke of Lithuania. In the early 1320s he married a daughter of Andrew of Galicia, after Andrew and his brother Lev II died around 1322, Galicia–Volhynia did not have a male successor. Instead of promoting Liubartas and causing a war with Poland, Gediminas compromised with Władysław I of Poland, both parties agreed to install Boleslaw-Yuri II, nephew of Leo and Andrew. Boleslaw-Yuri was a son of Trojden I of Masovia from the Piast dynasty, a cousin of Władysław I, at the time Boleslaw was fourteen years old and was betrothed to Eufemija, daughter of Gediminas. Liubartas continued to rule Lutsk and Volodymyr-Volynskyi and that way the Galicia–Volhynia Wars were postponed until after Boleslaws poisoning in 1340. He was poisoned by rebellious nobles, who invited Liubartas to become the ruler for both Galicia and Volhynia, sources are too scarce to fully reconstruct events between 1341–1349. Despite the support from his brothers Algirdas and Kęstutis, Liubartas lost all territories except for eastern Volhynia with Lutsk to Casimir III of Poland in 1349, in 1351 he was even taken prisoner during a battle, and Kęstutis had to rescue him. In 1366 a treaty was signed, Liubartas retained eastern Volhynia with Lutsk, however the matter was settled only in 1370, Liubartas took advantage of Casimirs death and captured all of Volhynia. The territories changed again only in 1569, when Volhynia, including Lutsk, was transferred to Poland by the Union of Lublin, in 1382, after death of Louis I of Hungary, Liubartas captured Kremenets, Przemyshl, and other cities from Hungary. He supported his brother Kęstutis against nephew Jogaila during the succession fights and he built a castle in Lutsk, known as the Lubarts Castle, that survives to this day. 1385, having ruled Volhynia for roughly sixty years and he married for the second time ca.1350 to an unnamed daughter of Konstantin of Rostov, a relative of Simeon of Moscow. He had three sons, Fëdor, Symeon, and Lazar, Fëdor inherited Volhynia, and died in 1431
23.
Grand Duke of Lithuania
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The following is a list of rulers over Lithuania—grand dukes, kings, and presidents—the heads of authority over historical Lithuanian territory. The timeline includes Lithuania as an entity or legitimately part of a greater sovereign entity as well as Lithuania under control or occupation of an outside authority. The incumbents and office-holders are listed by names most commonly used in English language, where appropriate, the alternations in Lithuanian, Ruthenian and Polish are included. The state of Lithuania formed in 1230s, when threatened by the Livonian Order in the north and he became the only crowned king of Lithuania. His state became known as Grand Duchy of Lithuania, after Grand Duke Jogaila became also king of Poland in 1386, the two states became closer connected and since 1440 both were ruled by a common ruler. In 1569 Union of Lublin was signed and a new entity—the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth—emerged, the commonwealth was partitioned in 1795 and Lithuania became part of the Russian Empire till 16 February 1918. The Council of Lithuania was able to establish the sovereignty only in 1919, the first republic of Lithuania existed until 1940 when it was occupied by the Soviet Union. During the Soviet-German War, Lithuania was occupied by Nazi Germany, in 1944, as Germany was losing the war, Russia re-occupied Lithuania and established the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became the first Soviet republic to declare independence, the restored Republic of Lithuania is a democratic republic, a member of both the European Union and NATO. Title, Grand Duke except for Mindaugas, who became king of Lithuania, dates are approximate because of scant written sources. The act of union with Poland was signed as early as 1385, however. The monarchs retained separate titles for both parts of the state, and their numbering was kept separately, the Jagiellon dynasty was a direct continuation of the Gediminids. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was established by Union of Lublin in 1569, the elected King of Poland was to be elected by Lithuanian noble families as a Grand Duke of Lithuania. The first ruler of the country was Sigismund II Augustus. Following the partitions in 1772,1793, and 1795, the commonwealth ceased to exist, there are some gaps in the timeline as it took a while to elect a new king. Title, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, the Council of Lithuania declared independence on 16 February 1918 and invited Wilhelm of Urach to become king of Lithuania. The name of the state was the Kingdom of Lithuania, on 9 July 1918, the council declared that the Duke of Urach is to become King Mindaugas II of Lithuania. However, on 2 November, the council revoked this decision because of its unpopularity, the institution of President was created on 4 April 1919
24.
Gediminas
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Gediminas was Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1315 or 1316 until his death. He is credited with founding this political entity and expanding its territory which, at the time of his death, Gediminas was born in about 1275. Because written sources of the era are scarce, Gediminas ancestry, early life, various theories have claimed that Gediminas was either his predecessor Grand Duke Vytenis son, his brother, his cousin, or his hostler. For several centuries only two versions of his origins circulated, another version introduced in the Lithuanian Chronicles, which also appeared long after Gediminas death, proclaimed that Gediminas was Vytenis son. However, the two men were almost the age, making this relationship unlikely. Recent research indicates that Gediminias ancestor may have been Skalmantas and this discovery led to the belief that Skalmantas was the long-sought ancestor of the Gediminids. Ochmański posited that the poem skipped the generation represented by Butvydas, baranauskas disagrees, believing Skalmantas was Butvydas brother rather than his father, and that Vytenis and Gediminas were therefore cousins. Gediminas became the Grand Duke in 1316 at the age of 40 and he inherited a vast domain, comprising not only Lithuania proper, but also Samogitia, Navahradak, Podlasie, Polotsk and Minsk. However, these possessions were all environed by the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order, Gediminas allied himself with the Tatars against the Teutonic order in 1319. Gediminas also asked that legates should be dispatched to him in order to be baptized and this action was supported by the Archbishop of Riga, Frederic Lobestat. Following these events, peace between the Duchy and the Livonian order was conducted on 2 October 1323. The immigrants were to choose their own settlements and be governed by their own laws, priests and monks were also invited to come and build churches at Vilnius and Navahradak. A compact was then signed at Vilnius, in the name of the whole Christian World, thus his raid upon Dobrzyń, the latest acquisition of the knights on Polish soil, speedily gave them a ready weapon against him. Nevertheless, disregarding the censures of the church, the Order resumed the war with Gediminas by murdering one of his delegates sent to welcome the Grand Master for his arrival to Riga in 1325. Thus in about 1339-40 he executed two Franciscan friars from Bohemia, Ulrich and Martin, who had gone beyond the authority granted them and had publicly preached against the Lithuanian religion, Gediminas ordered them to renounce Christianity, and had them killed when they refused. Five more friars were executed in 1369 for the same offence, despite Gediminas chief goal to save Lithuania from destruction at the hands of the Germans, he still died as a pagan reigning over semi-pagan lands. Also, he was bound to his pagan kinsmen in Samogitia, to his Orthodox subjects in Belarus. Therefore, it is unclear whether the letters sent to the Pope were an actual request for conversion or simply a diplomatic maneuver
25.
Governor
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A governor is, in most cases, a public official with the power to govern the executive branch of a non-sovereign or sub-national level of government, ranking under the head of state. In federations, governor may be the title of a politician who governs a constituent state and these companies operate as a major state within a state with its own armed forces. For example, in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries, there are governors, school governors. The adjective pertaining to a governor is gubernatorial, from the Latin root gubernyare, the historical female form is governess, though female officials are referred to by the gender-neutral form governor of the noun to avoid confusion with other meanings of the term. Indeed, many regions of the pre-Roman antiquity were ultimately replaced by Roman standardized provincial governments after their conquest by Rome, in Pharaonic times, the governors of each of the various provinces in the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt are usually known by the Greek word. The core function of a Roman governor was as a magistrate or judge, and the management of taxation, under the Republic and the early Empire, however, a governor also commanded military forces in his province. Republican governors were all men who had served in senior magistracies in Rome in the previous year, a special case was Egypt, a rich private domain and vital granary, where the Emperor almost inherited the theocratic status of a Pharaoh. The Emperor was represented there by a sui generis styled praefectus augustalis. Otherwise, the governors of provinces had various titles, some known as consularis, apart from Egypt and the East, each diocese was directed by a governor known as a vicarius. The prefectures were directed by praefecti praetorio and this system survived with few significant changes until the collapse of the empire in the West, and in the East, the breakdown of order with the Persian and Arab invasions of the seventh century. At that stage, a new kind of governor emerged, the Strategos, today, crown colonies of the United Kingdom continue to be administered by a governor, who holds varying degrees of power. Because of the different constitutional histories of the colonies of the United Kingdom. Administrators, Commissioners and High Commissioners exercise similar powers to Governors, frequently the name Government House is given to Governors residences. The term can also be used in a generic sense, especially for compound titles which include it, Governor-general. In the United Kingdoms remaining overseas territories, the governor is normally a direct appointee of the British Government, the Governors chief responsibility is for the Defence and External Affairs of the colony. In some minor overseas territories, instead of a Governor, there is an Administrator or Commissioner, in Australia, each state has the governor as its formal representative of the Queen, as head of the state government. It is not an office but a ceremonial one. Each state governor is appointed by the Queen of Australia on the advice of the Premier, State Governors have emergency reserve powers but these are rarely used
26.
Volhynia
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Volhynia or Volyn is a historic region in Central and Eastern Europe straddling Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus. The borders of the region are not clearly defined, while the territory that still carries the name is Volyn Oblast, Volhynia has changed hands numerous times throughout history and been divided among competing powers. Since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, it has been part of the independent nation of Ukraine, among important cities are Lutsk, Rivne, Volodymyr-Volynskyi, Iziaslav, Novohrad-Volynskyi. In other versions, the city was located over 20 km to the west of Volodymyr-Volynskyi near the mouth of Huczwa River, before the partitions of Poland, eastern edge stretched a little west along the right-banks of Sluch River or just east of it. Volhynia is located in basins of Western Bug and Prypyat, therefore most of its rivers flow either in northern or western directions, relative to other historical regions, it is northeast of Galicia, east of Lesser Poland, and northwest of Podolia. The borders of the region are not clearly defined, and it is considered to overlap a number of other regions, among which are Polesia. Territories of historical Volhynia are now part of the Volyn, Rivne, major cities include Lutsk, Rivne, Kovel, Volodymyr-Volynskyi, Kremenets, and Starokostiantyniv. Before World War II, many Jewish shtetls, such as Trochenbrod, at one time all of Volhynia was part of the Pale of Settlement designated by Imperial Russia on its southwesternmost border. The land was mentioned in works of the Arabian scholar Al-Masudi who denoted the local tribe as people of Valin, in his work of 947-948 Al-Masudi mentions that Valinians as an intertribal union were ruled by their leader Madjak. In the opinion of Ukrainian historian Yuriy Dyba, the chronicle phrase «и оустави по мьстѣ, и по лузѣ погосты и дань и ѡброкы» reflects the actual route of the Olgas raid against Drevlians further to the west up to the Western Bugs right tributary Luha River. As early as 983, Vladimir the Great appointed his son Vsevolod the ruler of the Volhynian Principality and in 988 established the city of Volodymer. The first records can be traced to the Ruthenian chronicles, such as the Primary Chronicle, which mentions tribes of the Dulebe, Buzhan, volhynias early history coincides with that of the duchies or principalities of Halych and Volhynia. These two successor states of the Kievan Rus formed Halych-Volhynia between the 12th and the 14th centuries, after 1569 Volhynia formed a province of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During this period many Poles and Jews settled in the area, the Roman and Greek Catholic churches became established in the province. In 1375 was established a Roman Catholic Diocese of Lodomeria but it was suppressed in 1425, many Orthodox churches joined the latter organization in order to benefit from a more attractive legal status. Records of the first agricultural colonies of Mennonites date from 1783, after the Third partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795, Volhynia was annexed as the Volhynian Governorate of the Russian Empire. It covered an area of 71,852.7 square kilometers, many Roman Catholic church buildings were also given to the Russian Church, and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Lutsk was suppressed on orders of Empress Catherine II. In 1897, the population amounted to 2,989,482 people and it consisted of 73.7 percent East Slavs,13.2 percent Jews,6.2 percent Poles, and 5.7 percent Germans
27.
Korets
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Korets is a city in the Rivne Oblast in Ukraine. The city is located on the Korchyk river,66 kilometers to the east of Rivne and it is administrative center of the Korets Raion. In 2001 the population of Korets was 8,649, known since 1150 as Korchesk, Korets was fortified by Prince Theodor Ostrogski in the late 14th century. At that time, the town was part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, between the 15th and 17th centuries it was the seat of the princely House of Korets that issued from Duke Narimantas of Volhynia. After the death of the last Prince Korecki in 1651, it passed through inheritance to the line of the House of Czartoryski. The Korets porcelain plant was established by Józef Klemens Czartoryski in 1783 and it was managed by French brothers Francois and Michel de Mezer of Sevres. Its products were famous across Poland, the plant burned in 1797, was rebuilt in 1800, and operated until 1832. Furthermore, Prince Jozef Czartoryski opened here a manufacture of cloth sash, following the 1569 Union of Lublin, Korets became part of the Kingdom of Poland, where it remained for over 200 years, until the Partitions of Poland. The town then belonged to the Russian Empire, returning to Poland in the interbellum period, in the Second Polish Republic, Korzec, as it was called, was part of Rowne County, Volhynian Voivodeship. Most of its population was Jewish, with Polish and Ukrainian communities, in the summer of 1943, local structures of the Home Army were destroyed by the Germans. At the end of the 19th century,70 to 80% of the inhabitants are Jewish, before World War II,6,000 Jews lived in the town. On May 1942,2,200 Jews are murdered and survivors are kept prisoners in a ghetto, september 1942,1500 Jews are murdered in a mass execution. Historical heritage of Korets includes the remains of its old castle and Resurrection Monastery, as well as the Church of St. Antony, St. Antony church was used during part of the communist time as a chemical storage facility. Upon arrival of the catholic pater Jozef Kozlowski in 1994, this church was refurbished and eventually brought back to its original form. Pater Kozlowski was priest and caretaker of St. Antony church until year 2002, yaroslav Alexandrovich Evdokimov is a singer, baritone, Honored Artist of the Russian Federation and Peoples Artist of Belarus. After high school, despite of innate talent, he studied at Vocational School of Korets, rabbi Pinchas of Koretz, a famous Hasidic Rebbe, is from the town
28.
Khmelnytskyi Oblast
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Khmelnytska oblast is an oblast of western Ukraine. The administrative center of the oblast is the city of Khmelnytskyi, the current estimated population is around 1,401,140. Khmelnytska oblast has an area of 20,600 km2 is located between 48°27 and 50°37 north latitude and between 26°09 and 27°56 east longitude. It is 220 km long measured from north to south. The oblast borders the Rivne Oblast to the northwest, the Zhytomyr Oblast to the northeast, the Vinnytsia Oblast to the east, the Chernivtsi Oblast to the south, the Podillia highland occupies the central area of the Khmelnytska oblast. The northwestern areas of the oblast are part of the Volyn highland, while to the north, the southwestern territory of the Khmelnytska oblast is crossed by the Tovtry range, which includes Mount Velyka Buhaikha, the highest point of oblast at 409 m above sea-level. The extreme south of the oblast has a surface with the river valleys. The Dneister Reservoir located there is the lowest point of the oblast, there are 120 rivers with a length of 10 km or more in the Khmelnytska oblast. The largest of these are the Dniester River, as well as its tributaries, Smotrych, Ushytsia, and the Zbruch — and the Southern Buh River, as well as its tributaries, Buzhok, Ikva, and Vovk. The rivers of the Dnieper Rivers basin — Horyn, Khmora, the oblasts lakes are located mostly in basin of the Horyn River. The largest reservoir in the oblast is the Dniester Reservoir, there are 1858 ponds and/or reservoirs in the oblast. The largest of these include Shchedrivske, Novostavske, and Kuzmynske, Khmelnytska oblast was created on September 22,1937 as the Kamianets-Podilskyi Oblast. In March 1941 the administrative center of the oblast was moved from Kamianets-Podilskyi to the city of Proskuriv, in 1954, Proskuriv was renamed Khmelnytskyi, and soon afterward, the oblast was renamed to Khmelnytska oblast. The oblast is subdivided into 20 raions and it consists of 6 municipalities,13 cities,24 towns, and more than 1,417 villages. The local administration of the oblast is controlled by the Khmelnytska oblast Rada, the governor of the oblast is the Khmelnytska oblast Rada speaker, appointed by the President of Ukraine. Khmelnytska oblasts population is 1,401,140 as of January 1,2004, as of 2002, the oblast ranks 13th by population in Ukraine. Pensioners make up 453,800 thousand people or 31, 7% of population, the birth rate per 1,000 residents is 8.3, and the death rate — per 1000 residents –16.1. The urban population, according to the 2001 Ukrainian Census data, accounted for 729,600 people, or 51%, and the rural population — for 701,200 people, or 49%
29.
Volynia
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Volhynia or Volyn is a historic region in Central and Eastern Europe straddling Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus. The borders of the region are not clearly defined, while the territory that still carries the name is Volyn Oblast, Volhynia has changed hands numerous times throughout history and been divided among competing powers. Since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, it has been part of the independent nation of Ukraine, among important cities are Lutsk, Rivne, Volodymyr-Volynskyi, Iziaslav, Novohrad-Volynskyi. In other versions, the city was located over 20 km to the west of Volodymyr-Volynskyi near the mouth of Huczwa River, before the partitions of Poland, eastern edge stretched a little west along the right-banks of Sluch River or just east of it. Volhynia is located in basins of Western Bug and Prypyat, therefore most of its rivers flow either in northern or western directions, relative to other historical regions, it is northeast of Galicia, east of Lesser Poland, and northwest of Podolia. The borders of the region are not clearly defined, and it is considered to overlap a number of other regions, among which are Polesia. Territories of historical Volhynia are now part of the Volyn, Rivne, major cities include Lutsk, Rivne, Kovel, Volodymyr-Volynskyi, Kremenets, and Starokostiantyniv. Before World War II, many Jewish shtetls, such as Trochenbrod, at one time all of Volhynia was part of the Pale of Settlement designated by Imperial Russia on its southwesternmost border. The land was mentioned in works of the Arabian scholar Al-Masudi who denoted the local tribe as people of Valin, in his work of 947-948 Al-Masudi mentions that Valinians as an intertribal union were ruled by their leader Madjak. In the opinion of Ukrainian historian Yuriy Dyba, the chronicle phrase «и оустави по мьстѣ, и по лузѣ погосты и дань и ѡброкы» reflects the actual route of the Olgas raid against Drevlians further to the west up to the Western Bugs right tributary Luha River. As early as 983, Vladimir the Great appointed his son Vsevolod the ruler of the Volhynian Principality and in 988 established the city of Volodymer. The first records can be traced to the Ruthenian chronicles, such as the Primary Chronicle, which mentions tribes of the Dulebe, Buzhan, volhynias early history coincides with that of the duchies or principalities of Halych and Volhynia. These two successor states of the Kievan Rus formed Halych-Volhynia between the 12th and the 14th centuries, after 1569 Volhynia formed a province of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During this period many Poles and Jews settled in the area, the Roman and Greek Catholic churches became established in the province. In 1375 was established a Roman Catholic Diocese of Lodomeria but it was suppressed in 1425, many Orthodox churches joined the latter organization in order to benefit from a more attractive legal status. Records of the first agricultural colonies of Mennonites date from 1783, after the Third partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795, Volhynia was annexed as the Volhynian Governorate of the Russian Empire. It covered an area of 71,852.7 square kilometers, many Roman Catholic church buildings were also given to the Russian Church, and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Lutsk was suppressed on orders of Empress Catherine II. In 1897, the population amounted to 2,989,482 people and it consisted of 73.7 percent East Slavs,13.2 percent Jews,6.2 percent Poles, and 5.7 percent Germans
30.
Galicia (Eastern Europe)
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Galicia is a historical and geographic region in Central-Eastern Europe, once a small Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria that straddled the modern-day border between Poland and Ukraine. The area, which is named after the city of Halych, was first mentioned in Hungarian historical chronicles in the year 1206 as Galiciæ. The nucleus of historic Galicia lies within the regions of western Ukraine, Lviv, Ternopil. In the 18th century, territories that became part of the modern Polish regions of Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Subcarpathian Voivodeship. There is considerable overlap between Galicia and south-west Ruthenia, especially a cross-border region that is inhabited by various nationalities, Halych-Volhynia cut a swathe as a mighty principality under the reign of Roman the Great in 1170–1205. After the expulsion of the Hungarians in 1221, Ruthenians took back rule of the area, Romans son Daniel of Galicia was crowned king of Halych-Volhynia. He founded Lviv, named in honour of his son Leo I, the Ukrainian name Halych comes from the Khwalis or Kaliz who occupied the area from the time of the Magyars. They were also called Khalisioi in Greek, and Khvalis in Ukrainian, the Lypytsia culture supposedly replaced the existing Thracian Hallstatt and Vysotske cultures. Others assert that the name has Slavic origins – from halytsa, meaning a naked hill, the jackdaw was used as a charge in the citys coat of arms and later also in the coat of arms of Galicia. The name, however, predates the coat of arms, which may represent canting or simply folk etymology, although the Hungarians were driven out from Halych-Volhynia by 1221, Hungarian kings continued to add Galicia et Lodomeria to their official titles. In 1527, the Habsburgs inherited those titles, together with the Hungarian crown, in 1772, Empress Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary, decided to use those historical claims to justify her participation in the first partition of Poland. In fact, the territories acquired by Austria did not correspond exactly to those of former Halych-Volhynia, Volhynia, including the city of Volodymyr-Volynskyi – after which Lodomeria was named – was taken by Russia, not Austria. On the other hand, much of Lesser Poland – Nowy Sącz and Przemyśl, Zamość, Lublin, the full official name of the new Austrian province was Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria with the Duchies of Auschwitz and Zator. After the incorporation of the Free City of Kraków in 1846, it was extended to Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, each of those entities was formally separate, they were listed as such in the Austrian emperors titles, each had its distinct coat-of-arms and flag. For administrative purposes, however, they formed a single province, the duchies of Auschwitz and Zator were small historical principalities west of Kraków, on the border with Prussian Silesia. Lodomeria, under the name Volhynia, was not ruled by Austria, dale Dwellers, Krakowiacy, Mazury, Grębowiacy, Głuchoniemcy, Bełżanie, Bużanie, Opolanie, Wołyniacy, Pobereżcy or Nistrowianie. During the Great Migration period of Europe, a variety of nomadic groups invaded the area, overall, Slavs came to dominate the Celtic-German population. In the 12th century, a Rurikid Principality of Halych formed there, Galicia and Volhynia had originally been two separate Rurikid principalities, assigned on a rotating basis to younger members of the Kievan dynasty
31.
Podolia
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Podolia or Podilia is a historic region in Eastern Europe, located in the west-central and south-western parts of Ukraine and in northeastern Moldova. The term is derived from Old Slavic po, meaning by/next to/along, the area is part of the vast East European Plain, confined by the Dniester River and the Carpathian arc in the southwest. It comprises an area of about 40,000 km2, extending for 320 km from northwest to southeast on the bank of the Dniester. In the same direction run two ranges of low hills separated by the Southern Bug, ramifications of the Avratynsk heights. Podolia lies east of historic Red Ruthenia, i. e. the eastern half of Galicia, beyond the Seret River, in the northwest it borders on Volhynia. It is made up of the present-day Ukrainian Vinnytsia Oblast and southern, the Podolian lands further include parts of adjacent Ternopil Oblast in the west and Kiev Oblast in the northeast. In the east it consists of the parts of Cherkasy, Kirovohrad and Odessa Oblasts. The Dniester forms an important channel for trade in the areas of Mohyliv-Podilskyi, Zhvanets, in Podolia, black earth soil predominates, making it a very fertile agricultural area. Marshes occur only beside the Bug, a moderate climate predominates, with average temperatures at Kamianets-Podilskyi of 9 °C. Russian-ruled Podolia in 1906 had an population of 3,543,700. Significant minorities included Poles and Jews, as well as 50,000 Romanians, some Germans, in Moldova, the major Podolian cities are Camenca and Rîbniţa. Podolia is known for its cherries, mulberries, melons, gourds, the country has had human inhabitants since at least the beginning of the Neolithic period. Herodotus mentions it as the seat of the Graeco-Scythian Alazones and possibly Scythian Neuri, subsequently, the Dacians and the Getae arrived. The Romans left traces of their rule in Trajans Wall, which stretches through the districts of Kamianets-Podilskyi, Nova Ushytsia. During the Great Migration Period, many passed through this territory or settled within it for some time. Nestor in the Primary Chronicle mentions four apparently Slavic tribes, the Buzhans and Dulebes along the Southern Bug River, the Avars invaded in the 7th century. Prince Oleg of Kiev, extended his rule over this territory known as the Ponizie and these lowlands later became a part of the Rus principalities of Volhynia, Kiev, and Galicia. In the 13th century Bakota served as its political and administrative centre, Polish colonisation began in the 14th century
32.
Grand Duchy of Moscow
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The Grand Duchy of Moscow, or Grand Principality of Moscow, was a late medieval Rus principality centered on Moscow and the predecessor state of the early modern Tsardom of Russia. The state originated with Daniel I, who inherited Moscow in 1283, eclipsing and it later annexed the Novgorod Republic in 1478 and the Grand Duchy of Tver in 1485. After the Mongol invasion of Rus, Muscovy was a vassal to the Mongol ruled Golden Horde until 1480. By his marriage to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, he established Muscovy as the state of the Roman Empire. Ivans successor Vasili III also enjoyed success, gaining Smolensk from Lithuania in 1512. Vasilis son Ivan IV was an infant at his fathers death in 1533 and he was crowned in 1547, assuming the title of tsar together with the proclamation of Tsardom of Russia. As with many states the country had no particular official name. The Duke of Moscow or the Sovereign of Moscow were common short titles, in rivalry with other duchies Moscow dukes also designated themselves as the Grand Dukes, claiming a higher position in the hierarchy of Russian dukes. During the territorial growth and later acquisitions, the title became rather lengthy. Since the 14th century various Moscow dukes added of all Rus to their titles, after the title of Russian metropolitans, Dmitry Shemyaka was the first Moscow duke who minted coins with the title the Sovereign of all Rus. Under the Polish-Lithuanian influence the country began to be called Muscovy in Western Europe, the first appearances of the term were in an Italian document of 1500. Initially Moscovia was the Latinized name of the city of Moscow itself, not of the state, later it acquired its meaning and has been used alongside of the older name. The term Muscovy persisted in the West until the beginning of the 18th century and is used in historical contexts. When the Mongols invaded the lands of Kievan Rus in the 13th century, the first ruler of the principality of Moscow, Daniel I, was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky of Vladimir-Suzdal. He started to expand his principality by seizing Kolomna and securing the bequest of Pereslavl-Zalessky to his family, daniels son Yuriy controlled the entire basin of the Moskva River and expanded westward by conquering Mozhaisk. He then forged an alliance with the overlord of the Rus principalities, Uzbeg Khan of the Golden Horde, the Khan allowed Yuriy to claim the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir-Suzdal, a position which allowed him to interfere in the affairs of the Novgorod Republic to the north-west. Yuriys successor, Ivan I, managed to retain the title of Grand Duke by cooperating closely with the Mongols and by collecting tribute and taxes from other Rus principalities on their behalf. This relationship enabled Ivan to gain regional ascendancy, particularly over Moscows chief rival, the city of Tver
33.
Battle of Orsha
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The Battle of Orsha was part of a long series of Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars conducted by Muscovite rulers striving to gather all the former Kievan Rus lands under their rule. These numbers and proportions have been disputed by modern historians, at the end of 1512, the Grand Duchy of Moscow began a new war for the Grand Duchy of Lithuanias Ruthenian lands in present-day Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine. Albrecht I, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, rebelled and refused to give a pledge to Sigismund I the Old of Poland-Lithuania. Albrecht I was supported by Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, the fortress of Smolensk was then the easternmost outpost of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and one of the most important strongholds guarding it from the east. It repelled several Muscovite attacks, but in July 1514 a Muscovite army besieged, spurred on by this initial success, the Grand Prince of Moscow Vasili III ordered his forces farther into present-day Belarus, occupying the towns of Krichev, Mstislavl and Dubrovna. Meanwhile, Sigismund the Old gathered some 35,000 troops for war with his eastern neighbor and this army was inferior in numbers, but consisted mostly of well-trained cavalry. Sigismund left 4, 000–5,000 men in the town of Barysau, while the force, around 30,000 strong. At the end of August, several took place at the crossings of the Berezina, Bobr and Drut Rivers. Suffering negligible losses, the Muscovites advanced to the area between Orsha and Dubrovno on the Krapivna River, where they set up camp. Ivan Chelyadnin, confident that the Lithuanian-Polish forces would have to one of the two bridges on the Dnieper River, split his own forces to guard those crossings. However, Ostrogskis army crossed the river farther north via two pontoon bridges, on the night of 7 September, the Lithuanian-Polish army began preparations for a final battle with the Muscovites. Hetman Konstantyn Ostrogski placed most of his 16,000 horses from the Grand Duchy in the center, while most of the Polish infantry, the Bohemian and Silesian infantry were deployed in the center of the line, in front of the reserves comprising Lithuanian and Polish cavalry. The size of the Muscovite army remains an unsolved question, narrative Lithuanian-Polish sources generally give large numbers. King Sigismund wrote to Pope Leo X about a horde of Muscovites which consisted of 80,000 men, Sigismund also claimed that his army had killed 30,000 Muscovites and taken prisoner 46 commanders and 1,500 nobles. Extant Polish and Lithuanian documents, however, list all captured nobles by name, the Polish historian Bohun considers it improvident to rely on what he terms propaganda data given by Sigismund. Gembarowicz is of the opinion that the Muscovite army was about 40,000 strong. It also remains unclear why - if the figure of 70, 000–80,000 men is to be trusted - King Sigismund kept a guard of about 5,000 men in reserve. The Muscovite chronicles claim a Lithuanian-Polish numerical superiority, the Russian historian A. Lobin tried to calculate the size of the Muscovite army at Orsha based on the mobilisation capacities of the towns which had to send townspeople for military service
34.
Konstanty Wasyl Ostrogski
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Konstanty Wasyl Ostrogski was an Orthodox magnate of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, a Ruthenian prince, starost of Volodymyr-Volynskyi, marshal of Volhynia and voivode of the Kiev Voivodeship. Ostrogski refused to help False Dmitriy I and supported Jan Zamoyski, the date of birth of Konstanty Wasyl Ostrogski is disputed. According to some historians he was born around 1524/1525 and he was born probably in Turów. In the 1570s he waged a war against another magnate, Stanisław Tarnowski, about disputed possession of estates in the area of Tarnów, prince Ostrogski was of Eastern Orthodox faith and he was active in supporting the Orthodox Church. He was also a promoter of Eastern Christian culture in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, around 1576 he established the Ostroh Academy, a regarded humanist educational and scholarship institution, with the instruction in Greek, Latin and Old Church Slavonic languages. In 1581 the Academy produced and published the Ostrog Bible, the first complete printed edition of the Bible in Old Church Slavonic, ostrogskis huge latifundium, or landed estate in the eastern Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, consisted of 100 towns and 1300 villages. It was Ostrogski who built Starokostiantyniv Castle, while Konstanty Wasyl Ostrogski was the proponent of the Eastern Orthodox religion, his son Janusz Ostrogski converted to Roman Catholicism. He married in January 1553 in Tarnów
35.
Eastern Orthodox Church
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The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission to the apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith, the Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of autocephalous churches, each typically governed by a Holy Synod. It teaches that all bishops are equal by virtue of their ordination, prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD451, the Eastern Orthodox had also shared communion with the Oriental Orthodox churches, separating primarily over differences in Christology. Eastern Orthodoxy spread throughout the Roman and later Eastern Roman Empires and beyond, playing a prominent role in European, Near Eastern, Slavic, and some African cultures. As a result, the term Greek Orthodox has sometimes used to describe all of Eastern Orthodoxy in general. However, the appellation Greek was never in use and was gradually abandoned by the non-Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox churches. Its most prominent episcopal see is Constantinople, there are also many in other parts of the world, formed through immigration, conversion and missionary activity. The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Orthodox Catholic Church and it is the name by which the church refers to itself in its liturgical or canonical texts, in official publications, and in official contexts or administrative documents. Orthodox teachers refer to the Church as Catholic and this name and longer variants containing Catholic are also recognized and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Orthodox writers. The common name of the Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use, for this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as Greek, even before the great schism. After 1054, Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople and this identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. Today, many of those same Roman churches remain, while a large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin. Eastern, then, indicates the element in the Churchs origin and development, while Orthodox indicates the faith. While the Church continues officially to call itself Catholic, for reasons of universality, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in a letter written about 110 AD from one Greek church to another. Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, thus, almost from the very beginning, Christians referred to the Church as the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same Church, a number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church, not directly from the Orthodox Church, the depth of this meaning in the Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word Orthodox itself, a union of Greek orthos and doxa
36.
Roman Catholicism
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
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Polonization
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To a certain extent Polonization was also administratively promoted by the authorities, particularly in the period following World War II. Polonization can be seen as an example of cultural assimilation, the conversion to the Roman Catholic faith was often the single most important part of the process. For Ruthenians of that time, being Polish culturally and Roman Catholic by religion was almost the same and this aspect of Polonization that led to the diminishing of the Orthodox Church was the part that was most resented by the Belarusian and Ukrainian masses. On the other hand, the Polonization policies of the Polish government in the years of the 20th century were again two-folded. Part of the countrys leadership emphasized the need for the ethnic, however, the promotion of the Polish language in the administration, public life and, especially education, were perceived by some as an attempt at forcible homogenization. Between the 12th and the 14th centuries many towns in Poland adopted the so-called Magdeburg rights that promoted the towns development, the rights were usually granted by the king on the occasion of the arrival of migrants. Some, integrated with the community, such as merchants who settled there, especially Greeks. They adopted most aspects of Polish culture but kept their Orthodox faith, since the Middle Ages, Polish culture, influenced by the West, in turn radiated East, beginning the long and uneasy process of cultural assimilation. In the 1569 Union of Lublin, the Ruthenian territories controlled by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were transferred to the newly-formed Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the non-Polish ethnic groups found themselves under strong influence of the Polish culture and language. Quarter century later, following the Union of Brest the Ruthenian Church sought to break relations with the Eastern Orthodox Church, the sparsely populated lands, owned by the Polish and Polonized nobility, were settled by farmers from central Poland. The Lithuanian Grand Duke Jogaila was offered the Polish crown and became Władysław II Jagiełło and this marked the beginning of the gradual, voluntary Polonization of the Lithuanian nobility. The Ruthenian nobility was also freed from many payment obligations and their rights were equalized with those of the Polish nobility, under Jogaila successor as a king of Crown Władysław III of Varna, who reigned in 1434–1444, Polonization attained a certain degree of subtlety. Władysław III introduced some liberal reforms and these policies continued under the next king Casimir IV Jagiellon. Some Ruthenian magnates like Sanguszko, Wiśniowiecki and Kisiel, resisted the cultural Polonization for several generations, however, their resistance was gradually waning with each subsequent generation as more and more of the Ruthenian elite turned towards Polish language and Catholicism. Still, with most of the educational system getting Polonized and the most generously funded institutions being to the west of Ruthenia, in the Polish Ruthenia the language of the administrative paperwork started to gradually shift towards Polish. By the 16th century the language of administrative paperwork in Ruthenia was a mix of the older Church Slavonic with the Ruthenian language of the commoners. With the Polish influence in the mix gradually increasing it soon became mostly like the Polish language superimposed on the Ruthenian phonetics, the total confluence of Ruthenia and Poland was seen coming. The Greek Catholic Church was then used as a tool aimed to split even the peasantry from their Ruthenian roots, during all time of existing of Commonwealth Polonization in western part of country referred to rather small groups of colonists, like Bambrzy in Greater Poland
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Nobility
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The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be largely honorary, and vary from country to country and era to era. There is often a variety of ranks within the noble class. g, san Marino and the Vatican City in Europe. Hereditary titles often distinguish nobles from non-nobles, although in many nations most of the nobility have been un-titled, some countries have had non-hereditary nobility, such as the Empire of Brazil. The term derives from Latin nobilitas, the noun of the adjective nobilis. In modern usage, nobility is applied to the highest social class in pre-modern societies and it rapidly came to be seen as a hereditary caste, sometimes associated with a right to bear a hereditary title and, for example in pre-revolutionary France, enjoying fiscal and other privileges. Nobility is a historical, social and often legal notion, differing from high socio-economic status in that the latter is based on income. Being wealthy or influential cannot, ipso facto, make one noble, various republics, including former Iron Curtain countries, Greece, Mexico, and Austria have expressly abolished the conferral and use of titles of nobility for their citizens. Not all of the benefits of nobility derived from noble status per se, usually privileges were granted or recognised by the monarch in association with possession of a specific title, office or estate. Most nobles wealth derived from one or more estates, large or small and it also included infrastructure such as castle, well and mill to which local peasants were allowed some access, although often at a price. Nobles were expected to live nobly, that is, from the proceeds of these possessions, work involving manual labour or subordination to those of lower rank was either forbidden or frowned upon socially. In some countries, the lord could impose restrictions on such a commoners movements. Nobles exclusively enjoyed the privilege of hunting, in France, nobles were exempt from paying the taille, the major direct tax. In some parts of Europe the right of war long remained the privilege of every noble. During the early Renaissance, duelling established the status of a respectable gentleman, Nobility came to be associated with social rather than legal privilege, expressed in a general expectation of deference from those of lower rank. By the 21st century even that deference had become increasingly minimised, in France, a seigneurie might include one or more manors surrounded by land and villages subject to a nobles prerogatives and disposition. Seigneuries could be bought, sold or mortgaged, if erected by the crown into, e. g. a barony or countship, it became legally entailed for a specific family, which could use it as their title. Yet most French nobles were untitled, in other parts of Europe, sovereign rulers arrogated to themselves the exclusive prerogative to act as fons honorum within their realms. Nobility might be inherited or conferred by a fons honorum
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Ruthenian language
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Ruthenian was the group of varieties of Eastern Slavonic spoken in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later in the East Slavic territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The written form is also called Chancery Slavonic by Lithuanian linguists, scholars do not agree whether Ruthenian was a separate language, or a Western dialect or set of dialects of Old East Slavic, but it is agreed that Ruthenian has a close genetic relationship with it. Old East Slavic was the language used in Kievan Rus. Ruthenian can be seen as a predecessor of modern Belarusian, Rusyn, indeed, all these languages, from Old East Slavic to Rusyn, have been labelled as Ruthenian. In modern texts, the language in question is sometimes called Old Belarusian or starabelaruskaya mova, as Ruthenian was always in a kind of diglossic opposition to Church Slavonic, this vernacular language was and still is often called prosta mova, literally simple language. On the other hand, there exists a school of thought that Old Belarusian, names in contemporary use Ruthenian — by the contemporaries, but, generally, not in contemporary Russia. Simple Ruthenian or simple talk — publisher Grigoriy Khodkevich, Lithuanian — possibly, exclusive reference to it in the contemporary Russia. West Russian, language or dialect — chiefly by the supporters of the concept of the Proto-Russian phase, esp. since the end of the 19th century, e. g. by Karskiy, Russian Wikipedia uses the term West Russian written language. Belarusian — rarely in contemporary Russia, lithuanian-Russian — by 19th-century Russian researchers Keppen, archbishop Filaret, Sakharov, Karatayev. Lithuanian-Slavonic — by 19th-century Russian researcher Baranovskiy, ruski — used by Norman Davies in Vanished Kingdoms, The History of Half-Forgotten Europe. Both were usually called Ruskij or Slovenskij, only when a differentiation between the language of Muscovy and the one of Lithuania was needed was the former called Moskovskij Muscovite. After the Union of Lublin in 1569, the territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania came under direct administration by the Polish Crown. It is possible that this resulted in differences concerning the status of Ruthenian as an official language, in his 1827 Little Russian Folksongs Mykhaylo Maksymovych used a new orthography for the Ukrainian language which was based on etymology. Maksymovychivka looked quite similar to Russian, but it was a first step towards an independent orthography, the split between literary Ruthenian and the successor literary languages can be seen at once in the newly designed Belarusian and Ukrainian orthographies. After that Belarusian only survived as a spoken language with almost no written tradition until the mid-19th century. For disambiguation, in English these people are called by the native form of their name. Thus, in the 19th century, the literary Ruthenian language had evolved into three modern literary languages, for their further development, see Belarusian language, Rusyn language, and Ukrainian language. Ukrainian language Belarusian language Rusyn language East Slavic languages Brogi Bercoff, Giovanna, “Plurilingualism in Eastern Slavic culture of the 17th century, The case of Simeon Polockij. ”In, Slavia, Časopis pro slovanskou filologii, danylenko, Andrii, Prostaja mova, Kitab, and Polissian Standard
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Cyrillic script
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The Cyrillic script /sᵻˈrɪlɪk/ is a writing system used for various alphabets across eastern Europe and north and central Asia. It is based on the Early Cyrillic, which was developed in the First Bulgarian Empire during the 9th century AD at the Preslav Literary School. As of 2011, around 252 million people in Eurasia use it as the alphabet for their national languages. With the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the official script of the European Union, following the Latin script. Cyrillic is derived from the Greek uncial script, augmented by letters from the older Glagolitic alphabet and these additional letters were used for Old Church Slavonic sounds not found in Greek. The script is named in honor of the two Byzantine brothers, Saints Cyril and Methodius, who created the Glagolitic alphabet earlier on, modern scholars believe that Cyrillic was developed and formalized by early disciples of Cyril and Methodius. In the early 18th century the Cyrillic script used in Russia was heavily reformed by Peter the Great, the new form of letters became closer to the Latin alphabet, several archaic letters were removed and several letters were personally designed by Peter the Great. West European typography culture was also adopted, Cyrillic script spread throughout the East and South Slavic territories, being adopted for writing local languages, such as Old East Slavic. Its adaptation to local languages produced a number of Cyrillic alphabets, capital and lowercase letters were not distinguished in old manuscripts. Yeri was originally a ligature of Yer and I, iotation was indicated by ligatures formed with the letter І, Ꙗ, Ѥ, Ю, Ѩ, Ѭ. Sometimes different letters were used interchangeably, for example И = І = Ї, there were also commonly used ligatures like ѠТ = Ѿ. The letters also had values, based not on Cyrillic alphabetical order. The early Cyrillic alphabet is difficult to represent on computers, many of the letterforms differed from modern Cyrillic, varied a great deal in manuscripts, and changed over time. Few fonts include adequate glyphs to reproduce the alphabet, the Unicode 5.1 standard, released on 4 April 2008, greatly improves computer support for the early Cyrillic and the modern Church Slavonic language. In Microsoft Windows, Segoe UI is notable for having complete support for the archaic Cyrillic letters since Windows 8, the development of Cyrillic typography passed directly from the medieval stage to the late Baroque, without a Renaissance phase as in Western Europe. Late Medieval Cyrillic letters show a tendency to be very tall and narrow. Peter the Great, Czar of Russia, mandated the use of westernized letter forms in the early 18th century, over time, these were largely adopted in the other languages that use the script. The development of some Cyrillic computer typefaces from Latin ones has also contributed to the visual Latinization of Cyrillic type, Cyrillic uppercase and lowercase letter forms are not as differentiated as in Latin typography
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Ostrog Bible
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The Ostrog Bible was translated not from the Masoretic text, but from the Septuagint. This translation comprised seventy-six books of the Old and New Testaments, some parts were based on Francysk Skarynas translations. The Ostrog Bibles were printed on two dates,12 July 1580, and 12 August 1581, the second version differs from the 1580 original in composition, ornamentation, and correction of misprints. In the printing of the Bible delays occurred, as it was necessary to remove mistakes, to search for correct textual resolutions of questions, the editing of the Bible detained printing. In the meantime, Fyodorov and his company printed other biblical books, the first were those that did not require correcting, the Psalter and the New Testament. The Ostrog Bible is a publication of 1,256 pages, lavishly decorated with headpieces and initials. From the typographical point of view, the Ostrog Bible is irreproachable and this is the first Bible printed in Cyrillic type. It served as the original and model for further Russian publications of the Bible, the importance of the first printed Cyrillic Bible can hardly be overestimated. Prince Ostrogski sent copies to Pope Gregory XIII and tsar Ivan the Terrible, while the latter presented a copy to an English ambassador, when leaving Ostroh, Fyodorov took 400 books with him. Only 300 copies of the Ostrog Bible are extant today, the Ostrog Bible was widely known in Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus, and also abroad. It is registered in the library of Oxford, its copies were owned by King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, the cardinal Barberini, many scientists, the Ostrog Bible was reprinted in Moscow in 1663. The significance of the Ostrog Bible was enormous for Orthodox education, the Ostrog Circle and Bible from Ways of Russian Theology, by Fr. George Florovsky Ostrih Bible at the Encyclopedia of Ukraine
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Ivan Fyodorov (printer)
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In those times Russians still did not have hereditary surnames, but used patronymics or nicknames, which were also not stable. In his first book Apostolos he called himself in typical Russian style Ivan Fedorov that is Ivan, in his other famous book Ostrog Bible he called himself in both Church Slavonic and Greek as Ivan, son of Feоdor, a printer from Moscow. In the Greek version there was from Great Russia instead of from Moscow, but when he was living for a long time in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, he adopted a Polish style patronymic surname and also added a nickname indicating his origin. In his Latin documents he signed Johannes Theodori Moscus, or Ioannes Fedorowicz Moschus, typographus Græcus et Sclavonicus, as a result of the dialectical replacement of consonant /f/ with /x~xw/ in East Slavic the first letter F was sometimes changed, so the patronymic became Chwedorowicz or Chodorowicz. In his later Slavonic books he signed Ioann Fedorovich, and added a nickname a Muscovite printer or just simply a Muscovite, neither his place nor his date of birth are known. No subsequent researchers have accepted that other than Nemirovsky, who agreed only with the possibility of adoption. Fyodorov graduated from Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland in 1532 with a bachelors degree, in 1564–5 Fedorov accepted an appointment as a deacon in the church of Saint Nicolas in the Moscow Kremlin. Together with Pyotr Timofeev from Mstislavl, i. e. Mstislavets he established the Moscow Print Yard, the printers were received by the Great Lithuanian Hetman Hrehory Chodkiewicz at his estate in Zabłudów, where they published Yevangeliye uchitel’noye and Psaltir’. He moved to Lviv in 1572 and resumed his work as a printer the following year at the Saint Onuphrius Monastery. In 1574 Fyodorov, with the help of his son and Hryn Ivanovych of Zabłudów published the edition of the Apostolos, with an autobiographical epilogue. Fyodorov returned to Lviv after a quarrel with Prince Konstantyn Ostrogski and his printing facilities became the property of the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood. The brotherhood used Fyodorovs original designs until the early 19th century, in 1583 he visited Vienna and Kraków, where he showed the Emperor his latest inventions. He then returned to Lviv, where he died on December 16,1583, Moscow, two copies,173 unnumbered letter, format, no less than 166 x 118 mm, printed in two colours, preserved at least 7 copies. Zabłudów, 8/VII 1568-17/III1569,8 unnumbered +399 numbered pages, Zabłudów, 26/IX 1569-23/III1570,18 unnumbered sheets +284 sheets +75 first account leaves the second account, the format at least 168 x 130 mm, printed in two colors. Very rare edition, only three known in existence, all incomplete, for the first time in Cyrillic typography the inclusion of a typed table. Lviv, 25/II 1573-15/II1574,15 unnumbered +264 numbered lists, similar to the Moscow edition in 1564 with a few more refined design. There is a version of the almost complete copy. Lviv,1574,40 unnumbered leaves, band set 127,5 x 63 mm, two colour printing, circulation was probably 2000, but has only a single copy is known to have survived
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Anna Alojza Ostrogska
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Princess Anna Alojza Ostrogska was a Polish–Lithuanian noble lady. Anna was daughter of voivode of Wołyń Price Oleksander Ostrogski h, Ostrogski, the son of voivode of Kijów Prince Konstanty Wasyl Ostrogski h. Ostrogski and Countess Zofia Tarnowska h, Dąbrowa, the daughter of Jan Kostka h. Anna Alojza married Hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz h, kościesza on 28 November 1620 in Jarosław. T.3, Brożek Jan – Chwalczewski Franciszek, kraków, Polska Akademia Umiejętności – Skład Główny w Księgarniach Gebethnera i Wolffa,1937, s. Tomasz Jurasz, Karoca Jerzy Antoni Kostka, Kostkowie herbu Dąbrowa, testament Anny Alojzy z Ostrogskich Chodkiewiczowej, Testamenty szlacheckie z ksiąg grodzkich wielkopolskich z lat 1631–1655, Poznań – Wrocław 2008
