1.
Art and Design
–
Graphic design is the process of visual communication and problem-solving using one or more of typography, photography and illustration. The field is considered a subset of visual communication and communication design, Graphic designers create and combine symbols, images and text to form visual representations of ideas and messages. They use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to create visual compositions, common uses of graphic design include corporate design, editorial design, wayfinding or environmental design, advertising, web design, communication design, product packaging and signage. The term graphic design was coined by William Addison Dwiggins in 1922, however, graphic design-like activities span human existence, from the caves of Lascaux, to Romes Trajans Column to the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages, to the neon lights of Ginza, Tokyo. In Babylon, artisans pressed cuneiform inscriptions into clay bricks or tablets which were used for construction, the bricks gave information such as the name of the reigning monarch, the builder, or some other dignitary. This was the first known road sign announcing the name of the governor of a state or mayor of the city, the Egyptians developed communication by hieroglyphics that used picture symbols dating as far back as 136 B. C. found on the Rosetta Stone. During the Dark Ages, from 500 AD to 1450 AD, monks created elaborate and they share many elements, theories, principles, practices, languages and sometimes the same benefactor or client. In advertising, the objective is the sale of goods. In graphic design, the essence is to order to information, form to ideas, expression. Graphic design in the United States began with Benjamin Franklin who used his newspaper The Pennsylvania Gazette, to master the art of publicity to promote his own books and his invention is still sold today and is known as the Franklin stove. American advertising initially imitated British newspapers and magazines, advertisements were printed in scrambled type and uneven lines that made it difficult to read. Franklin better organized this by adding 14-point type for the first line of the advertisement, although later shortened and centered it, Franklin added illustrations, something that London printers had not attempted. Franklin was the first to utilize logos, which were early symbols that announced such services as opticians by displaying golden spectacles, Franklin taught advertisers that the use of detail was important in marketing their products. Some advertisements ran for 10-20 lines, including color, names, varieties, during the Tang Dynasty wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts. A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book, beginning in the 11th century, longer scrolls and books were produced using movable type printing, making books widely available during the Song dynasty. During the 17th-18th century movable type was used for handbills or trade cards which were printed from wood or copper engravings and these documents announced a business and its location. English painter William Hogarth used his skill in engraving was one of the first to design for business trade, in Mainz Germany, in 1448, Johann Gutenberg introduced movable type using a new metal alloy for use in a printing press and opened a new era of commerce. Previously, most advertising was word of mouth, in France and England, for example, criers announced products for sale just as ancient Romans had done
Art and Design
–
A Boeing 747 aircraft with
livery designating it as
Air Force One. The cyan forms, the
US flag,
presidential seal and the
Caslon lettering were all designed at different times, by different designers, for different purposes, and combined by designer
Raymond Loewy in this one single aircraft exterior design.
Art and Design
–
Graphic symbols are often
functionalist and anonymous, as these
pictographs from the US
National Park Service illustrate.
Art and Design
–
Color
Art and Design
–
The
pencil is one of the most basic graphic design tools.
2.
Art school
–
An art school is an educational institution with a primary focus on the visual arts, including fine art, especially illustration, painting, photography, sculpture, and graphic design. Art schools are institutions with elementary, secondary, post-secondary or undergraduate and they are distinguished from larger institutions which also may offer majors or degrees in the visual arts, but only as one part of a broad-based range of programs. Frances École des Beaux-Arts is, perhaps, the first model for such organized instruction, breaking with a tradition of master and they are Emily Carr University of Art and Design, NSCAD University, OCAD University, and Alberta College of Art and Design. Emily Carr University has the most active research program among the four with over $15 million in research over the last five years, OCAD Universitys research intensity has reached $3.2 million in 2011/12. All four schools teach in the major disciplines from painting through to new media, over the last five years, Emily Carr has garnered the most of the major awards for students and alums across the country. The most recent RBC Painting Competition was won by Vanessa Maltese, NSCAD University was founded in 1887 by Anna Leonowens and other Halifax women. The school gained international prominence in the 1970s for innovation in art under the leadership of Garry Kennedy. In spite of its modest size, Art in America suggested in 1973 that NSCAD was the best art school in North America, while more recently The Globe and Mail called it Canadas most illustrious. Claude Watson School for the Arts and Karen Kain School of the Arts are intermediate-age public art schools in Toronto, in Brampton, Mayfield Secondary Schools Regional Arts Program offers a public high school-level art school. Innovators like Voice of Purpose out of Toronto, Ontario are currently working on promoting the Purpose Driven Education pedagogy through the use of arts-based programming, in France, art schools have an quite old history. The oldest is Paris fine art school, established in 1682, some of those schools were called academies and were prestigious institutions, devoted to the education of great painters or sculptors. Others were called école gratuite de dessin, and were devoted to the education of arts, as today, there is in France 45 national or territorial public high schools of art, that deliver bachelor and Master degrees. Art schools have a history in Sweden since the first half of the 18th Century, students may attend the Royal Institute of Art, which got its start in 1735. There are also tertiary art schools attached to universities in Gothenburg, Malmö, others, whose existence ties in indelibly with that of larger, non-discipline-specific universities exist. Most art schools of either orientation are equipped to offer opportunities spanning from post-16 to postgraduate level, the range of colleges span from predominantly further education establishments to research-led specialist institutes. The University of the Arts London, for example, is a federally structured institution that comprises six previously independent schools situated in London, the Royal College of Art with its degree-awarding arm and singular focus on postgraduate awards being a most singular exception. Since the 1970s, degrees have replaced diplomas as the qualification in the field. In the case of wholly freestanding institutions, degree validation agreements in liaison with a university have long been the custom for Bachelor of Arts level upward
Art school
–
1881 painting by
Marie Bashkirtseff, In the Studio, depicts an art school life drawing session, Dnipropetrovsk State Art Museum,
Dnipropetrovsk,
Ukraine
Art school
–
Life drawing class taught by
Jerry Weiss (in red) at the Lyme Academy College of Fine Arts, photograph by Jim Falconer
Art school
–
Academy of Classical Design Cast Studio - Southern Pines, NC
Art school
–
Baum School of Art in
Allentown, Pennsylvania
3.
Design school
–
An art school is an educational institution with a primary focus on the visual arts, including fine art, especially illustration, painting, photography, sculpture, and graphic design. Art schools are institutions with elementary, secondary, post-secondary or undergraduate and they are distinguished from larger institutions which also may offer majors or degrees in the visual arts, but only as one part of a broad-based range of programs. Frances École des Beaux-Arts is, perhaps, the first model for such organized instruction, breaking with a tradition of master and they are Emily Carr University of Art and Design, NSCAD University, OCAD University, and Alberta College of Art and Design. Emily Carr University has the most active research program among the four with over $15 million in research over the last five years, OCAD Universitys research intensity has reached $3.2 million in 2011/12. All four schools teach in the major disciplines from painting through to new media, over the last five years, Emily Carr has garnered the most of the major awards for students and alums across the country. The most recent RBC Painting Competition was won by Vanessa Maltese, NSCAD University was founded in 1887 by Anna Leonowens and other Halifax women. The school gained international prominence in the 1970s for innovation in art under the leadership of Garry Kennedy. In spite of its modest size, Art in America suggested in 1973 that NSCAD was the best art school in North America, while more recently The Globe and Mail called it Canadas most illustrious. Claude Watson School for the Arts and Karen Kain School of the Arts are intermediate-age public art schools in Toronto, in Brampton, Mayfield Secondary Schools Regional Arts Program offers a public high school-level art school. Innovators like Voice of Purpose out of Toronto, Ontario are currently working on promoting the Purpose Driven Education pedagogy through the use of arts-based programming, in France, art schools have an quite old history. The oldest is Paris fine art school, established in 1682, some of those schools were called academies and were prestigious institutions, devoted to the education of great painters or sculptors. Others were called école gratuite de dessin, and were devoted to the education of arts, as today, there is in France 45 national or territorial public high schools of art, that deliver bachelor and Master degrees. Art schools have a history in Sweden since the first half of the 18th Century, students may attend the Royal Institute of Art, which got its start in 1735. There are also tertiary art schools attached to universities in Gothenburg, Malmö, others, whose existence ties in indelibly with that of larger, non-discipline-specific universities exist. Most art schools of either orientation are equipped to offer opportunities spanning from post-16 to postgraduate level, the range of colleges span from predominantly further education establishments to research-led specialist institutes. The University of the Arts London, for example, is a federally structured institution that comprises six previously independent schools situated in London, the Royal College of Art with its degree-awarding arm and singular focus on postgraduate awards being a most singular exception. Since the 1970s, degrees have replaced diplomas as the qualification in the field. In the case of wholly freestanding institutions, degree validation agreements in liaison with a university have long been the custom for Bachelor of Arts level upward
Design school
–
1881 painting by
Marie Bashkirtseff, In the Studio, depicts an art school life drawing session, Dnipropetrovsk State Art Museum,
Dnipropetrovsk,
Ukraine
Design school
–
Life drawing class taught by
Jerry Weiss (in red) at the Lyme Academy College of Fine Arts, photograph by Jim Falconer
Design school
–
Academy of Classical Design Cast Studio - Southern Pines, NC
Design school
–
Baum School of Art in
Allentown, Pennsylvania
4.
Postgraduate education
–
In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
Postgraduate education
–
The enrollment of some students in the
University of Bologna.
5.
Westchester, Los Angeles
–
Westchester is a neighborhood in Los Angeles and the Westside Region of Los Angeles County, California. The neighborhood is known for its secluded character and it is the home of Loyola Marymount University, the Otis College of Art and Design, and Westchester Enriched Sciences Magnet Schools, formerly Westchester High School. Two notable examples of Googie-style architecture are located within the community, the Los Angeles International Airport takes up the southwestern portion of Westchester territory. The main part of Westchester is flanked by Playa Vista and Culver City on the north, Inglewood and Lennox on the east, Del Aire and El Segundo on the south and it includes all of the Los Angeles International Airport. Nearby areas, not necessarily adjacent, Westchester began the 20th century as an area, growing a wide variety of crops in the dry. Westchester hosted the country part of the eventing equestrian event for the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. This community, dubbed Westchester, grew by leaps and bounds as the industry boomed in World War II. A Los Angeles Times article in 1989 described the development as a raw suburb, when the area had 30,000 residents, it was still lacking a police station, fire station, or hospital. It lacked a barber shop even by 1949, the 1960s saw the introduction of airliners that could make trans-Pacific flights without refueling, causing a massive increase in air traffic at LAX. When the North Airfield Complex was constructed the increase in noise from jet takeoffs greatly decreased the desirability of the areas adjoining LAX. In all, Westchester lost 4,500 homes and 14,000 residents, the 18-hole Westchester golf course became a 15-hole course. In 2007 Los Angeles World Airport proposed another move of the North runway into Westchester, in February 2010, a NASA panel found that the North runway was safe and should stay as it is. That same month, LAWA broke ground on a $1.5 billion expansion of the Bradley International Terminal, home prices rose 25 percent in 2013-14 while most southern California communities were recovering much slower. A major factor has been the influx of companies in Playa Vista as the Silicon Beach phenomena in west Los Angeles has spread. The community also experienced a boom in home additions or complete rehabilitation of traditional postwar Ranch-style house into larger two-story homes, the Howard Hughes Center was a significant addition to the neighborhood in 2001 next to the San Diego Freeway. Development continued till by 2015 the complex had 1.3 million square feet of space in high-rise buildings,3,200 apartments. A total of 39,480 people lived in Westchesters 10.81 square miles, the median age was 35.6, about average for Los Angeles city. The percentage of people from age 19 through 34 was among the countys highest
Westchester, Los Angeles
–
"Westchester, Home of LAX" sign at Westchester Park
Westchester, Los Angeles
–
Sunken Gardens at
Loyola Marymount University, before 2009
Westchester, Los Angeles
–
Otis College of Art and Design, before 2009
Westchester, Los Angeles
–
Pann's neon sign at night
6.
Los Angeles
–
Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital
Los Angeles
Los Angeles
Los Angeles
Los Angeles
7.
California
–
California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
California
–
A forest of redwood trees in
Redwood National Park
California
–
Flag
California
–
Mount Shasta
California
–
Aerial view of the
California Central Valley
8.
Urban area
–
An urban area is a human settlement with high population density and infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas are created through urbanization and are categorized by urban morphology as cities, in urbanism, the term contrasts to rural areas such as villages and hamlets and in urban sociology or urban anthropology it contrasts with natural environment. The worlds urban population in 1950 of just 746 million has increased to 3.9 billion in the decades since, in 2009, the number of people living in urban areas surpassed the number living in rural areas and since then the world has become more urban than rural. This was the first time that the majority of the population lived in a city. In 2014 there were 7.25 billion people living on the planet, Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of urbanization. Urban areas are measured for various purposes, including analyzing population density, historian John Gurda writes, I have tried to uncover Milwaukees civic bedrock - the shifting foundation on which individuals have built their lives and the community has constructed its identity. There is no doubt that the deepest layer of bedrock is economic. In every age, people have chosen to live in areas not because of their climates or landmarks or cultural attractions. It was economic opportunity that brought people to Milwaukee, and it is economic opportunity that keeps them there, I define cities as concentrations of people animated by concentrations of capital. More simply put, money is the root of all cities, official definitions vary somewhat between nations. The ten largest metropolitan areas account for half of the population, about 3 million people live in Buenos Aires City and the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area totals around 13 million, making it one of the largest urban areas in the world. The metropolitan areas of Córdoba, Rosario, Mendoza and Tucumán have around 1.3 million inhabitants each and La Plata, seven other provinces have over one million people each, Mendoza, Tucumán, Entre Ríos, Salta, Chaco, Corrientes and Misiones. According to IBGE urban areas already concentrate 84. 35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants. The largest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte — all in the Southeastern Region — with 20,12, and 5 million inhabitants respectively. The majority of state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, there are also non-capital metropolitan areas in the states of São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. According to Statistics Canada, an area in Canada is an area with a population of at least 1,000 people where the density is no fewer than 400 persons per square kilometre. If two or more areas are within 2 km of each other by road, they are merged into a single urban area. Accordingly, the new definition set out three types of population centres, small, medium and large
Urban area
–
Greater Tokyo Area, the world's most populous urban area, with about 35 million people.
Urban area
–
Buenos Aires Córdoba
Urban area
Urban area
–
Rosario Mendoza
9.
Western Association of Schools and Colleges
–
The Western Association of Schools and Colleges has jurisdiction over the U. S. Western Association of Schools and Colleges is divided into three groups, the Accrediting Commission for Schools accredits all schools below the college level. Included are elementary, junior high, middle, high and adult schools, whether public, private, the Accrediting Commission for Senior Colleges and Universities accredits public and private senior colleges and universities. Council for Higher Education Accreditation List of recognized accreditation associations of higher learning United States Department of Education WASC home page
Western Association of Schools and Colleges
–
WASC operational area
10.
Illustration
–
The origin of the word “illustration” is late Middle English, via Old French from Latin illustratio, from the verb illustrate. Contemporary illustration uses a range of styles and techniques, including drawing, painting, printmaking, collage, montage, digital design, multimedia. Most illustrators work on a freelance basis, depending on the purpose, illustration may be expressive, stylised, realistic or highly technical. This may include exploded views, cutaways, fly-throughs, reconstructions, instructional images, component designs, in contemporary illustration practice, 2D and 3D software is often used to create accurate representations that can be updated easily, and reused in a variety of contexts. In the art world, illustration has at times been considered of less importance than graphic design, original illustration art has been known to attract high prices at auction. The US artist Norman Rockwells painting Breaking Home Ties sold in a 2006 Sothebys auction for USD15.4 million, many other illustration genres are equally valued, with pinup artists such as Gil Elvgren and Alberto Vargas, for example, also attracting high prices. Historically, the art of illustration is closely linked to the processes of printing and publishing. The illustrations of medieval codices were known as illuminations, and were hand drawn. With the invention of the press during the 15th century, books became more widely distributed. Subjects included traditional folk tales, popular figures and every day life, hokusai’s The Great Wave of Kanazawa is a famous image of the time. During the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe, the main reproduction processes for illustration were engraving and etching, in 18th Century England, a notable illustrator was William Blake, who used relief etching. By the early 19th century, the introduction of lithography substantially improved reproduction quality, in Europe, notable figures of the early 19th Century were John Leech, George Cruikshank, Dickens illustrator Hablot Knight Browne, and, in France, Honoré Daumier. All contributed to both satirical and “serious” publications, at this time, there was a great demand for caricature drawings encapsulating social mores, types and classes. Although all fine art trained, their reputations were gained primarily as illustrators, in common with similar magazines such as the Parisian Le Voleur, Punch realised good illustration sold as well as good text. With publication continuing into the 21st Century, Punch chronicles a gradual shift in popular illustration, from the early 1800s newspapers, mass market magazines, and illustrated books had become the dominant consumer media in Europe and the New World. By the 19th Century, improvements in printing technology freed illustrators to experiment with color, in America, this led to a golden age of illustration from before the 1880s until the early 20th Century. A small group of illustrators became highly successful, with the imagery they created considered a portrait of American aspirations of the time
Illustration
–
Illustration by
Jessie Willcox Smith
Illustration
–
People strolling by the banks of the River Thames.
Illustration
–
Illustration beats explanation. Western Engraving & Colortype Co.
Illustration
–
John Bauer, Swedish illustrator, Troll and Princess Tuvstarr
11.
Fine art
–
Historically, the five main fine arts were painting, sculpture, architecture, music and poetry, with performing arts including theatre and dance. Today, the fine arts commonly include additional forms, such as film, photography, video production/editing, design, sequential art, conceptual art, and printmaking. However, in some institutes of learning or in museums, fine art, in that sense, there are conceptual differences between the fine arts and the applied arts. The word fine does not so much denote the quality of the artwork in question and this definition originally excluded the applied or decorative arts, and the products of what were regarded as crafts. According to some writers the concept of a category of fine art is an invention of the early modern period in the West. Larry Shiner in his The Invention of Art, A Cultural History locates the invention in the 18th century, There was a traditional “system of the arts” in the West before the eighteenth century. ”Similar ideas have been expressed by Paul Oskar Kristeller, Pierre Bourdieu, and Terry Eagleton, though the point of invention is often placed earlier, in the Italian Renaissance. The separation of arts and crafts that often exists in Europe, in Japanese aesthetics the activities of everyday life are depicted by integrating not only art with craft but man-made with nature. Traditional Chinese art distinguished within Chinese painting between the mostly landscape painting of scholar gentlemen and the artisans of the schools of court painting. A high status was given to many things that would be seen as craft objects in the West, in particular ceramics, jade carving, weaving. Drawing is a form of expression and is one of the major forms of the visual arts. Common instruments include graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax color pencils, crayons, charcoals, chalk, pastels, markers, stylus, There are a number of subcategories of drawing, including cartooning. Mosaics are images formed with pieces of stone or glass. They can be decorative or functional, an artist who designs and makes mosaics is called a mosaic artist or a mosaicist. Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper, except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each print is considered an original, as opposed to a copy, the reasoning behind this is that the print is not a reproduction of another work of art in a different medium — for instance, a painting — but rather an image designed from inception as a print. An individual print is also referred to as an impression, prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix. But there are other kinds, discussed below. Multiple nearly identical prints can be called an edition, in modern times each print is often signed and numbered forming a limited edition
Fine art
–
Self-Portrait with Two Circles, oil on canvas,
Rembrandt, c. 1665–1669.
Fine art
–
Black Square, oil on canvas,
Kazimir Malevich, 1923–29
Fine art
–
History of art
Fine art
–
Mosaic of
Christ Pantocrator from
Hagia Sophia
12.
Graphic design
–
Graphic design is the process of visual communication and problem-solving using one or more of typography, photography and illustration. The field is considered a subset of visual communication and communication design, Graphic designers create and combine symbols, images and text to form visual representations of ideas and messages. They use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to create visual compositions, common uses of graphic design include corporate design, editorial design, wayfinding or environmental design, advertising, web design, communication design, product packaging and signage. The term graphic design was coined by William Addison Dwiggins in 1922, however, graphic design-like activities span human existence, from the caves of Lascaux, to Romes Trajans Column to the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages, to the neon lights of Ginza, Tokyo. In Babylon, artisans pressed cuneiform inscriptions into clay bricks or tablets which were used for construction, the bricks gave information such as the name of the reigning monarch, the builder, or some other dignitary. This was the first known road sign announcing the name of the governor of a state or mayor of the city, the Egyptians developed communication by hieroglyphics that used picture symbols dating as far back as 136 B. C. found on the Rosetta Stone. During the Dark Ages, from 500 AD to 1450 AD, monks created elaborate and they share many elements, theories, principles, practices, languages and sometimes the same benefactor or client. In advertising, the objective is the sale of goods. In graphic design, the essence is to order to information, form to ideas, expression. Graphic design in the United States began with Benjamin Franklin who used his newspaper The Pennsylvania Gazette, to master the art of publicity to promote his own books and his invention is still sold today and is known as the Franklin stove. American advertising initially imitated British newspapers and magazines, advertisements were printed in scrambled type and uneven lines that made it difficult to read. Franklin better organized this by adding 14-point type for the first line of the advertisement, although later shortened and centered it, Franklin added illustrations, something that London printers had not attempted. Franklin was the first to utilize logos, which were early symbols that announced such services as opticians by displaying golden spectacles, Franklin taught advertisers that the use of detail was important in marketing their products. Some advertisements ran for 10-20 lines, including color, names, varieties, during the Tang Dynasty wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts. A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book, beginning in the 11th century, longer scrolls and books were produced using movable type printing, making books widely available during the Song dynasty. During the 17th-18th century movable type was used for handbills or trade cards which were printed from wood or copper engravings and these documents announced a business and its location. English painter William Hogarth used his skill in engraving was one of the first to design for business trade, in Mainz Germany, in 1448, Johann Gutenberg introduced movable type using a new metal alloy for use in a printing press and opened a new era of commerce. Previously, most advertising was word of mouth, in France and England, for example, criers announced products for sale just as ancient Romans had done
Graphic design
–
A Boeing 747 aircraft with
livery designating it as
Air Force One. The cyan forms, the
US flag,
presidential seal and the
Caslon lettering were all designed at different times, by different designers, for different purposes, and combined by designer
Raymond Loewy in this one single aircraft exterior design.
Graphic design
–
Graphic symbols are often
functionalist and anonymous, as these
pictographs from the US
National Park Service illustrate.
Graphic design
–
Color
Graphic design
–
The
pencil is one of the most basic graphic design tools.
13.
Architecture
–
Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
Architecture
–
Brunelleschi, in the building of the dome of
Florence Cathedral in the early 15th-century, not only transformed the building and the city, but also the role and status of the architect.
Architecture
–
Section of
Brunelleschi 's dome drawn by the architect
Cigoli (c. 1600)
Architecture
–
The
Parthenon,
Athens,
Greece, "the supreme example among architectural sites."
(Fletcher).
Architecture
–
The
Houses of Parliament, Westminster, master-planned by
Charles Barry, with interiors and details by A.W.N. Pugin
14.
Landscape design
–
Landscape design is an independent profession and a design and art tradition, practised by landscape designers, combining nature and culture. In contemporary practice, landscape design bridges the space between landscape architecture and garden design, Landscape design focuses on both the integrated master landscape planning of a property and the specific garden design of landscape elements and plants within it. The practical, aesthetic, horticultural, and environmental sustainability are also components of landscape design and it is often divided into hardscape design and softscape design. Landscape designers often collaborate with related disciplines such as architecture and geography, soils and civil engineering, surveying, landscape contracting, botany, design projects may involve two different professional roles, landscape design and landscape architecture. There can be significant overlap of talent and skill between the two roles, depending on the education, licensing, and experience of the professional, both landscape designers and landscape architects practice landscape design. There are innumerable other design factors and considerations brought to the process of designing a garden that is beautiful, well-functioning. The professional section of garden designers in Europe and the Americas went by the name Landscape Gardener, in the 1890s, the distinct classification of landscape architect was created, with educational and licensing test requirements for using the title legally. Beatrix Farrand, the woman in the founding group, refused the title preferring Landscape Gardener. Matching the client and technical needs of a project, and the practitioner with talent, legal qualifications. Institutional education in landscape design appeared in the early 20th century, over time it became available at various levels. Departments of landscape architecture are located within university schools of architecture or environmental design, specialties and minors are available in horticultural botany, horticulture, natural resources, landscape engineering, construction management, fine and applied arts, and landscape design history. Traditionally, hand drawn drawings documented the design and position of features for construction, many landscape designers have an interest and involvement with gardening, personally or professionally. Some integrate this scope with their practice, informally or as licensed landscape contractors. Gardens are dynamic and not static after construction and planting are completed, involvement with landscape management and direction of ongoing garden direction, evolution, and care depend on the professionals and clients needs and inclinations. As with the other interrelated landscape disciplines, there can be overlap of services offered under the titles of landscape designer or professional gardener, garden design Landscape architecture Landscape assessment Landscape design history Landscape planning Space in landscape design Concrete landscape curbing
Landscape design
–
'Water stair' fountain in the garden at
Villa Vizcaya
Landscape design
–
Knot Garden at
Little Moreton Hall, Cheshire
Landscape design
–
Villa d'Este fountains
15.
Interior design
–
An interior designer is someone who plans, researches, coordinates, and manages such projects. Interior design is the process of shaping the experience of interior space, in the past, interiors were put together instinctively as a part of the process of building. The profession of design has been a consequence of the development of society. The pursuit of effective use of space, user well-being and functional design has contributed to the development of the interior design profession. The profession of design is separate and distinct from the role of Interior Decorator. The term is common in the UK where the profession of interior design is still unregulated and therefore, strictly speaking. In ancient India, architects used to work as interior designers and this can be seen from the references of Vishwakarma the architect - one of the gods in Indian mythology. Additionally, the sculptures depicting ancient texts and events are seen in palaces built in 17th century India, in ancient Egypt, soul houses or models of houses were placed in tombs as receptacles for food offerings. Architects would also employ craftsmen or artisans to complete design for their buildings. Large furniture firms began to branch out into general interior design and management and this business model flourished from the mid-century to 1914, when this role was increasingly usurped by independent, often amateur, designers. This paved the way for the emergence of the interior design in the mid-20th century. In the 1950s and 1960s, upholsterers began to expand their business remits and they framed their business more broadly and in artistic terms and began to advertise their furnishings to the public. Firms began to publish and circulate catalogs with prints for different lavish styles to attract the attention of expanding middle classes, as department stores increased in number and size, retail spaces within shops were furnished in different styles as examples for customers. One particularly effective advertising tool was to set up rooms at national and international exhibitions in showrooms for the public to see. Some of the firms in this regard were Waring & Gillow, James Shoolbred, Mintons. This type of firm emerged in America after the Civil War, the Herter Brothers, founded by two German emigre brothers, began as an upholstery warehouse and became one of the first firms of furniture makers and interior decorators. A pivotal figure in popularizing theories of interior design to the class was the architect Owen Jones. His most significant publication was The Grammar of Ornament, in which Jones formulated 37 key principles of interior design, in 1882, the London Directory of the Post Office listed 80 interior decorators
Interior design
–
The lobby of Hotel Bristol
Interior design
–
Historical example:
Balliol College Dining Hall, Oxford
Interior design
–
Typical interior of one of the houses in the Folk Architecture Reservation in
Vlkolínec (
Slovakia).
Interior design
–
Illustrated catalog of the
James Shoolbred Company, published in 1876.
16.
Fashion design
–
Fashion design is the art of application of design and aesthetics or natural beauty to clothing and accessories. Fashion design is influenced by cultural and social attitudes, and has varied over time, Fashion designers work in a number of ways in designing clothing and accessories such as bracelets and necklace. Because of the required to bring a garment onto the market. Fashion designers attempt to design clothes which are functional as well as aesthetically pleasing and they consider who is likely to wear a garment and the situations in which it will be worn. They have a range and combinations of materials to work with. Though most clothing worn for everyday wear falls within a range of conventional styles. Some clothes are made specifically for an individual, as in the case of haute couture or bespoke tailoring, today, most clothing is designed for the mass market, especially casual and every-day wear are called ready to wear. Fashion designers may work full-time for one house, as in-house designers. They may work alone or as part of a team, freelance designers work for themselves, selling their designs to fashion houses, directly to shops, or to clothing manufacturers. The garments bear the buyers label, some fashion designers set up their own labels, under which their designs are marketed. Some fashion designers are self-employed and design for individual clients, other high-end fashion designers cater to specialty stores or high-end fashion department stores. These designers create original garments, as well as those that follow established fashion trends, most fashion designers, however, work for apparel manufacturers, creating designs of mens, womens, and childrens fashions for the mass market. Fashion designers work in different ways, some sketch their ideas on paper, while others drape fabric on a dress form. Finally, a garment is made up and tested on a model to make sure it is an operational outfit. Fashion design is considered to have started in the 19th century with Charles Frederick Worth who was the first designer to have his label sewn into the garments that he created. Before the former draper set up his maison couture in Paris, clothing design and creation was handled by largely anonymous seamstresses, worths success was such that he was able to dictate to his customers what they should wear, instead of following their lead as earlier dressmakers had done. The term couturier was in fact first created in order to describe him, while all articles of clothing from any time period are studied by academics as costume design, only clothing created after 1858 is considered as fashion design. It was during this period that many design houses began to hire artists to sketch or paint designs for garments, the images were shown to clients, which was much cheaper than producing an actual sample garment in the workroom
Fashion design
–
Models posing during a fashion show in 2009
Fashion design
–
A
catwalk (or fashion runway) is the popular place for showcasing fashion design, especially at
fashion shows. Catwalk at
Berlin Fashion Week for
Michalsky's StyleNite.
Fashion design
–
The
Chéruit salon on
Place Vendôme in Paris, 1910
Fashion design
–
Fashion house poster from Budapest
17.
Digital media
–
Digital media is any media that is encoded in a machine-readable format. Digital media can be created, viewed, distributed, modified and preserved on digital electronics devices, Digital media are frequently contrasted with print media, such as printed books, newspapers and magazines, and other traditional or analog media, such as pictures, film or audio tape. Combined with the Internet and personal computing, digital media has caused disruption in publishing, journalism, entertainment, education, commerce, Digital media has a significant, wide-ranging and complex impact on society and culture. Machine-readable media predates the Internet, modern computers and electronics, machine-readable codes and information were first conceptualized by Charles Babbage in the early 1800s. Babbage imagined that these codes would provide instructions for his Difference Engine and Analytical Engine, between 1822 and 1823, Ada Lovelace, a mathematician, wrote the first instructions for calculating numbers on Babbages engines. Lovelaces instructions are now believed to be the first computer program, there are in all extensions of human power, or additions to human knowledge, various collateral influences, besides the main and primary object attained. Other early machine-readable media include the instructions for player pianos and jacquard looms, though they used machine-readable media, Babbages engines, player pianos, jacquard looms and many other early calculating machines were themselves analog computers, with physical, mechanical parts. The first truly digital media came into existence with the rise of digital computers, Digital computers use binary code and Boolean logic to store and process information, allowing one machine in one configuration to perform many different tasks. The first modern, programmable, digital computers, the Manchester Mark 1, though different in many ways from modern computers, these machines had digital software controlling their logical operations. They were encoded in binary, a system of ones and zeroes that are combined to make hundreds of characters, the 1s and 0s of binary are the digits of digital media. Bush envisioned a system of devices that could be used to help scientists, doctors, historians and others, store, analyze and communicate information. Calling this then-imaginary device a memex, Bush wrote, The owner of the memex, let us say, is interested in the origin, specifically he is studying why the short Turkish bow was apparently superior to the English long bow in the skirmishes of the Crusades. He has dozens of possibly pertinent books and articles in his memex, first he runs through an encyclopedia, finds an interesting but sketchy article, leaves it projected. Next, in a history, he finds another pertinent item, thus he goes, building a trail of many items. Occasionally he inserts a comment of his own, either linking it into the trail or joining it by a side trail to a particular item. He inserts a page of longhand analysis of his own, thus he builds a trail of his interest through the maze of materials available to him. Bush hoped that the creation of this memex would be the work of scientists after World War II and it was recognized as a significant work even at the time of its publication. In the years since the invention of the first digital computers, computing power, personal computers and smartphones put the ability to access, modify, store and share digital media in the hands of billions of people
Digital media
–
Hard drives store information in
binary form and so are considered a type of physical digital media.
18.
Fine arts
–
Historically, the five main fine arts were painting, sculpture, architecture, music and poetry, with performing arts including theatre and dance. Today, the fine arts commonly include additional forms, such as film, photography, video production/editing, design, sequential art, conceptual art, and printmaking. However, in some institutes of learning or in museums, fine art, in that sense, there are conceptual differences between the fine arts and the applied arts. The word fine does not so much denote the quality of the artwork in question and this definition originally excluded the applied or decorative arts, and the products of what were regarded as crafts. According to some writers the concept of a category of fine art is an invention of the early modern period in the West. Larry Shiner in his The Invention of Art, A Cultural History locates the invention in the 18th century, There was a traditional “system of the arts” in the West before the eighteenth century. ”Similar ideas have been expressed by Paul Oskar Kristeller, Pierre Bourdieu, and Terry Eagleton, though the point of invention is often placed earlier, in the Italian Renaissance. The separation of arts and crafts that often exists in Europe, in Japanese aesthetics the activities of everyday life are depicted by integrating not only art with craft but man-made with nature. Traditional Chinese art distinguished within Chinese painting between the mostly landscape painting of scholar gentlemen and the artisans of the schools of court painting. A high status was given to many things that would be seen as craft objects in the West, in particular ceramics, jade carving, weaving. Drawing is a form of expression and is one of the major forms of the visual arts. Common instruments include graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax color pencils, crayons, charcoals, chalk, pastels, markers, stylus, There are a number of subcategories of drawing, including cartooning. Mosaics are images formed with pieces of stone or glass. They can be decorative or functional, an artist who designs and makes mosaics is called a mosaic artist or a mosaicist. Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing, normally on paper, except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each print is considered an original, as opposed to a copy, the reasoning behind this is that the print is not a reproduction of another work of art in a different medium — for instance, a painting — but rather an image designed from inception as a print. An individual print is also referred to as an impression, prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix. But there are other kinds, discussed below. Multiple nearly identical prints can be called an edition, in modern times each print is often signed and numbered forming a limited edition
Fine arts
–
Self-Portrait with Two Circles, oil on canvas,
Rembrandt, c. 1665–1669.
Fine arts
–
Black Square, oil on canvas,
Kazimir Malevich, 1923–29
Fine arts
–
History of art
Fine arts
–
Mosaic of
Christ Pantocrator from
Hagia Sophia
19.
Writing
–
Writing is a medium of human communication that represents language and emotion through the inscription or recording of signs and symbols. In most languages, writing is a complement to speech or spoken language, Writing is not a language but a form of technology that developed as tools developed with human society. Within a language system, writing relies on many of the structures as speech, such as vocabulary, grammar and semantics. The result of writing is called text, and the recipient of text is called a reader. Motivations for writing include publication, storytelling, correspondence and diary, Writing has been instrumental in keeping history, maintaining culture, dissemination of knowledge through the media and the formation of legal systems. As human societies emerged, the development of writing was driven by pragmatic exigencies such as exchanging information, maintaining financial accounts, codifying laws, in both ancient Egypt and Mesoamerica writing may have evolved through calendrics and a political necessity for recording historical and environmental events. H. G. Wells argued that writing has the ability to put agreements, laws and it made the growth of states larger than the old city states possible. It made a continuous historical consciousness possible, the command of the priest or king and his seal could go far beyond his sight and voice and could survive his death. The major writing systems—methods of inscription—broadly fall into four categories, logographic, syllabic, alphabetic, another category, ideographic, has never been developed sufficiently to represent language. A sixth category, pictographic, is insufficient to represent language on its own, a logogram is a written character which represents a word or morpheme. A vast number of logograms are needed to write Chinese characters, cuneiform, and Mayan, where a glyph may stand for a morpheme, many logograms have an ideographic component. For example, in Mayan, the glyph for fin, pronounced ka, was used to represent the syllable ka whenever the pronunciation of a logogram needed to be indicated. In Chinese, about 90% of characters are compounds of an element called a radical with an existing character to indicate the pronunciation. However, such phonetic elements complement the elements, rather than vice versa. A syllabary is a set of symbols that represent syllables. A glyph in a syllabary typically represents a consonant followed by a vowel, or just a vowel alone, phonetically related syllables are not so indicated in the script. For instance, the syllable ka may look nothing like the syllable ki, syllabaries are best suited to languages with a relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. Other languages that use syllabic writing include the Linear B script for Mycenaean Greek, Cherokee, Ndjuka, an English-based creole language of Surinam, most logographic systems have a strong syllabic component
Writing
–
Writing with a pen
Writing
–
Olin Levi Warner,
tympanum representing Writing, above exterior of main entrance doors,
Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington DC, 1896.
Writing
–
Globular envelope with a cluster of accountancy tokens, Uruk period, from
Susa.
Louvre Museum
Writing
–
Narmer Palette, with the two serpopards representing unification of
Upper and
Lower Egypt,
3000 B. C.
20.
Liberal arts
–
Grammar, logic, and rhetoric were the core liberal arts, while arithmetic, geometry, the theory of music, and astronomy also played a part in education. In modern times, liberal arts education term that can be interpreted in different ways and it can refer to academic subjects such as literature, philosophy, mathematics, and social and physical sciences, or it can also refer to overall studies in a liberal arts degree program. For example, Harvard University offers a Bachelor of Arts degree, for both interpretations, the term generally refers to matters not relating to the professional, vocational, or technical curriculum. The four scientific artes – music, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy – were known from the time of Boethius onwards as the Quadrivium. After the 9th century, the three arts of the humanities – grammar, logic, and rhetoric – were classed as well as the Trivium. It was in that form that the seven liberal arts were studied in the medieval Western university. During the Middle Ages, logic gradually came to take predominance over the parts of the Trivium. In the Renaissance, the Italian humanists and their Northern counterparts, despite in many respects continuing the traditions of the Middle Ages, the ideal of a liberal arts, or humanistic education grounded in classical languages and literature, persisted until the middle of the twentieth century. Some subsections of the arts are in the trivium—the verbal arts, grammar, logic, and rhetoric, and in the quadrivium—the numerical arts, arithmetic, geometry, music. Analyzing and interpreting information is also included, the liberal arts education at the secondary school level prepares the student for higher education at a university. They are thus meant for the more academically minded students, in addition to the usual curriculum, students of a liberal arts education often study Latin and Ancient Greek. Some liberal arts education provide general education, others have a specific focus, today, a number of other areas of specialization exist, such as gymnasiums specializing in economics, technology or domestic sciences. In some countries, there is a notion of progymnasium, which is equivalent to beginning classes of the full gymnasium, here, the prefix pro is equivalent to pre. In the United States, liberal arts colleges are schools emphasizing undergraduate study in the liberal arts, in most parts of Europe, liberal arts education is deeply rooted. In Germany, Austria and countries influenced by their education system, the term is not to be mixed up with some modern educational concepts that use a similar wording. Educational institutions that see themselves in that tradition are often a Gymnasium and they aim at providing their pupils with comprehensive education in order to form personality with regard to a pupils own humanity as well as his/her innate intellectual skills. Going back to the tradition of the liberal arts in Europe, education in the above sense was freed from scholastic thinking. In particular, Wilhelm von Humboldt played a key role in that regard, universities encourage students to do so and offer respective opportunities, but do not make such activities part of the universitys curriculum
Liberal arts
–
Philosophia et septem artes liberales, The seven liberal arts – Picture from the
Hortus deliciarum of
Herrad of Landsberg (12th century)
Liberal arts
–
Page from
Marriage of Mercury and Philology
21.
Art history
–
Art history is the study of objects of art in their historical development and stylistic contexts, i. e. genre, design, format, and style. This includes the arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture as well as the minor arts of ceramics, furniture. As a term, art history encompasses several methods of studying the arts, in common usage referring to works of art. One branch of this area of study is aesthetics, which includes investigating the enigma of the sublime, technically, art history is not these things, because the art historian uses historical method to answer the questions, How did the artist come to create the work. Who were his or her teachers, who were his or her disciples. What historical forces shaped the artists oeuvre, and How did he or she and the creation, in turn, affect the course of artistic, political, and social events. It is, however, questionable whether many questions of this kind can be answered satisfactorily without also considering basic questions about the nature of art, unfortunately the current disciplinary gap between art history and the philosophy of art often hinders this inquiry. Art history is not only a biographical endeavor, Art historians often root their studies in the scrutiny of individual objects. They thus attempt to answer in historically specific ways, questions such as, what meaning did this object convey. Did the artist meet their goals well, the historical backbone of the discipline is a celebratory chronology of beautiful creations commissioned by public or religious bodies or wealthy individuals in western Europe. Such a canon remains prominent, as indicated by the selection of objects present in art history textbooks, nonetheless, since the 20th century there has been an effort to re-define the discipline to be more inclusive of non-Western art, art made by women, and vernacular creativity. Art history as we know it in the 21st century began in the 19th century but has precedents that date to the ancient world, advances in photographic reproduction and printing techniques after World War II increased the ability of reproductions of artworks. Such technologies have helped to advance the discipline in profound ways, the study of visual art thus described, can be a practice that involves understanding context, form, and social significance. Art historians employ a number of methods in their research into the ontology, Art historians often examine work in the context of its time. In short, this approach examines the work of art in the context of the world within which it was created, Art historians also often examine work through an analysis of form, that is, the creators use of line, shape, color, texture, and composition. This approach examines how the artist uses a picture plane or the three dimensions of sculptural or architectural space to create his or her art. The way these individual elements are employed results in representational or non-representational art, is the artist imitating an object or image found in nature. The closer the art hews to perfect imitation, the more the art is realistic, is the artist not imitating, but instead relying on symbolism, or in an important way striving to capture natures essence, rather than copy it directly
Art history
–
Venus de Milo on display at the
Louvre.
Art history
–
History of art
Art history
–
Giorgio Vasari,
Self-portrait c.1567
Art history
–
Anton von Maron, Portrait of
Johann Joachim Winckelmann, 1768
22.
Art School Confidential (film)
–
Art School Confidential is a 2006 comedy-drama film directed by Terry Zwigoff, loosely based on the comic of the same name by Daniel Clowes. The film is Zwigoffs second collaboration with Clowes, the first being 2001s Ghost World, the cast includes Max Minghella, Sophia Myles, John Malkovich, Jim Broadbent, Matt Keeslar, Ethan Suplee, Joel Moore, Nick Swardson, Adam Scott, and Anjelica Huston. The film was shot at the Otis College of Art and Design in Los Angeles and at Pasadena City College in Pasadena. Otis Foundation Professor Gary Garaths worked as a consultant on the film, starting from childhood attempts at illustration, young Jerome pursues his true obsession to art school. Jerome enrolls in Strathmore, an urban college and his roommates are aspiring filmmaker Vince and closeted-gay fashion major Matthew. Jerome looks for love amongst the coeds, but is turned off by all, before falling in love with the art model. In his art classes, he forms a friendship with perennial loser, Bardo, who guides him through the scene and introduces him to a failed artist, Jimmy. As Jerome learns how the art world really works, he finds that he must adapt his vision to the reality that confronts him, the community has been wracked by a serial killer, the Strathmore Strangler, who has confounded the police. As Jerome slowly loses his idealism at art school, he himself in competition with a strange newcomer, Jonah. In a wild attempt to win an art competition, Jerome asks for. Jerome leaves a lit cigarette in Jimmys apartment by accident, setting a fire and burning up the apartment and Jimmy. The police arrest Jerome as the Strangler, Audrey realizes that her love is Jerome and that she was stupid to be in love with Jonah. Jeromes paintings, especially one of Audrey, become prized by collectors, Vince scores a hit with his documentary of the Strangler called My Roommate. In prison, Jerome continues to paint and sells his works at high prices, not caring that people think he is the killer, at the end, Audrey and Jerome share a kiss through the protective glass. Was really negatively received both at the box office and critically, I didnt think it was so bad. At least compared to all that shit out there, anyway. It was certainly just as good as any film in the marketplace, and Im not saying its a great film. Im just saying its better than most of the dreck, Art School Confidential received mixed feedback from critics
Art School Confidential (film)
–
Theatrical release poster
23.
Los Angeles Times
–
The Los Angeles Times, commonly referred to as the Times or LA Times, is a paid daily newspaper published in Los Angeles, California, since 1881. It was the largest metropolitan newspaper in circulation in the United States in 2008, the Times is owned by tronc. The Times was first published on December 4,1881, as the Los Angeles Daily Times under the direction of Nathan Cole Jr. and it was first printed at the Mirror printing plant, owned by Jesse Yarnell and T. J. Unable to pay the bill, Cole and Gardiner turned the paper over to the Mirror Company. Mathes had joined the firm, and it was at his insistence that the Times continued publication, in July 1882, Harrison Gray Otis moved from Santa Barbara to become the papers editor. Otis made the Times a financial success, in an era where newspapers were driven by party politics, the Times was directed at Republican readers. As was typical of newspapers of the time, the Times would sit on stories for several days, historian Kevin Starr wrote that Otis was a businessman capable of manipulating the entire apparatus of politics and public opinion for his own enrichment. Otiss editorial policy was based on civic boosterism, extolling the virtues of Los Angeles, the efforts of the Times to fight local unions led to the October 1,1910 bombing of its headquarters, killing twenty-one people. Two union leaders, James and Joseph McNamara, were charged, the American Federation of Labor hired noted trial attorney Clarence Darrow to represent the brothers, who eventually pleaded guilty. Upon Otiss death in 1917, his son-in-law, Harry Chandler, Harry Chandler was succeeded in 1944 by his son, Norman Chandler, who ran the paper during the rapid growth of post-war Los Angeles. Family members are buried at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery near Paramount Studios, the site also includes a memorial to the Times Building bombing victims. The fourth generation of family publishers, Otis Chandler, held that position from 1960 to 1980, Otis Chandler sought legitimacy and recognition for his familys paper, often forgotten in the power centers of the Northeastern United States due to its geographic and cultural distance. He sought to remake the paper in the model of the nations most respected newspapers, notably The New York Times, believing that the newsroom was the heartbeat of the business, Otis Chandler increased the size and pay of the reporting staff and expanded its national and international reporting. In 1962, the paper joined with the Washington Post to form the Los Angeles Times-Washington Post News Service to syndicate articles from both papers for news organizations. During the 1960s, the paper won four Pulitzer Prizes, more than its previous nine decades combined, eventually the coupon-clipping branches realized that they could make more money investing in something other than newspapers. Under their pressure the companies went public, or split apart, thats the pattern followed over more than a century by the Los Angeles Times under the Chandler family. The papers early history and subsequent transformation was chronicled in an unauthorized history Thinking Big and it has also been the whole or partial subject of nearly thirty dissertations in communications or social science in the past four decades. In 2000, the Tribune Company acquired the Times, placing the paper in co-ownership with then-WB -affiliated KTLA, which Tribune acquired in 1985
Los Angeles Times
–
Front page from October 21, 2008
Los Angeles Times
–
Chandler and Otis 1917
Los Angeles Times
–
Rubble of the L.A. Times building after the
1910 bombing
Los Angeles Times
–
Times
Newspaper vending machine featuring news of the
1984 Summer Olympics
24.
Harrison Gray Otis (publisher)
–
Harrison Gray Otis was the president and general manager of the Times-Mirror Company, publisher of the Los Angeles Times. Otis was born near Marietta, Ohio, on February 10,1837 and his father was from Vermont and his mother, a native of Nova Scotia, Canada, came to Ohio from Boston, Massachusetts, with her family. The young Otis received schooling until he was fourteen, when he became an apprentice at the Noble County Courier in Ohio. He was a Kentucky delegate to the Republican National Convention that nominated Abraham Lincoln for president in 1860. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, he left his job as a compositor in the office of the Louisville Journal to volunteer as a private for the Union army, Otis fought in the 23rd Ohio Infantry. He was promoted through the ranks and was made an officer and he was wounded twice in battle, was twice breveted for gallant and meritorious conduct and was promoted seven times. After the war, Otis was Official Reporter of the Ohio House of Representatives, then moved to Washington, D. C. where he was a government official, correspondent and he left that position in 1881 to return to Santa Barbara. Beginning August 1,1882, he was to have the conduct of the Daily Times and Weekly Mirror. Later the company was named Times-Mirror, and on April 6,1886, it was reorganized, with Albert McFarland and W. A. Spalding as owners and Otis as president and that was Otiss official title at the time of his death in 1917. The Times story about his demise noted that the Times-Mirror Company was publishers of the Los Angeles Daily Times, the article called Otis the principal owner of the newspaper but never referred to him as publisher. Eleven years earlier, however the Associated Press had called him publisher of the Los Angeles Times, when the Spanish–American War broke out in 1898, Otis asked President William McKinley for an appointment as Assistant Secretary of War. But Secretary of War Russell A. Alger did not want the conservative Otis serving under him, Otis thereupon again volunteered for the Army and was appointed brigadier general of volunteers. He did not see any action against the Spanish, but commanded the 1st Brigade, 2nd Division, Otis was known for his conservative political views, which were reflected in the paper. His home was one of three buildings that were targeted in the 1910 Los Angeles Times bombing, during his time as publisher of the Times Otis is known for coining the phrase You are either with me, or against me. His support for his city was instrumental in the growth of the city. He was a member of a group of investors who bought land in the San Fernando Valley based on knowledge that the Los Angeles Aqueduct would soon irrigate it. He died on July 30,1917 at the home of his son-in-law, list of Los Angeles Times publishers PBS biography Otis biography in the Bancroft Library Harrison Gray Otis Album of California Scenes, around 1890–1910, in the Bancroft Library
Harrison Gray Otis (publisher)
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Harrison Gray Otis
Harrison Gray Otis (publisher)
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Otis statue in
MacArthur Park
25.
Westlake, Los Angeles
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Westlake is a residential and commercial neighborhood in Central Los Angeles, California. It was developed in the 1920s, but many of its elegant mansions have been turned into apartments, Westlake is a high-density area, with a young and heavily Latino population. It has a score of primary and secondary schools, in 2008 the city estimated that the population had increased to 117,756. It was estimated in 1993 that 85,000 people lived within a mile of the Alvarado/MacArthur Park Red Line station and that the density of this neighborhood rivaled that of Manhattan in New York City. Another report the year said that at 147 people per acre Westlake had four times the average density of Manhattan. Firefighters often find babies sleeping in dresser drawers, and children in closets that serve as their bedrooms, nevertheless, census takers found that the average household size of three people was about the same as the rest of the city. Renters occupied 94. 9% of the units, and house or apartment owners just 5. 1% Heavily Latino. The breakdown was Latinos,73. 4%, Asians,16. 5%, whites,4. 5%, blacks,3. 9%, and others,1. 7%. Mexico and El Salvador were the most common places of birth for the 67. 6% of the residents who were born abroad, the median age for residents was 27, considered young for both the city and the county. The median household income in 2008 dollars was $26,757, a low figure for Los Angeles, the percentages of never-married men and women, 47% and 36. 4%, respectively, were among the countys highest. The 2000 census found 5,325 families headed by single parents, there were 2,591 military veterans in 2000, or 3. 5%, a low figure for Los Angeles. Westlake touches East Hollywood on the northwest, the street boundaries on Mapping L. A. Relation of Westlake to other communities, In 1887, Westlake was referred to as the southwest quarter of Los Angeles. The Westlake hills were dotted with fine residences, and it is plainly to be seen that the development of this quarter is in its infancy. The Baptist College, now well under way, looms up to the northward, the neighborhood was named for Westlake Park, the land for which had been donated by Henricus Wallace Westlake, a Canadian physician who moved to Los Angeles around 1888. He built his house on Burlington Avenue in the district that bore his name. One of the first areas of Los Angeles west of Figueroa Street to see residential development, wealthy businessmen commuted to downtown, Wilshire Center, Hollywood, and the Miracle Mile from the districts Spanish Revival and Art Deco mansions. The city had declared a 1, 600-foot zone around Westlake Park where drilling was forbidden, even City Attorney Walter F. Haas thought the law was invalid, although he had to defend it as part of his duty. Nevertheless, a Superior Court judge, in the case of People v. Richard Green and others, by 1900, however, it was found that oil production in Westlake had been, in effect, pumped dry, and the situation ceased to make news
Westlake, Los Angeles
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Alvarado Street, looking north from just southwest of the
Wilshire Boulevard intersection. The eastern edge of
MacArthur Park is at center.
Westlake, Los Angeles
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The New Rampart Police Station
Westlake, Los Angeles
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Esperanza Elementary School
Westlake, Los Angeles
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Camino Nuevo Charter School
26.
Los Angeles International Airport
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It is most often referred to by its IATA airport code LAX, with the letters pronounced individually. LAX is in the southwestern Los Angeles area along the Pacific Ocean between the neighborhood of Westchester to its north and the city of El Segundo to its immediate south. It is owned and operated by Los Angeles World Airports, an agency of the government of Los Angeles, formerly known as the Department of Airports. In 2015, LAX handled 74,936,256 passengers, the airport holds the claim for the worlds busiest origin and destination airport, and has for many years. To wit, relative to airports, many more travelers begin or end their trips in Los Angeles than use it as a connection. The airport also was the third busiest by aircraft movements. It is also the airport to rank among the top five U. S. airports for both passenger and cargo traffic. It is also notable for being one of the few U. S. airports with four parallel runways, LAX serves as a hub for Alaska Airlines, American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, United Airlines, and Virgin America. The airport serves as a city for Allegiant Air, Air New Zealand, Qantas, Southwest Airlines, Spirit Airlines. LAX serves as either a hub or focus city for more Mainline US Carriers than any airport in the Country and is the only airport that all three legacy carriers have designated a hub. As the largest international airport on the U. S, West Coast, LAX is a major gateway to and from Europe, Latin America, Asia and Oceania. With its deep connections to Asia and Latin America in particular, in 1928, the Los Angeles City Council selected 640 acres in the southern part of Westchester for a new airport. The fields of wheat, barley and lima beans were converted into dirt landing strips without any terminal buildings and it was named Mines Field for William W. Mines, the real estate agent who arranged the deal. 1, was erected in 1929 and is in the National Register of Historic Places, Mines Field opened as the airport of Los Angeles in 1930 and the city purchased it to be a municipal airfield in 1937. The name became Los Angeles Airport in 1941 and Los Angeles International Airport in 1949, in the 1930s the main airline airports were Burbank Airport in Burbank and the Grand Central Airport in Glendale. Mines Field did not extend west of Sepulveda Boulevard, Sepulveda was rerouted circa 1950 to loop around the west ends of the extended east–west runways, which by November 1950 were 6,000 feet long. A tunnel was completed in 1953 allowing Sepulveda Boulevard to revert to straight, for the next few years the two runways were 8,500 feet long. Before the 1930s, existing airports used a two-letter abbreviation based on the stations at the airports
Los Angeles International Airport
Los Angeles International Airport
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FAA airport diagram
Los Angeles International Airport
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Los Angeles Municipal Airport on
Army Day, c. 1931
Los Angeles International Airport
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Hangar No. 1 was the first structure at LAX, built in 1929, restored in 1990 and remaining in active use.
27.
Eliot Noyes
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Noyes was also a pioneer in development of comprehensive corporate-wide design programs that integrated design strategy and business strategy. Noyes worked on corporate imagery for IBM, Mobil Oil, Cummins Engine, Eliot Noyes was born in Boston, Massachusetts. Shortly after his birth, Noyes moved to Colorado where he resided until age seven, at this point, Noyes and his family moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts. Noyes’ father taught English at Harvard and his mother was an accomplished pianist and he was not always set on architecture. As a teen, he contemplated becoming a painter, however by age 19 he had his mind set on architecture. He first enrolled at Harvard University in 1932 to obtain a degree in the Classics. Noyes’ experience at Harvard was unlike the four members of Harvard Five. When he arrived at Harvard, the school was still under the influence of the Beaux-Arts architecture movement – hardly the modernist influence that the four received. However, after meeting guest lecturer Le Corbusier in the school library and he was inspired by Le Corbusier’s work and researched the Bauhaus. In his junior year at Harvard, he traveled to Iran for an archaeological expedition, upon returning to the school, Noyes found that Harvard had undergone a complete revolution. Gropius and Breuer had already arrived there, and with them came a new modernist spirit at the school, in 1938 he received his architecture degree from Harvard Graduate School of Design. While at Harvard, Noyes was also a member of the Harvard soaring club, after graduating with his masters in architecture in 1938, Noyes joined Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer’s firm in Cambridge, Massachusetts. From 1939 to 1946, Noyes was employed by the Museum of Modern Art in New York City as director of industrial design and he took leave from MoMA during World War II to set up a program to explore the potential uses for gliders by the Army Air Force. He later served as a designer for Norman Bel Geddes. In 1967 he was inducted into the National Academy, Noyes first house, built in 1941, was the Jackson House in Dover, MA. This was followed in 1950 by the Tallman House and Bremer House in New Canaan, residing in New Canaan for 30 years, he designed more residential buildings including the Ault House, the Weeks House, and the Noyes House. In 1953 he designed houses which were built the next year in Hobe Sound. One of his most notable designs was the Wilton Library in the town of Wilton
Eliot Noyes
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Noyes portrait from IBM archives.
Eliot Noyes
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IBM Selectric typewriter
Eliot Noyes
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Ski chalet designed and built by Noyes near
Killington, Vermont
Eliot Noyes
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Bubble House in Hobe Sound
28.
Punched card
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A punched card or punch card is a piece of stiff paper that can be used to contain digital information represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions. The information might be data for data processing applications or, in earlier examples, the terms IBM card, or Hollerith card specifically refer to punched cards used in semiautomatic data processing. Many early digital computers used punched cards, often prepared using keypunch machines, while punched cards are now obsolete as a recording medium, as of 2012, some voting machines still use punched cards to record votes. Basile Bouchon developed the control of a loom by punched holes in paper tape in 1725, in 1801 Joseph Marie Jacquard demonstrated a mechanism to automate loom operation. A number of punched cards were linked into a chain of any length, each card held the instructions for shedding and selecting the shuttle for a single pass. It is considered an important step in the history of computing hardware, semen Korsakov was reputedly the first to use the punched cards in informatics for information store and search. Korsakov announced his new method and machines in September 1832, rather than seeking patents, charles Babbage proposed the use of Number Cards, pierced with certain holes and stand opposite levers connected with a set of figure wheels. Advanced they push in those levers opposite to which there are no holes on the card, Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a medium that could then be read by a machine. Prior uses of machine readable media, such as those above, had been for control, after some initial trials with paper tape, he settled on punched cards. Developing punched card data processing technology for the 1890 US census, other companies entering the punched card business included the Powers Accounting Machine Company, Remington Rand, and Groupe Bull. Both IBM and Remington Rand tied punched card purchases to machine leases, in 1932, the US government took both to court on this issue. IBM viewed its business as providing a service and that the cards were part of the machine, IBM fought all the way to the Supreme Court and lost in 1936, the court ruling that IBM could only set card specifications. According to the IBM Archives, By 1937, IBM had 32 presses at work in Endicott, N. Y. printing, cutting and stacking five to 10 million punched cards every day. Punched cards were used as legal documents, such as U. S. Government checks. Punched card technology developed into a tool for business data-processing. By 1950 punched cards had become ubiquitous in industry and government, do not fold, spindle or mutilate, a generalized version of the warning that appeared on some punched cards, became a motto for the post-World War II era. In 1955 IBM signed a consent decree requiring, amongst other things, tom Watson Jr. s decision to sign this decree, where IBM saw the punched card provisions as the most significant point, completed the transfer of power to him from Thomas Watson, Sr. The UNITYPER introduced magnetic tape for data entry in the 1950s, during the 1960s, the punched card was gradually replaced as the primary means for data storage by magnetic tape, as better, more capable computers became available
Punched card
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Paper tape made from punched cards, for a large
dance organ
Punched card
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A
paper tape, constructed from punched cards, in use in a
Jacquard loom. The large holes on each edge are
sprocket holes, used to pull the paper tape through the loom.
Punched card
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Hollerith card as shown in the
Railroad Gazette in 1895.
Punched card
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A general-purpose punched card from late-twentieth century.
29.
MacArthur Park
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MacArthur Park is a park dating back to the late nineteenth century in the Westlake neighborhood of Los Angeles, California. In the early 1940s, it was renamed after General Douglas MacArthur, the park is divided in two by Wilshire Boulevard. The bandshell was once home to many organizations and events, such as Jugaremos en Familia, MacArthur Parks bandshell has been recently renovated as the Levitt Pavilion and is once again the host of jazz, big band, salsa music, beat music, and world music concerts. Since reopening, it hosts at least 50 free concerts each summer between June and September, the lake in MacArthur Park is fed by natural springs. In the past, a fountain with a pool on the northern end was also fed by the springs. The Westlake/MacArthur Park Red Line station sits across the street, the park, originally named Westlake Park, was built in the 1880s, along with a similar Eastlake Park, whose lake is artificial, in Los Angeles. Westlake Park was renamed May 7,1942, Eastlake Park was renamed Lincoln Park, both Westlake and Eastlake were built as drinking water reservoirs connected to the citys systems of zanjas. The park was named for Henricus Wallace Westlake, a Canadian physician who had moved to Los Angeles around 1888, settled in the area, in the mid-19th century the area was a swampland, by the 1890s, it was a vacation destination, surrounded by luxury hotels. In the early part of the 20th century, the Westlake neighborhood became known as the Champs-Élysées of Los Angeles. Wilshire Boulevard formerly ended at the lake, but in 1934 a berm was built for it to cross, Orange Street was renamed Wilshire and extended east of Figueroa Street to Grand Avenue. This divided the lake into two halves, the one was subsequently drained. During the 1950s the lake featured the rental of electric boats, for many years, Filipino World War II veterans protested in the park named after their former commander regarding promises made when they enlisted that the United States had reneged on. In 2009 as part of the package, Congress awarded lump-sum payments of $15,000 to Filipino veterans who are American citizens. The Westlake area has become notable for the sale of false identification cards. When the lake was drained in 1973 and 1978, hundreds of handguns, a few days before, a member of the Crazy Town Locos had struck a man from Burlington Street Locos across the face. Seeking revenge, members of the Burlington Street Locos went looking for members of the rival gang, mistakenly, they fired a couple of rounds into his chest, killing him. They put the body in a bag and threw it in the lake. In 2002, members of the 18th Street gang saw a member of a rival gang, a day later, members of the victims gang approached members of the 18th Street gang and started firing with semi-automatic pistols
MacArthur Park
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MacArthur Park looking towards
Downtown Los Angeles
MacArthur Park
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MacArthur Park along 7th Street
MacArthur Park
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Boathouse in 2011, closed
MacArthur Park
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MacArthur Park
30.
Ceramic art
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Ceramic art is art made from ceramic materials, including clay. It may take forms including art ware, tile, figurines, sculpture, Ceramic art is one of the arts, particularly the visual arts. Of these, it is one of the plastic arts, while some ceramics are considered fine art, some are considered to be decorative, industrial or applied art objects. Ceramics may also be considered artefacts in archaeology, Ceramic art can be made by one person or by a group of people. In a pottery or ceramic factory, a group of people design, manufacture, products from a pottery are sometimes referred to as art pottery. In a one-person pottery studio, ceramists or potters produce studio pottery, the word ceramics comes from the Greek keramikos, meaning pottery, which in turn comes from keramos meaning potters clay. Most traditional ceramic products were made from clay, shaped and subjected to heat, in modern ceramic engineering usage, ceramics is the art and science of making objects from inorganic, non-metallic materials by the action of heat. It excludes glass and mosaic made from glass tesserae, cultures especially noted for ceramics include the Chinese, Cretan, Greek, Persian, Mayan, Japanese, and Korean cultures, as well as the modern Western cultures. Different types of clay, when used with different minerals and firing conditions, are used to produce earthenware, stoneware, porcelain, earthenware is pottery that has not been fired to vitrification and is thus permeable to water. Many types of pottery have been made from it from the earliest times, earthenware is often made from clay, quartz and feldspar. Terracotta, a type of earthenware, is a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic and its uses include vessels, water and waste water pipes, bricks, and surface embellishment in building construction. Terracotta has been a medium for ceramic art. Stoneware is a vitreous or semi-vitreous ceramic made primarily from stoneware clay or non-refractory fire clay, stoneware is fired at high temperatures. Vitrified or not, it is nonporous, it may or may not be glazed and it may be vitreous or semi-vitreous. It is usually coloured grey or brownish because of impurities in the used for its manufacture. Porcelain is a material made by heating materials, generally including kaolin, in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 °C. Porcelain has been described as being completely vitrified, hard, impermeable, white or artificially coloured, translucent and it has been defined as ware with a translucent body containing a minimum of 30% of phosphate derived from animal bone and calculated calcium phosphate. Developed by English potter Josiah Spode, bone china is known for its levels of whiteness and translucency
Ceramic art
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Etruscan: Diomedes and Polyxena, from the Etruscan amphora of the Pontic group, ca. 540–530 BC. From
Vulci.
Ceramic art
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Venus of Dolní Věstonice, before 25,000 BCE
Ceramic art
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Vessel from
Mesopotamia, late
Ubaid period (4,500-4,000 BCE)
Ceramic art
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Hexagonal Tile, mid 15th century.
Brooklyn Museum.
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