1.
Sanitation
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These hazards may be physical, microbiological, biological or chemical agents of disease. Wastes that can cause problems include human and animal excreta, solid wastes, domestic wastewater, industrial wastes. Hygienic means of prevention may involve engineering solutions, simple technologies, or even simply by behavior changes in personal hygiene practices, providing sanitation to people requires a systems approach, rather than only focusing on the toilet or wastewater treatment plant itself. The experience of the user, excreta and wastewater collection methods, transportation or conveyance of waste, treatment, the main objective of a sanitation system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease. The World Health Organization defines the term sanitation as follows, Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the disposal of human urine. The word sanitation also refers to the maintenance of conditions, through services such as garbage collection. There are some variations on the definition of sanitation in use. For example, for many organisations, hygiene promotion is seen as an part of sanitation. Despite the fact that sanitation includes wastewater treatment, the two terms are often use side by side as sanitation and wastewater management, Sanitation should be regarded with a systems approach in mind which includes collection/containment, conveyance/transport, treatment, disposal or reuse. Effective sanitation systems provide barriers between excreta and humans in such a way as to break the transmission cycle. This aspect is visualised with the F-diagram where all routes of fecal-oral disease transmission begin with the letter F, feces, fingers, flies, fields, fluids. Container-based sanitation is usually provided as a service involving provision of types of portable toilets. In most cases, CBS is based on the use of urine-diverting dry toilets, the term dry sanitation is somewhat misleading as sanitation includes hand-washing and can never be dry. A more precise term would be dry excreta management, when people speak of dry sanitation they usually mean sanitation systems with dry toilets with urine diversion, in particular the urine-diverting dry toilet. Put in other words, Ecosan systems safely recycle excreta resources to crop production in such a way that the use of resources is minimised. Ecosan is also called resource-oriented sanitation, environmental sanitation encompasses the control of environmental factors that are connected to disease transmission. Subsets of this category are solid waste management, water and wastewater treatment, industrial waste treatment and noise, improved sanitation and unimproved sanitation refers to the management of human feces at the household level. This terminology is the used to describe the target of the Millennium Development Goal on sanitation, by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply
2.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
3.
Brittany (administrative region)
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Brittany is one of the 18 regions of France. It is named after the historic and geographic region of Brittany, the region of Brittany was created in 1941 on 80% of the territory of traditional Brittany. The remaining 20% is now called the Loire-Atlantique department which is included in the Pays de la Loire region, whose capital, part of the reason why Brittany was split between two present-day regions was to avoid the rivalry between Rennes and Nantes. Although Nantes was the capital of the Duchy of Brittany until the sixteenth century. Despite that, the Chambre des comptes had remained in Nantes until 1789, although there were previous plans to create Régions out of the Départements, like the Clémentel plan or the Vichy regionalisation programme, these plans had no effect or else were abolished in 1945. The current French Regions date from 1956 and were created by gathering Departements together, in Brittany, this led to the creation of the new Region of Brittany, which included only four out of the five historical Breton départements. The term region was created by the Law of Decentralisation. The first direct elections for representatives took place on 16 March 1986. See History of Brittany Brittany, lying in the northwest corner of France, is one of the historic provinces of France. The most Atlantic of Frances regions, Brittany is proud of its Celtic heritage and it enjoys a mild climate somewhat warmer though not necessarily drier than the climate of the southwest of England. Quimper, the capital of the Finistère, and St. Brieuc and it is also the venue for Brittanys annual Interceltiques music and culture festival. Despite its limited size, Brittany is quite a diverse region, the south coast, facing onto the Bay of Biscay, is flatter, much milder, and graced by a number of large sandy beaches. The sea here is warmer in summer, the backbone of Brittany is a granite ridge stretching from east to west, peaking in the Monts dArrée. But most of inland Brittany is gentle farming country, a famous for its milk and butter. In cultural terms, Brittany is very distinctive, with its own language and Celtic cultural tradition that set it apart from the rest of France. The Breton language, though not much used in life, and not understood by most of the modern population, has made a comeback in recent years. Celtic traditions are alive or recalled today in Breton folk music, its Celtic festivals, the name of Brittany derives from settlers from Great Britain, who fled that island in the wake of the Anglo-Saxon conquest of England between the fifth and seventh centuries. Unlike the rest of France and Brittany, Lower Brittany has maintained a distinctly Celtic language, Breton and it was the dominant language in Lower, or western, Brittany until the mid-20th century
4.
Toilet
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A toilet is a sanitation fixture used for the storing or disposal of human urine and feces. In developed countries, different forms of flush toilets are common. These are connected to a system in most urban areas. In many developing countries, especially in areas, dry toilets such as pit latrines. Dry toilets are usually placed in outhouses, i. e. not inside the dwelling, in many countries, private homes are designed with the flush toilet and the bath or shower in the same room, the bathroom, to simplify plumbing and reduce cost. Other cultures find this insanitary, and have one room for body-washing, public toilets are installed where their use is expected on a permanent basis, while portable toilets may be brought in for large but temporary gatherings. Chemical toilets are used in various contexts, such as passenger trains. Serious waterborne diseases such as cholera and diarrhea occur when open defecation or poor sanitation permits human waste to pollute water supplies, historically, sanitation has been a concern from the earliest stages of human settlements. The Indus Valley Civilization is particularly notable for its extensive sanitation works, for the most part, early cities emptied their waste into rivers or seas manually or via open ditches. Sanitation in ancient Rome was notably advanced, as were some of the reredorters of medieval monasteries, a precursor to the modern flush toilet system was designed by John Harington in 1596 but did not become common until the late 19th century. Even London, at time the worlds largest city, did not require indoor toilets in its building codes until after the First World War. A typical flush toilet is a ceramic bowl connected on the up side to a cistern that enables rapid filling with water, when a toilet is flushed, the sewage should flow into a septic tank or into a system connected to a Sewage treatment plant. However, in countries, this treatment does not happen. The water in the bowl is connected to a pipe shaped like an upside-down U. One side of the U channel is arranged as a tube longer than the water in the bowl is high. The siphon tube connects to the drain, the bottom of the drain pipe limits the height of the water in the bowl before it flows down the drain. The water in the acts as a barrier to sewer gas entering the building. Sewer gas escapes through a vent pipe attached to the sewer line, the amount of water used by conventional flush toilets usually makes up a significant portion of personal daily water usage
5.
Pit latrine
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A pit latrine or pit toilet is a type of toilet that collects human feces in a hole in the ground. They use either no water or one to three liters per flush with pour-flush pit latrines, when properly built and maintained they can decrease the spread of disease by reducing the amount of human feces in the environment from open defecation. This decreases the transfer of pathogens between feces and food by flies and these pathogens are major causes of infectious diarrhea and intestinal worm infections. Infectious diarrhea resulted in about 700,000 deaths in children under five years old in 2011 and 250 million lost school days, pit latrines are the lowest cost method of separating feces from people. A pit latrine generally consists of three parts, a hole in the ground, a slab or floor with a small hole. The shelter is known as an outhouse. The pit is typically at least 3 meters deep and 1 m across, the World Health Organization recommends they be built a reasonable distance from the house balancing issues of easy access versus that of smell. The distance from groundwater and surface water should be as large as possible to decrease the risk of groundwater pollution, the hole in the slab should not be larger than 25 centimeters to prevent children falling in. Light should be prevented from entering the pit to reduce access by flies and this may require the use of a lid to cover the hole in the floor when not in use. When the pit fills to within 0.5 meters of the top, it should be emptied or a new pit constructed. Fecal sludge management involves emptying pits as well as transporting, treating and using the fecal sludge. If this is not carried out properly, water pollution and public health risks can occur, a basic pit latrine can be improved in a number of ways. One includes adding a pipe from the pit to above the structure. This improves airflow and decreases the smell of the toilet and it also can reduce flies when the top of the pipe is covered with mesh. In these types of toilets a lid need not be used to cover the hole in the floor. Other possible improvements include a floor constructed so fluid drains into the hole, as of 2013 pit latrines are used by an estimated 1.77 billion people. This is mostly in the world as well as in rural. In 2011 about 2.5 billion people did not have access to a proper toilet, southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa have the poorest access to toilets
6.
Dry toilet
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A composting toilet is a type of dry toilet or micro-flush toilet system that uses a predominantly aerobic process to treat human excreta by composting or managed aerobic decomposition. These toilets generally use little to no water and may be used as an alternative to flush toilets that are coupled with septic systems or city sewer systems and they have found use in situations where no suitable water supply or sewer system and sewage treatment plant is available. They are in use in many facilities and national parks in Sweden, Canada, US, UK. They are used in holiday homes in Sweden and Finland. The human excreta is usually mixed with sawdust, coconut coir or peat moss to facilitate processing, liquid absorption. Most composting toilets use slow, cold composting conditions, sometimes connected to a secondary external composting step, Composting toilets produce a compost that may be used for horticultural or agricultural soil enrichment if the local regulations allow this. A secondary stage is often needed to allow mesophilic composting to further reduce potential pathogens, the term composting toilet is used quite loosely, and its meaning may vary by country. For example, in English-speaking countries, the term composting is used. In Germany and Scandinavian countries, composting always refers to an aerobic process. This aerobic composting may take place with an increase in temperature due to microbial action, if earth worms are used then there is also no increase in temperature. They also differ from urine-diverting dry toilets where pathogen reduction is achieved through dehydration, Composting toilets target a certain degree of moisture in the composting chamber. Composting toilets usually do not divert urine, offering a waterless urinal in addition to the toilet can help keep excess amounts of urine out of the composting chamber. Composting toilets can be used to implement an ecological sanitation approach for resource recovery, however, this is not recommended as the two terms are not identical. Composting toilets have also been called sawdust toilets, which can be if the amount of aerobic composting taking place in the toilets container is very limited. The Clivus multrum is a type of composting toilet which has a large composting chamber below the toilet seat, Composting toilets can be suitable in areas such as a rural area or a park that lacks a suitable water supply, sewers and sewage treatment. They can also increase the resilience of existing sanitation systems in the face of possible natural disasters such as climate change. Composting toilets can reduce or perhaps eliminate the need for a tank system to reduce environmental footprint. These types of toilets can be used for recovery by reusing sanitized feces and urine as fertilizer
7.
Groundwater pollution
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Groundwater pollution occurs when pollutants are released to the ground and make their way down into groundwater. The pollutant creates a contaminant plume within an aquifer, movement of water and dispersion within the aquifer spreads the pollutant over a wider area. The movement of the plume, called a front, may be analyzed through a hydrological transport model or groundwater model. Analysis of groundwater pollution may focus on soil characteristics and site geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, pollution can also occur from naturally occurring contaminants, such as arsenic or fluoride. Using polluted groundwater causes hazards to health through poisoning or the spread of disease. Different mechanisms have influence on the transport of pollutants, e. g. diffusion, adsorption, precipitation, decay, the interaction of groundwater contamination with surface waters is analyzed by use of hydrology transport models. Contaminants found in cover a broad range of physical, inorganic chemical, organic chemical, bacteriological. Principally, many of the pollutants that play a role in surface water pollution may also be found in polluted groundwater. Arsenic and fluoride have been recognized by the World Health Organization as the most serious inorganic contaminants in drinking-water on a worldwide basis, the metalloid arsenic can occur naturally in groundwater, as seen most frequently in Asia, including in China, India and Bangladesh. In the Ganges Plain of northern India and Bangladesh severe contamination of groundwater by naturally occurring arsenic affects 25% of water wells in the shallower of two regional aquifers, arsenic in groundwater can also be present where there are mining operations or mine waste dumps that will leach arsenic. Natural fluoride in groundwater is of growing concern as deeper groundwater is being used, fluoride can especially be released from acidic volcanic rocks and dispersed volcanic ash when water hardness is low. Pathogens contained in feces can lead to groundwater pollution when they are given the opportunity to reach the groundwater, groundwater that is contaminated with pathogens can lead to fatal fecal-oral transmission of diseases. Nitrate is the most common contaminant in the world’s groundwater. In some low-income countries nitrate levels in groundwater are extremely high and it is also stable under high oxygen conditions. Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L in groundwater can cause blue baby syndrome, Drinking water quality standards in the European Union stipulate less than 50 mg/L for nitrate in drinking water. However, the linkages between nitrates in drinking water and blue baby syndrome have been disputed in other studies, the syndrome outbreaks might be due to other factors than elevated nitrate concentrations in drinking water. Elevated nitrate levels in groundwater can be caused by on-site sanitation and it can therefore have an urban or agricultural origin. Volatile organic compounds are a dangerous contaminant of groundwater and they are generally introduced to the environment through careless industrial practices
8.
Sharecropping
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Sharecropping is a form of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crops produced on their portion of land. Sharecropping has a history and there are a wide range of different situations. Some are governed by tradition, and others by law, legal contract systems such as the Italian mezzadria, the French métayage, the Spanish mediero, or the Islamic system of muqasat, occur widely. Sharecropping has benefits and costs for both the owners and the tenant and it encourages the cropper to remain on the land, solving the harvest rush problem. At the same time, since the cropper pays in shares of his harvest, owners and croppers share the risks of harvests being large or small and of prices being high or low. Because tenants benefit from larger harvests, they have an incentive to work harder, however, by dividing the working force into many individual workers, large farms no longer benefit from economies of scale. On the whole, sharecropping was not as efficient as the gang agriculture of slave plantations. In the U. S. tenant farmers own their own mules and equipment, and sharecroppers do not, Sharecropping occurred extensively in Scotland, Ireland and colonial Africa, and came into wide use in the Southern United States during the Reconstruction era. The South had been devastated by war - planters had ample land, at the same time, most of the former slaves had labor but no money and no land - they rejected the kind of gang labor that typified slavery. A solution was the system focused on cotton, which was the only crop that could generate cash for the croppers, landowners, merchants. Poor white farmers, who previously had done little cotton farming, needed cash as well, jeffery Paige made a distinction between centralized sharecropping found on cotton plantations and the decentralized sharecropping with other crops. The former is characterized by political conservatism and long lasting tenure, tenants are tied to the landlord through the plantation store. Their work is heavily supervised as slave plantations were and this form of tenure tends to be replaced by wage slavery as markets penetrate. Decentralized sharecropping involves virtually no role for the landlord, plots are scattered, peasants manage their own labor, leases are very short which leads to peasant radicalism. This form of tenure becomes more common when markets penetrate, use of the sharecropper system has also been identified in England. It is still used in many poor areas today, notably in Pakistan. It has therefore been seen as an issue of reform in contexts such as the Mexican Revolution. Sharecropping agreements can however be made fairly, as a form of tenant farming or sharefarming that has a variable rental payment, there are three different types of contracts
9.
Lake Providence, Louisiana
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Lake Providence is a town in and the parish seat of East Carroll Parish in northeastern Louisiana, United States. The population was 5,104 at the 2000 census but declined by more than 20 percent to 3,991 in 2010, the towns poverty rate is approximately 55 percent, the average median household income is $16,500, and the average age is 31. The town shares its name with the lake of the Mississippi River. The Lake Providence area first opened for European-American settlement in the late 1830s, New settlers drained the cypress swamps and cleared the land for cultivation. By 1861, at the start of the American Civil War, the town of Lake Providence began with the arrival of the Union Army in the spring of 1862. Under the direction of General Ulysses S. Grant, Lake Providence was established as a supply depot, the soldiers dug a canal between the Mississippi River and Lake Providence. The area was called Soldiers Rest, but Grant subsequently moved his troops south for further temporary residence at Winter Quarters south of Newellton in Tensas Parish. As freed or runaway slaves swarmed into the camp at Lake Providence from surrounding plantations, what began as a simple military supply camp quickly transformed into a city of negroe refugees. By the time Vicksburg, Mississippi fell to the Union in 1863, most planters in the Lake Providence area had fled, there was little trouble finding lessees for the plantations. Winters continued, Many of the white lessees showed far less regard for their hired Negro laborers than the most negligent planter had shown for his slave. Negroes old, or infirm, or too young were weeded out and sent to Federal contraband villages and camps located along the river, in 1863 few lessees paid their labor except in food and clothing. For these items they often charged the Negroes five times the actual value, some lessees realized up to $80,000 profits, paid their labor nothing, and then boasted of their ability to swindle the Negro. A few lessees used their plantations for shipping out stolen cotton or for illegal trade, provost marshals and labor agents often were bribed to shut their eyes to malpractices carried on by the lessees. In June 1864, some Confederate troops raided the south of Lake Providence and seized mules and horses. Winters writes that these raids during the growing season greatly disrupted affairs. During the Union occupation, lessees rarely made as much as half of the cotton crop. This situation persisted until the 1960s, until 1962, no African Americans had been allowed to register to vote in Lake Providence in forty years. That year, however, U. S. District Judge Edwin Ford Hunter, with its large African-American electorate, Lake Providence today remains a stronghold of the Democratic Party, after many of the more conservative whites switched to the Republicans
10.
Plumbing
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Plumbing is any system that conveys fluids for a wide range of applications. Plumbing uses pipes, valves, plumbing fixtures, tanks, heating and cooling, waste removal, and potable water delivery are among the most common uses for plumbing, but it is not limited to these applications. The word derives from the Latin for lead, plumbum, as the first effective pipes used in the Roman era were lead pipes, in the developed world, plumbing infrastructure is critical to public health and sanitation. Boilermakers and pipefitters are not plumbers, although they work with piping as part of their trade, standardized earthen plumbing pipes with broad flanges making use of asphalt for preventing leakages appeared in the urban settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization by 2700 B. C. The Romans used lead pipe inscriptions to prevent water theft, Plumbing reached its early apex in ancient Rome, which saw the introduction of expansive systems of aqueducts, tile wastewater removal, and widespread use of lead pipes. With the Fall of Rome both water supply and sanitation stagnated—or regressed—for well over 1,000 years, improvement was very slow, with little effective progress made until the growth of modern densely populated cities in the 1800s. During this period, public authorities began pressing for better waste disposal systems to be installed. Earlier, the disposal system had merely consisted of collecting waste. Eventually the development of separate, underground water and sewage systems eliminated open sewage ditches, most large cities today pipe solid wastes to sewage treatment plants in order to separate and partially purify the water, before emptying into streams or other bodies of water. For potable water use, galvanized iron piping was commonplace in the United States from the late 1800s until around 1960, after that period, copper piping took over, first soft copper with flared fittings, then with rigid copper tubing utilizing soldered fittings. The use of lead for potable water declined sharply after World War II because of increased awareness of the dangers of lead poisoning, at this time, copper piping was introduced as a better and safer alternative to lead pipes. e. Heating and cooling systems utilizing water to transport thermal energy, as in district heating systems, a water pipe is a pipe or tube, frequently made of plastic or metal, that carries pressurized and treated fresh water to a building, as well as inside the building. For many centuries, lead was the material for water pipes. This was a source of lead-related health problems in the years before the hazards of ingesting lead were fully understood, among these were stillbirths. Lead water pipes were still used in the early 20th century. In addition, lead-tin alloy solder was commonly used to join copper pipes, despite the Romans common use of lead pipes, their aqueducts rarely poisoned people. Unlike other parts of the world where lead pipes cause poisoning, what often causes confusion is the large amount of evidence of widespread lead poisoning, particularly amongst those who would have had easy access to piped water. This was a result of lead being used in cookware and as an additive to processed food and drink
11.
Sanitary sewer
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A sanitary sewer or foul sewer is an underground carriage system specifically for transporting sewage from houses and commercial buildings through pipes to treatment or disposal. Sanitary sewers are part of a system called sewerage or sewage system. Sewage may be treated to water pollution before discharge to surface waters. Sanitary sewers serving industrial areas also carry industrial wastewater, separate sanitary sewer systems are designed to transport sewage alone. In municipalities served by sewers, separate storm drains may be constructed to convey surface runoff directly to surface waters. Sanitary sewers are distinguished from combined sewers, which combine sewage with stormwater runoff in the same pipe, sanitary sewer systems are considered beneficial because they avoid combined sewer overflows. To overcome these disadvantages, some cities built separate sanitary sewers to collect only municipal wastewater, the decision between a combined sewer system or two separate systems is mainly based on need for sewage treatment and cost of providing treatment during heavy rain events. Many cities with combined sewer systems built prior to sewage treatment have not replaced those sewer systems, in the developed world, sewers are pipes from buildings to one or more levels of larger underground trunk mains, which transport the sewage to sewage treatment facilities. Vertical pipes, usually made of precast concrete, called manholes, depending upon site application and use, these vertical pipes can be cylindrical, eccentric or concentric. The manholes are used for access to the pipes for inspection and maintenance. They also facilitate vertical and horizontal angles in otherwise straight pipelines, pipes conveying sewage from an individual building to a common gravity sewer line are called laterals. Branch sewers typically run under streets receiving laterals from buildings along that street, larger cities may have sewers called interceptors receiving flow from multiple trunk sewers. Design and sizing of sanitary sewers considers the population to be served over the life of the sewer, per capita wastewater production. Commercial and industrial flows are considered, but diversion of surface runoff to storm drains eliminates wet weather flow peaks of inefficient combined sewers. Pumps may be necessary where gravity sewers serve areas at lower elevations than the treatment plant. A lift station is a gravity sewer sump with a pump to lift accumulated sewage to a higher elevation, the pump may discharge to another gravity sewer at that location or may discharge through a pressurized force main to some distant location. Most of the solids are removed by the tanks, so the treatment plant can be much smaller than a typical plant. In addition, because of the vast reduction in solid waste, because the wastestream is pressurized, they can be laid just below the ground surface along the lands contour
12.
World Health Organization
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The World Health Organization is a specialised agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health. It was established on 7 April 1948, headquartered in Geneva, the WHO is a member of the United Nations Development Group. Its predecessor, the Health Organization, was an agency of the League of Nations, the constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by 61 countries on 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 24 July 1948. It incorporated the Office international dhygiène publique and the League of Nations Health Organization, since its creation, it has played a leading role in the eradication of smallpox. The WHO is responsible for the World Health Report, an international publication on health, the worldwide World Health Survey. The head of WHO is Margaret Chan, the 2014/2015 proposed budget of the WHO is about US$4 billion. About US$930 million are to be provided by member states with a further US$3 billion to be from voluntary contributions, after failing to get a resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss, the Secretary General of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organisation. Dr. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for a conference on health. The use of the world, rather than international, emphasised the truly global nature of what the organisation was seeking to achieve. The constitution of the World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations and it thus became the first specialised agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$5 million for the 1949 year. Andrija Stampar was the Assemblys first president, and G. Brock Chisholm was appointed Director-General of WHO and its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections, and to improve maternal and child health, nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act was concerning the compilation of statistics on the spread. The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing, in 1947 the WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex, and by 1950 a mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine was under way. In 1955, the eradication programme was launched, although it was later altered in objective. 1965 saw the first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer. In 1958, Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake an initiative to eradicate smallpox. At this point,2 million people were dying from smallpox every year, in 1966, WHO moved into its headquarters building
13.
Lumber
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Lumber, or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber may also refer to currently un-needed furniture, as in Lumber room, or an awkward gait, ultimately derived from the look of unfashionable, Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and it is available in many species, usually hardwoods, but it is also readily available in softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has other uses as well. It is classified more commonly as a softwood than as a hardwood, in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and Britain, the term timber describes sawn wood products, such as floor boards. In the United States and Canada, generally timber describes standing or felled trees, before they are milled into boards, Timber there also describes sawn lumber not less than 5 inches in its smallest dimension. The latter includes the often partly finished lumber used in timber-frame construction, remanufactured lumber is the result of secondary or tertiary processing/cutting of previously milled lumber. Specifically, it is cut for industrial or wood-packaging use. Lumber is cut by ripsaw or resaw to create dimensions that are not usually processed by a primary sawmill, resawing is the splitting of 1-inch through 12-inch hardwood or softwood lumber into two or more thinner pieces of full-length boards. For example, splitting a ten-foot 2×4 into two ten-foot 1×4s is considered resawing, structural lumber may also be produced from recycled plastic and new plastic stock. Its introduction has been opposed by the forestry industry. Blending fiberglass in plastic lumber enhances its strength, durability, logs are converted into timber by being sawn, hewn, or split. Sawing with a rip saw is the most common method, because sawing allows logs of lower quality, with grain and large knots. There are various types of sawing, Plain sawn —A log sawn through without adjusting the position of the log, quarter sawn and rift sawn—These terms have been confused in history but generally mean lumber sawn so the annual rings are reasonably perpendicular to the sides of the lumber. Boxed heart—The pith remains within the piece with some allowance for exposure, heart center—the center core of a log. Free of heart center —A side-cut timber without any pith, free of knots —No knots are present. Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut to standardized width and depth, carpenters extensively use dimensional lumber in framing wooden buildings. Common sizes include 2×4, 2×6, and 4×4, the length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth
14.
Plywood
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Plywood is a sheet material manufactured from thin layers or plies of wood veneer that are glued together with adjacent layers having their wood grain rotated up to 90 degrees to one another. It is a wood from the family of manufactured boards which includes medium-density fibreboard. All plywoods bind resin and wood fibre sheets to form a composite material, there is usually an odd number of plies, so that the sheet is balanced—this reduces warping. Because plywood is bonded with grains running against one another and with an odd number of composite parts, the word ply derives from the French verb plier, to fold, from the Latin verb plico, from the ancient Greek verb πλέκω. In 1797 Samuel Bentham applied for patents covering several machines to produce veneers, in his patent applications, he described the concept of laminating several layers of veneer with glue to form a thicker piece – the first description of what we now call plywood. Samuel Bentham was a British naval engineer with many shipbuilding inventions to his credit. Veneers at the time of Bentham were flat sawn, rift sawn or quarter sawn, i. e. cut along or across the log manually in different angles to the grain and thus limited in width and length. One can thus presume that rotary lathe plywood manufacture was a process in France in the 1860s. Plywood was introduced into the United States in 1865 and industrial production started shortly after, in 1928, the first standard-sized 4 ft by 8 ft plywood sheets were introduced in the United States for use as a general building material. Artists use plywood as a support for paintings to replace traditional canvas or cardboard. Ready-made artist boards for oil painting in three-layered plywood were produced, in India, plywood is more commonly called Kitply after a leading brand which pioneered the concept of waterproof plywood in the early 1970s. A typical plywood panel has face veneers of a higher grade than the core veneers, the principal function of the core layers is to increase the separation between the outer layers where the bending stresses are highest, thus increasing the panels resistance to bending. As a result, thicker panels can span greater distances under the same loads, in bending, the maximum stress occurs in the outermost layers, one in tension, the other in compression. Bending stress decreases from the maximum at the layers to nearly zero at the central layer. Shear stress, by contrast, is higher in the center of the panel, the most common dimension is 1.2 by 2.4 metres or the slightly larger imperial dimension of 4 feet ×8 feet. Plies vary in thickness from 1.4 mm to 4.3 mm, the number of plies—which is always odd—depends on the thickness and grade of the sheet. Roofing can use the thinner 5/8 plywood, subfloors are at least 3/4 thick, the thickness depending on the distance between floor joists. T&G plywood is usually found in the 1/2 to 1 range, hardwood plywood is made out of wood from angiosperm trees and used for demanding end uses
15.
Floor plan
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Dimensions are usually drawn between the walls to specify room sizes and wall lengths. Floor plans may also include details of fixtures like sinks, water heaters, furnaces, floor plans may include notes for construction to specify finishes, construction methods, or symbols for electrical items. Similar to a map the orientation of the view is downward from above, but unlike a conventional map, objects below this level are seen, objects at this level are shown cut in plan-section, and objects above this vertical position within the structure are omitted or shown dashed. Plan view or planform is defined as an orthographic projection of an object on a horizontal plane. The term may be used in general to any drawing showing the physical layout of objects. For example, it may denote the arrangement of the objects at an exhibition. Drawings are now reproduced using plotters and large format xerographic copiers and this convention maintains the same orientation of the floor and ceilings plans - looking down from above. RCPs are used by designers and architects to demonstrate lighting, visible mechanical features, a floor plan is not a top view or birds eye view. It is a drawing to scale of the layout of a floor in a building. A top view or birds eye view does not show an orthogonally projected plane cut at the typical 4 foot height above the floor level, a floor plan could show, Interior walls and hallways Restrooms Windows and doors Appliances such as stoves, refrigerators, water heater etc. In other words, a plan is a section viewed from the top, in such views, the portion of the object above the plane is omitted to reveal what lies beyond. In the case of a plan, the roof and upper portion of the walls may typically be omitted. Roof plans are orthographic projections, but they are not sections as their plane is outside of the object. A plan is a method of depicting the internal arrangement of a 3-dimensional object in two dimensions. It is often used in drawing and is traditionally crosshatched. The style of crosshatching indicates the type of material the section passes through, a 3D floor plan can be defined as a virtual model of a building floor plan. Its often used to better convey architectural plans to individuals not familiar with floor plans, despite the purpose of floor plans originally being to depict 3D layouts in a 2D manner, technological expansion has made rendering 3D models much more cost effective. 3D plans show a depth of image and are often complimented by 3D furniture in the room
16.
Hexagon
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In geometry, a hexagon is a six sided polygon or 6-gon. The total of the angles of any hexagon is 720°. A regular hexagon has Schläfli symbol and can also be constructed as an equilateral triangle, t. A regular hexagon is defined as a hexagon that is both equilateral and equiangular and it is bicentric, meaning that it is both cyclic and tangential. The common length of the sides equals the radius of the circumscribed circle, all internal angles are 120 degrees. A regular hexagon has 6 rotational symmetries and 6 reflection symmetries, the longest diagonals of a regular hexagon, connecting diametrically opposite vertices, are twice the length of one side. Like squares and equilateral triangles, regular hexagons fit together without any gaps to tile the plane, the cells of a beehive honeycomb are hexagonal for this reason and because the shape makes efficient use of space and building materials. The Voronoi diagram of a triangular lattice is the honeycomb tessellation of hexagons. It is not usually considered a triambus, although it is equilateral, the maximal diameter, D is twice the maximal radius or circumradius, R, which equals the side length, t. The minimal diameter or the diameter of the circle, d, is twice the minimal radius or inradius. If a regular hexagon has successive vertices A, B, C, D, E, F, the regular hexagon has Dih6 symmetry, order 12. There are 3 dihedral subgroups, Dih3, Dih2, and Dih1, and 4 cyclic subgroups, Z6, Z3, Z2 and these symmetries express 9 distinct symmetries of a regular hexagon. John Conway labels these by a letter and group order, r12 is full symmetry, and a1 is no symmetry. These two forms are duals of each other and have half the order of the regular hexagon. The i4 forms are regular hexagons flattened or stretched along one symmetry direction and it can be seen as an elongated rhombus, while d2 and p2 can be seen as horizontally and vertically elongated kites. G2 hexagons, with sides parallel are also called hexagonal parallelogons. Each subgroup symmetry allows one or more degrees of freedom for irregular forms, only the g6 subgroup has no degrees of freedom but can seen as directed edges. Hexagons of symmetry g2, i4, and r12, as parallelogons can tessellate the Euclidean plane by translation, other hexagon shapes can tile the plane with different orientations
17.
Toilet paper
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It also acts as a layer of protection for the hands during these processes. It is sold as a strip of perforated paper wrapped around a paperboard core for storage in a dispenser near a toilet. Most modern toilet paper in the world is designed to decompose in septic tanks, whereas some other bathroom. The use of paper for hygiene purposes has been recorded in China in the 6th century AD, modern commercial toilet paper originated in the 19th century, with a patent for roll-based dispensers being made in 1883. During the Ming dynasty, it was recorded in 1393 that a supply of 720,000 sheets of toilet paper were produced for the general use of the imperial court at the capital of Nanjing. In Ancient Rome, a sponge on a stick was commonly used and these are all cited in the classic Biblical and Talmudic Medicine by the German physician Julius Preuss. Gargantua dismisses the use of paper as ineffective, rhyming that, Who his foul tail with paper wipes and he concludes that the neck of a goose, that is well downed provides an optimum cleansing medium. The rise of publishing by the century led to the use of newspapers. In many parts of the world, especially where toilet paper or the necessary plumbing for disposal may be unavailable or unaffordable, also, in many parts of the world such as India, people consider using water a much cleaner and more sanitary practice than using paper. Joseph Gayetty is widely credited with being the inventor of modern commercially available toilet paper in the United States, gayettys paper, first introduced in 1857, was available as late as the 1920s. Gayettys Medicated Paper was sold in packages of flat sheets, watermarked with the inventors name, original advertisements for the product used the tagline The greatest necessity of the age. Gayettys medicated paper for the water-closet, seth Wheeler of Albany, New York, obtained the earliest United States patents for toilet paper and dispensers, the types of which eventually were in common use in that country, in 1883. Moist toilet paper, called wet wipes, was first introduced in the United Kingdom by Andrex in the 1990s and it has been promoted as being a better method of cleaning than dry toilet paper after defecation, and may be useful for women during menstruation. It was promoted as a product but it has been implicated in the creation of fatbergs. By 2016, some municipalities had begun education campaigns advising people not to flush used wet wipes, more than seven billion rolls of toilet paper are sold yearly in the U. S. alone. Americans use an average of 23.6 rolls per capita per year, the average measures of a modern roll of toilet paper is ~10 cm wide, ø12 cm and weighs about 227 grams. An alternative method of packing the sheets uses interleaved sheets in boxes, hard single ply paper has been used as well as soft multi-ply. Manufactured toilet paper sheet in the United States was sized 4 1/2 x 4 1/2, since 1999 the size of a sheet has been shrinking, Kimberly-Clark reduced the length of a sheet to 4.1
18.
Lunar phase
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The lunar phase or phase of the moon is the shape of the illuminated portion of the Moon as seen by an observer on Earth. The lunar phases change cyclically as the Moon orbits the Earth, according to the positions of the Moon. The Moons rotation is locked by the Earths gravity, therefore the same lunar surface always faces Earth. This face is variously sunlit depending on the position of the Moon in its orbit, therefore, the portion of this hemisphere that is visible to an observer on Earth can vary from about 100% to 0%. The lunar terminator is the boundary between the illuminated and darkened hemispheres, each of the four intermediate lunar phases is roughly seven days but this varies slightly due to the elliptical shape of the Moons orbit. Aside from some craters near the lunar poles such as Shoemaker, all parts of the Moon see around 14.77 days of sunlight, in Western culture, the four principal lunar phases are new moon, first quarter, full moon, and third quarter. These are the instants when the Moons apparent geocentric celestial longitude minus the Suns apparent geocentric longitude is 0°, 90°, 180° and 270°. Each of these phases is instantaneous, lasting theoretically zero time, during the intervals between principal phases, the Moon appears either crescent-shaped or gibbous. These shapes, and the periods of time when the Moon shows them, are called the intermediate phases. They last, on average, one-quarter of a month, roughly 7.38 days, but their durations vary slightly because the Moons orbit is slightly elliptical. The descriptor waxing is used for a phase when the Moons apparent size is increasing, from new moon toward full moon. As the moon waxes, the lunar phases progress through new moon, crescent moon, first-quarter moon, gibbous moon, the moon is then said to wane as it passes through the gibbous moon, third-quarter moon, crescent moon and back to new moon. The terms old moon and new moon are not interchangeable, the old moon is a waning sliver until the moment it aligns with the sun and begins to wax, at which point it becomes new again. Half moon is used to mean the first- and third-quarter moons, while the term quarter refers to the extent of the moons cycle around the Earth. When a crescent Moon occurs, the phenomenon of earthshine may be apparent, in the Northern Hemisphere, if the left side of the Moon is dark then the light part is growing, and the Moon is referred to as waxing. If the right side of the Moon is dark then the part is shrinking. Assuming that the viewer is in the hemisphere, the right portion of the Moon is the part that is always growing. Nearer the Equator the Moon with its terminator will appear apparently horizontal during the morning and evening, the crescent Moon can open upward or downward, with the horns of the crescent pointing up or down, respectively
19.
Urban legend
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These legends can be used for entertainment purposes, as well as for semi-serious explanations for random events such as disappearances and strange objects. Despite its name, an urban legend does not necessarily originate in an urban area, rather, the term is used to differentiate modern legend from traditional folklore of pre-industrial times. For this reason, sociologists and folklorists prefer the contemporary legend. Because people frequently allege that such tales happened to a friend of a friend, Urban legends are spread by any media, including newspapers, e-mail and social media. In America in 1938 a radio dramatization of The War of the Worlds supposedly caused mass panic, in 2005, a widespread legend claimed that a large percentage of people have a biological father who is not their assumed father. Some urban legends have passed through the years only minor changes to suit regional variations. More recent legends tend to reflect modern circumstances, like the story of people ambushed and anesthetized, who awaken minus one kidney, the term urban legend, as used by folklorists, has appeared in print since at least 1968. Jan Harold Brunvand, professor of English at the University of Utah, many urban legends are framed as complete stories with plot and characters. The compelling appeal of an urban legend is its elements of mystery, horror. Often they serve as cautionary tales, some urban legends are morality tales that depict someone, usually a child, acting in a disagreeable manner, only to wind up in trouble, hurt, or dead. As Jan Brunvand points out antecedent legends including some of the motifs, themes, the teller of an urban legend may claim it happened to a friend, which serves to personalize, authenticate and enhance the power of the narrative while distancing the teller. Many urban legends depict horrific crimes, contaminated foods, or other situations which would affect many people. Anyone believing such stories might feel compelled to warn loved ones, not seldom, news organizations, school officials and even police departments have issued warnings concerning the latest threat. A fax received at the Nassau County, Florida fire department was forwarded to police, even the Minister of Defence for Canada was taken in by the same legend, he forwarded an urgent security warning to all Ontario Members of Parliament. Many urban legends are essentially extended jokes, told as if they were true events, persistent urban legends often maintain a degree of plausibility, for instance a serial killer deliberately hiding in the back seat of a car. One such example since the 1970s has been the rumor that the Procter & Gamble Company was associated with Satan-worshippers because of details within its nineteenth-century trademark. The legend interrupted the companys business to the point that it stopped using the trademark, the coinage leads in turn to the terms FOAFlore and FOAFtale. Here the authors make a connection between urban legends and popular folklore, such as Grimms Fairy Tales where similar themes and motifs arise
20.
Squat toilet
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A squat toilet is a toilet used by squatting, rather than sitting. There are several types of toilets, but they all consist essentially of toilet pan or bowl at floor level. Such a toilet pan is called a squatting pan. The only exception is a squat toilet, which is of the same height as a sitting toilet. It is in theory possible to squat over sitting toilets. A squat toilet may use a seal and therefore be a flush toilet, or it can be without a water seal. The term squat only refers to the expected defecation posture and not any other aspects of toilet technology, squat toilets are arranged at floor level which requires the individual to squat on bent knees. In contrast to a pedestal or a sitting toilet the opening level is located with the ground, squat toilets are sometimes called eastern style toilets because they can be found in various countries including Japan, China, India and the Middle East. Conversely, sitting toilets are referred to as western style toilets. Squatting slabs can be made of porcelain, stainless steel, fibreglass, or in the case of low-cost versions in developing countries, with concrete, ferrocement, plastic, or wood covered with linoleum. Slabs can also be made of wood, but need to be treated with preservatives, such as paint or linoleum, to prevent rotting, the standing surface of the squatting pan should be kept clean and dry in order to prevent disease transmission and to limit odors. Squat toilets are usually easier to clean than sitting toilets, except one has to bend down further if the squatting pan needs manual scrubbing. They can be cleaned by using a mop and hose, together with the rest of the space in the toilet room or cubicle. Much of the population use squat toilets, especially in rural areas. Squat toilets are common in many Asian countries, including Japan and they are also common in India, China, North Korea, South Korea, Singapore, Myanmar, Iran and Taiwan. People in sub-Saharan countries, especially in areas, for example in Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, Tanzania. Countries in the Middle East and in Northern Africa seem to often have both types of toilets, sitting and squatting, in Southern and Eastern Europe including parts of France, Greece, Italy, Balkans, and Russia they are common, especially in public restrooms. In Muslim or Hindu cultures the prevalence of squat toilets is generally quite high, people in places like Australia, New Zealand, and Northern and Western Europe generally do not use squat toilets
21.
Human feces
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Human feces are the feces of the human digestive system, including bacteria. They vary significantly in appearance, according to the state of the system, diet. Normally human feces are semisolid, with a mucus coating, small pieces of harder, less moist feces can sometimes be seen impacted on the distal end. This is a normal occurrence when a prior bowel movement is incomplete, and feces are returned from the rectum to the intestine, in the medical literature, the term stool is more commonly used than feces. Human feces together with human urine are collectively referred to as waste or human excreta. Containing human feces, and preventing spreading of pathogens from human feces via the route, are the main goals of sanitation. The Bristol stool scale is a medical aid designed to classify the form of human feces into seven categories. Sometimes referred to in the UK as the Meyers Scale, it was developed by K. W. Heaton at the University of Bristol and was first published in the Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology in 1997. The form of the stool depends on the time it spends in the colon, entirely Liquid Types 1 and 2 indicate constipation. Types 3 and 4 are optimal, especially the latter, as these are the easiest to pass, Types 5–7 are associated with increasing tendency to diarrhea or urgency. Meconium is a babys first feces. Human fecal matter varies significantly in appearance, depending on diet, Human feces ordinarily has a light to dark brown coloration, which results from a combination of bile, and bilirubin derivatives of stercobilin and urobilin, from dead red blood cells. Normally it is semisolid, with a mucus coating, another cause of yellowing is a condition known as Gilberts Syndrome. Yellow stool can also indicate that food is passing through the digestive tract relatively quickly, yellow stool can be found in people with gastroesophageal reflux disease. Stool that is pale or grey may be caused by insufficient bile output due to such as cholecystitis, gallstones, giardia parasitic infection, hepatitis, chronic pancreatitis. Bile salts from the liver give stool its brownish color, if there is decreased bile output, stool is much lighter in color. Feces can be due to the presence of red blood cells that have been in the intestines long enough to be broken down by digestive enzymes. This is known as melena, and is due to bleeding in the upper digestive tract
22.
Open defecation
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Open defecation is the practice of people defecating outside and not into a designated toilet. The term is used in literature about water, sanitation. Open defecation causes public health problems in areas where people defecate in fields, urban parks, rivers, eliminating open defecation is the main aim of improving access to sanitation worldwide and is a proposed indicator for sustainable development goals. Even if toilets are available, people still need to be convinced to refrain from open defecation, therefore, the need for behavioural change is critical in addition to the provision of toilets. A preference for open defecation may be due to cultural practices or lack of access to toilets. Extreme poverty and lack of sanitation are statistically linked, eliminating open defecation is said to be an important part of development efforts. About one billion people, or 15 percent of the global population, India has the highest number of people practicing open defecation, around 490 million people, or nearly a third of the population. Most of it occurs in areas, where the prevalence is estimated at 52 percent of the population, as opposed to urban areas. The other countries with the highest number of people openly defecating are Indonesia, followed by Pakistan, Nigeria, Ethiopia, open defecation perpetuates the vicious cycle of disease and poverty and is widely regarded as an affront to personal dignity. The JMP is a joint program by WHO and UNICEF to monitor the water, for monitoring purposes, two categories were created, improved sanitation and unimproved sanitation. Open defecation falls into the latter category and this means that people practicing open defecation are counted having no access to improved sanitation. In 2013 World Toilet Day was celebrated as an official UN day for the first time, open defecation free is a phrase first used in community-led total sanitation programs and has now entered use in other contexts. The original meaning was simply that all community members are using sanitation systems rather than practising open defecation, further more stringent criteria have been added in some countries where CLTS programs exist. This definition is part of the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, in developing countries however, the situation is entirely different. Here, open defecation is a practice associated with poverty and exclusion particularly when it comes to less remote and less rural areas. The Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation of UNICEF, the figures are segregated by rural and urban areas and by wealth quintiles. This program is tasked to monitor progress towards the millennium development goal relating to drinking water, as open defecation is one example of unimproved sanitation, it is being monitored by JMP for each country and results published on a regular basis. The figures on open defecation used to be lumped together with figures on unimproved sanitation but are collected separately since 2010
23.
Fecal sludge
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FSM is particularly important in quite densely populated areas where much of the population is not connected to sewerage network, as is the case in most urban areas of developing countries. FSM is generally carried out as a service by local governments, water authorities, for citywide programs in developing countries, fecal sludge collection may be either on a scheduled or on a call-for-service basis. If the fecal sludge is liquid enough, it is collected by using vacuum pumps or centrifugal style booster pumps. A variety of manual and motorized devices designed to excavate thick and viscous sludge, the collected fecal sludge may be transported to treatment plants via a vacuum truck, a motorcycle tanker, or even a hand cart. Often, mobile or permanent transfer stations are used to improve the efficiency of fecal sludge transportation, a variety of mechanized and non-mechanized technologies may be used, including constructed wetlands, anaerobic digestion, and waste stabilization ponds. These have the potential to offset some of the costs of the program, however, value addition all the way to biogas, biodiesel and electricity is difficult to achieve in practice due to technological and operational challenges. Collectively, the collection, transport, treatment and reuse of excreta constitute the chain of fecal sludge management. It may include a host of options including on-site and offsite treatment, and the dispersal or capture and processing of byproducts of the treatment process, such as biogas, compost, the term septage is popular in the United States since at least 1992. It has also used in projects by the United States Agency for International Development in Asia. Pit latrines generate fecal sludge when the pits are emptied, even though these toilets are classified as dry toilets. However, other types of dry toilets - those that are designed to be emptied, without the addition of water - do not generate fecal sludge but rather dried feces or compost. So, fecal sludge can be defined as human excrement that is extracted before it is fully sanitized, worldwide there is an increasing interest and awareness of FSM issues, particularly in Africa and Asia. This is evidenced by some research and development projects in the area of FSM. In many developing countries, fecal sludge is not properly managed, FSM programs can be drivers of sanitation improvement by encouraging OSSF upgrades that reduce the frequency of desludging events, and therefore the costs. These products may include water for agriculture and industry, fertilizer, soil amendment, biogas, there are many pilot, demonstration and full-scale FSM programs now operating in Asia and Africa, but few that have demonstrated a sustained impact upon the value chain. FSM services can be provided as demand based, scheduled desludging, under either mechanism, OSSFs are desludged on a periodic basis or when an inspection by a competent authority indicates desludging is needed. Oxfam has been doing research and advocacy in this area and has documented these elements of programs in the Philippines in a step by step process. Fecal sludge is the waste, wastewater, trash and debris that accumulates in pit latrines
24.
Developing country
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Also, the general term less-developed country should not be confused with the specific least developed country. The term developing describes a currently observed situation and not a dynamic or expected direction of progress, since the late 1990s developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than the developed ones. There is criticism of the use of the developing country. The term implies inferiority of a country or undeveloped country compared with a developed country. It assumes a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of development which a few countries, such as Cuba and Bhutan. An alternative measurement that has suggested is that of gross national happiness. Countries on the boundary between developed and developing are often categorized under the newly industrialized countries. In the 2016 edition of its World Development Indicators, the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between “developed” and “developing” countries in the presentation of its data, nobody has ever agreed on a definition for these terms in the first place. Various terms are used for whatever is not a developed country, terms used include less developed country or less economically developed country, and for the more extreme, least developed country or least economically developed country. But according to the United Nations Statistics Division, There is no established convention for the designation of developed, the World Bank classifies countries into four income groups. These are set each year on July 1, economies were divided according to 2016 GNI per capita using the following ranges of income, Low income countries had GNI per capita of US$1,025 or less. Lower middle income countries had GNI per capita between US$1,026 and US$4,035, upper middle income countries had GNI per capita between US$4,036 and US$12,475. High income countries had GNI per capita above US$12,476 and this may be by absolute numbers or country ranking. The UN has developed the Human Development Index, an indicator of the above statistics. The UN sets Millennium Development Goals from a blueprint developed by all of the countries and leading development institutions. There is an association between low income and high population growth. The terms utilized when discussing developing countries refer to the intent, other terms sometimes used are less developed countries, least economically developed countries, underdeveloped nations or Third World nations, and non-industrialized nations. Conversely, developed countries, most economically developed countries, First World nations and that is, LEDCs are the poorest subset of LDCs
25.
Rural area
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In general, a rural area or countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. Whatever is not urban is considered rural, typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas are rural, though so are others such as forests. Different countries have varying definitions of rural for statistical and administrative purposes, in Canada, the census division has been used to represent regions and census consolidated sub-divisions have been used to represent communities. Intermediate regions have 15 to 49 percent of their living in a rural community. Predominantly urban regions have less than 15 percent of their living in a rural community. Predominantly rural regions are classified as rural metro-adjacent, rural non-metro-adjacent and rural northern, following Ehrensaft, as well, rural northern regions encompass all of the Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. Statistics Canada defines rural for their population counts and this definition has changed over time. Typically, it has referred to the population living outside settlements of 1,000 or less inhabitants, the current definition states that census rural is the population outside settlements with fewer than 1,000 inhabitants and a population density below 400 people per square kilometre. 84% of the United States inhabitants live in suburban and urban areas, Rural areas occupy the remaining 90 percent. The U. S. Census Bureau, the USDAs Economic Research Service, an urbanized area consists of a central surrounding areas whose population is greater than 50,000. USDA The USDAs Office of Rural Development may define rural by various population thresholds, for example, a metropolitan county is one that contains an urbanized area, or one that has a twenty-five percent commuter rate to an urbanized area regardless of population. In 2014, the USDA updated their rural / non-rural area definitions based on the 2010 Census counts, Rural health definitions can be different for establishing under-served areas or health care accessibility in rural areas of the United States. This became the Goldsmith Modification definition of rural, health care delivery in rural areas of the United States can be challenging. From 2005-2011, the rate of potentially preventable hospitalizations for acute conditions was highest in rural areas, in Brazil, theres different notions of rural area and countryside. Rural areas are any place outside an urban development and its carried by informal usage. Otherwise, countryside are officially defined as all municipalities outside the capitals metropolitan region. Some states as Mato Grosso do Sul doesnt have any metropolitan region, thus all of the state, Rio de Janeiro is singular in Brazil and its de facto a metropolitan state, as circa 70% of its population are located in Greater Rio
26.
Wilderness
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Wilderness or wildland is a natural environment on Earth that has not been significantly modified by human activity. Some governments establish them by law or administrative acts, usually in land tracts that have not been modified by human action in great measure, the main feature of them is that human activity is restricted significantly. These actions seek not only to preserve what already exists, but also to promote and advance a natural expression, Wilderness areas can be found in preserves, conservation preserves, National Forests, National Parks and even in urban areas along rivers, gulches or otherwise undeveloped areas. These areas are considered important for the survival of species, biodiversity, ecological studies, conservation, solitude. Wilderness is deeply valued for cultural, spiritual, moral, some nature writers believe wilderness areas are vital for the human spirit and creativity. They may also preserve historic genetic traits and provide habitat for flora and fauna that may be difficult to recreate in zoos. The word wilderness derives from the notion of other words. The mere presence or activity of people does not disqualify an area from being wilderness, many ecosystems that are, or have been, inhabited or influenced by activities of people may still be considered wild. This way of looking at wilderness includes areas within which natural processes operate without human interference, the WILD Foundation states that wilderness areas have two dimensions, they must be biologically intact and legally protected. The World Conservation Union classifies wilderness at two levels, Ia and Ib, activities on the margins of specific wilderness areas, such as fire suppression and the interruption of animal migration also affect the interior of wildernesses. Especially in wealthier, industrialized nations, it has a legal meaning as well. Many nations have designated wilderness, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, looked at through the lens of the visual arts, nature and wildness have been important subjects in various epochs of world history. An early tradition of landscape art occurred in the Tang Dynasty, the tradition of representing nature as it is became one of the aims of Chinese painting and was a significant influence in Asian art. In the 13th century, Shih Erh Chi recommended avoiding painting scenes lacking any places made inaccessible by nature, for most of human history, the greater part of the Earths terrain was wilderness, and human attention was concentrated in settled areas. The first known laws to protect parts of nature date back to the Babylonian Empire, Ashoka, the Great Mauryan King, defined the first laws in the world to protect flora and fauna in Edicts of Ashoka around 3rd Century B. C. In the Middle Ages, the Kings of England initiated one of the world’s first conscious efforts to natural areas. They were motivated by a desire to be able to hunt wild animals in private hunting preserves rather than a desire to protect wilderness, nevertheless, in order to have animals to hunt they would have to protect wildlife from subsistence hunting and the land from villagers gathering firewood. Similar measures were introduced in other European countries, the idea of wilderness having intrinsic value emerged in the Western world in the 19th century
27.
Composting toilet
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A composting toilet is a type of dry toilet or micro-flush toilet system that uses a predominantly aerobic process to treat human excreta by composting or managed aerobic decomposition. These toilets generally use little to no water and may be used as an alternative to flush toilets that are coupled with septic systems or city sewer systems and they have found use in situations where no suitable water supply or sewer system and sewage treatment plant is available. They are in use in many facilities and national parks in Sweden, Canada, US, UK. They are used in holiday homes in Sweden and Finland. The human excreta is usually mixed with sawdust, coconut coir or peat moss to facilitate processing, liquid absorption. Most composting toilets use slow, cold composting conditions, sometimes connected to a secondary external composting step, Composting toilets produce a compost that may be used for horticultural or agricultural soil enrichment if the local regulations allow this. A secondary stage is often needed to allow mesophilic composting to further reduce potential pathogens, the term composting toilet is used quite loosely, and its meaning may vary by country. For example, in English-speaking countries, the term composting is used. In Germany and Scandinavian countries, composting always refers to an aerobic process. This aerobic composting may take place with an increase in temperature due to microbial action, if earth worms are used then there is also no increase in temperature. They also differ from urine-diverting dry toilets where pathogen reduction is achieved through dehydration, Composting toilets target a certain degree of moisture in the composting chamber. Composting toilets usually do not divert urine, offering a waterless urinal in addition to the toilet can help keep excess amounts of urine out of the composting chamber. Composting toilets can be used to implement an ecological sanitation approach for resource recovery, however, this is not recommended as the two terms are not identical. Composting toilets have also been called sawdust toilets, which can be if the amount of aerobic composting taking place in the toilets container is very limited. The Clivus multrum is a type of composting toilet which has a large composting chamber below the toilet seat, Composting toilets can be suitable in areas such as a rural area or a park that lacks a suitable water supply, sewers and sewage treatment. They can also increase the resilience of existing sanitation systems in the face of possible natural disasters such as climate change. Composting toilets can reduce or perhaps eliminate the need for a tank system to reduce environmental footprint. These types of toilets can be used for recovery by reusing sanitized feces and urine as fertilizer
28.
Pail closet
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A pail closet or pail privy was a room used for the disposal of human excreta, under the pail system of waste removal. The closet was a small outhouse which contained a seat, underneath which a portable receptacle was placed and this bucket, into which the user would defecate, was removed and emptied by the local authority on a regular basis. The contents would either be incinerated or composted into fertiliser, the pail closet was an evolution of the midden closet, an impractical and unsanitary amenity considered a nuisance to public health. The pail system was popular in France and England, particularly in the historic Lancashire town of Rochdale, the pail closet was not without its own problems, if the pail was not emptied on a regular basis, it overflowed and became unhygienic. Some manufacturers lined the pail with absorbent materials, and other designs used mixtures of dry earth or ash to disguise the smell, improved water supplies and sewerage systems in England led directly to the replacement of the pail closet during the early 20th century. Municipal collection of pail toilets continued in Australia into the half of the twentieth century. In the western world, it has now been almost completely replaced by the flush toilet, pail closets were used to dispose of human excreta, dirty water, and general household waste such as kitchen refuse and sweepings. The pail closet system was one of methods of waste disposal in common use in the 19th century, others of which were the privy midden system, the pail system. By 1869, Manchester had a population of about 354,000 people who were served by about 10,000 water closets and 38,000 middensteads. An investigation of the condition of the sewer network revealed that it was choked up with an accumulation of solid filth. Such problems forced the city authorities to consider methods of dealing with human excretion. Manchester was one city and by 1877 its authorities had replaced about 40,000 middens with pail and midden closets. The soil surrounding the old middens was cleared out, connections with drains and sewers removed, the midden closet was a development of the privy, which had evolved from the primitive fosse ditch. Midden closets were used in the latter part of the 19th century but were rapidly falling out of favour. A Mr Redgrave, in a speech to the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1876, the 1868 Rivers Pollution Commission reported two years later, privies and ashpits are continually to be seen full to overflowing and as filthy as can be. These middens are cleaned out whenever notice is given that they need it, probably once half-yearly on an average, midden closets were, therefore, generally insanitary and were also difficult to empty and clean. This closet was also designed with an opening through which deodorising material could be scattered over the top of the pit. A special ventilation shaft was also installed and it was widespread in Australia too
29.
Night soil
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Night soil is a euphemism for human feces collected at night from cesspools, privies, etc. and sometimes used as a fertilizer. Another definition is untreated excreta transported without water, Night soil was produced as a result of a sanitation system in areas without sewer systems or septic tanks. In this system of management, the human feces are collected without dilution with water. Feces were excreted into a container such as a chamber pot, the excrement in the pail was often covered with earth, which may have contributed to the term night soil. Often the deposition or excretion occurred within the residence, such as in a shophouse and this system may still be used in isolated rural areas or in urban slums in developing countries. The material was collected for temporary storage and disposed of depending on local custom, in urban areas, a night soil collector arrived regularly, at varying time periods depending on the supply and demand for night soil collection. Usually this occurred during the night, giving the soil its name. In isolated rural areas such as in farms, the household usually disposed of the soil themselves. Human excreta may be attractive as fertilizer because of the demand for fertilizer. In areas where soil is of poor quality, the local population may weigh the risk of using night soil. The use of unprocessed human feces as fertilizer is a practice as it may contain disease-causing pathogens. Nevertheless, in developing nations it is still widespread. These risks are reduced by proper fecal sludge management, e. g. via composting, the safe reduction of human excreta into compost is possible. Some municipalities create compost from the sludge, but then recommend that it only be used on flower beds. Some claims have made that this is dangerous or inappropriate without the expensive removal of heavy metals. The use of sewage as fertilizer was common in ancient Attica, the sewage system of ancient Athens collected the sewage of the city in a large reservoir and then channelled it to the Cephissus river valley for use as fertilizer. The term is known, or even infamous, among the generations that were born in parts of China or Chinatowns before 1960, the collection method is generally very manual and heavily relies on close human contact with the waste. The collector would hang full honey buckets onto each end of a pole he carried on his shoulder, hong Kong has a similar euphemism, 倒夜香 dàoyèxiāng, which literally means pour night fragrant
30.
Rochdale
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Rochdale is surrounded by several smaller settlements which together form the Metropolitan Borough of Rochdale, population 211,699. Rochdale is the largest settlement and administrative centre, with a population of 107,926. Historically a part of Lancashire, Rochdales recorded history begins with an entry in the Domesday Book of 1086 under Recedham Manor, the ancient parish of Rochdale was a division of the hundred of Salford and one of the largest ecclesiastical parishes in England comprising several townships. By 1251, Rochdale had become important enough to have granted a Royal charter. Subsequently, Rochdale flourished into a centre of northern Englands woollen trade, Rochdale rose to prominence during the 19th century as a major mill town and centre for textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution. It was a boomtown of the Industrial Revolution, and amongst the first ever industrialised towns. The Rochdale Canal—one of the major navigable broad canals of the United Kingdom—was a highway of commerce during this time used for the haulage of cotton, wool and coal to and from the area. The socioeconomic change brought by the success of Rochdales textile industry in the 19th century led to its rise to borough status, however, during the 20th century Rochdales spinning capacity declined towards an eventual halt. Rochdale is commonly cited as the birthplace of the modern Co-operative Movement, the Rochdale Equitable Pioneers Society was founded in 1844 by 28 local residents as a response to the high cost and frequent adulteration of basic foodstuffs by shopkeepers at the time. The Pioneers were notable for combining the notion of the patronage dividend alongside investing trading surplus for member benefit, the Rochdale Principles, the set of ideals which underpinned the society, are still used, in updated form, by the International Co-operative Alliance to this day. The Rochdale Pioneers shop was the precursor to The Co-operative Group, Rochdale today is a predominantly residential town. Rochdale Town Hall—a Grade I listed building—dates from 1871 and is one of the United Kingdoms finest examples of Victorian Gothic revival architecture, Rochdale seems to be named from its position on the River Roch but is recorded as Recedham in the Domesday Book. The name is derived from Old English reced meaning hall, and ham, over time, the name changed to Rachedale and eventually Rochdale. The rivers name is a back-formation from the Old English name, its name is /ˈroʊtʃ/, Rochdale however, is pronounced /ˈrɒtʃdeɪl/, with a short o. A Roman road, leading from Mamucium to Eboracum, crossed the moors at Blackstone Edge, during the time of the Danelaw, Rochdale was subjected to incursions by the Danes on the Saxons. Rochdale appears in the Domesday Book as Recedham, at the time of the Norman Conquest the manor was held by a Saxon thegn, Gamel. John Byron bought the manor in 1638 and it was sold by the poet, Lord Byron, in 1823, to the Deardens, who hold the title. Rochdale had no manor house but the Orchard built in 1702 and it was described as a red-brick building of no architectural distinction, on the north side of the river opposite the town hall and sometimes referred to as the Manor House
31.
Outhouse
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An outhouse, also known by many other names, is a small structure, separate from a main building, which covers one or more toilets. This is typically either a pit latrine or a bucket toilet, the term may also be used to denote the toilet itself, not just the superstructure. Outhouses were in use in cities of developed countries well into the half of the twentieth century. They are still common in areas and also in cities of developing countries. Outhouses that are covering pit latrines in densely populated areas can cause groundwater pollution. In some localities and varieties of English, particularly outside North America, the term refers not to a toilet. Outhouses vary in design and construction and they are by definition outside the dwelling, and are not connected to plumbing, sewer, or septic system. The World Health Organization recommends they be built a distance from the house balancing issues of easy access versus that of smell. The superstructure exists to shelter the user, and also to protect the toilet itself, the primary purpose of the building is for privacy and human comfort, so that the user is not exposed and does not get wet when it is raining or cold when it is windy. Walls and a roof for privacy and to shield the user from the elements—rain, wind, sleet and snow —and thus to a small degree, Outhouses are commonly humble and utilitarian, made of lumber or plywood. This is especially so they can easily be moved when the pit fills up. Depending on the size of the pit and the amount of use, as pundit Jackpine Bob Cary wrote, Anyone can build an outhouse, but not everyone can build a good outhouse. Floor plans typically are rectangular or square, but hexagonal outhouses have been built, the arrangements inside the outhouse vary by culture. In Western societies, many, though not all, have at least one seat with a hole in it, others, often in more rural, older areas in European countries, simply have a hole with two indents on either side for your feet. In Eastern societies, there is a hole in the floor, a roll of toilet paper is usually available. Old corn cobs, leaves, or other types of paper are also used, the decoration on the outhouse door has no standard. The well-known crescent moon on American outhouses was popularized by cartoonists and had a basis in fact. There are authors who claim the practice began during the period as an early mens/ladies designation for an illiterate populace
32.
Scandinavia
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Scandinavia /ˌskændᵻˈneɪviə/ is a historical and cultural region in Northern Europe characterized by a common ethnocultural North Germanic heritage and mutually intelligible North Germanic languages. The term Scandinavia always includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the remote Norwegian islands of Svalbard and Jan Mayen are usually not seen as a part of Scandinavia, nor is Greenland, an overseas territory of Denmark. This looser definition almost equates to that of the Nordic countries, in Nordic languages, only Denmark, Norway and Sweden are commonly included in the definition of Scandinavia. In English usage, Scandinavia sometimes refers to the geographical area, the name Scandinavia originally referred vaguely to the formerly Danish, now Swedish, region Scania. Icelanders and the Faroese are to a significant extent descended from the Norse, Finland is mainly populated by Finns, with a minority of approximately 5% of Swedish speakers. A small minority of Sami people live in the north of Scandinavia. The Danish, Norwegian and Swedish languages form a continuum and are known as the Scandinavian languages—all of which are considered mutually intelligible with one another. Faroese and Icelandic, sometimes referred to as insular Scandinavian languages, are intelligible in continental Scandinavian languages only to a limited extent, Finnish and Meänkieli are closely related to each other and more distantly to the Sami languages, but are entirely unrelated to the Scandinavian languages. Apart from these, German, Yiddish and Romani are recognized minority languages in Scandinavia, the southern and by far most populous regions of Scandinavia have a temperate climate. Scandinavia extends north of the Arctic Circle, but has mild weather for its latitude due to the Gulf Stream. Much of the Scandinavian mountains have a tundra climate. There are many lakes and moraines, legacies of the last glacial period, Scandinavia usually refers to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Some sources argue for the inclusion of the Faroe Islands, Finland and Iceland, though that broader region is known by the countries concerned as Norden. Before this time, the term Scandinavia was familiar mainly to classical scholars through Pliny the Elders writings, and was used vaguely for Scania, as a political term, Scandinavia was first used by students agitating for Pan-Scandinavianism in the 1830s. After a visit to Sweden, Andersen became a supporter of early political Scandinavism, the term is often defined according to the conventions of the cultures that lay claim to the term in their own use. More precisely, and subject to no dispute, is that Finland is included in the broader term Nordic countries, various promotional agencies of the Nordic countries in the United States serve to promote market and tourism interests in the region. The official tourist boards of Scandinavia sometimes cooperate under one umbrella, Norways government entered one year later. All five Nordic governments participate in the joint promotional efforts in the United States through the Scandinavian Tourist Board of North America, Scandinavia can thus be considered a subset of the Nordic countries
33.
Manual scavenging
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Manual scavenging is a term used in Indian English for the removal of untreated human excreta from bucket toilets or pit latrines. It involves moving the excreta, using brooms and tin plates, into baskets, the workers, called scavengers, rarely have any personal protective equipment. The employment of manual scavengers to empty dry toilets was prohibited in India in 1993, according to Socio Economic Caste Census 2011,180,657 households are engaged in manual scavenging for a livelihood. The 2011 Census of India found 794,000 cases of manual scavenging across India, Manual scavenging refers to the unsafe and manual removal of raw human excreta from buckets or other containers that are used as toilets or from the pits of simple pit latrines. The safe and controlled emptying of pit latrines, on the hand, is one component of fecal sludge management. Not all forms of dry toilets involve manual scavenging to empty them, also, emptying the pits of twin-pit pour-flush toilets is not classified as manual scavenging in India, as the excreta is already partly treated and degraded in those pits. Manual scavenging still survives in parts of India without proper sewage systems or safe fecal sludge management practices and it is thought to be most prevalent in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan. Some municipalities in India still run public toilets using simple pit latrines, Manual scavenging is traditionally a role determined by the outlawed caste system for members of the Dalit caste, usually from the Balmiki or Hela subcaste. Manual scavenging is done with tools like thin boards and either buckets or baskets lined with sacking. Due to the nature of the job, many of the workers have related health problems. In the late 1950s, freedom fighter G. S. Lakshman Iyer banned manual scavenging when he was the chairman of Gobichettipalayam Municipality, Sanitation is a State subject as per entry 6 of the Constitution. Under this, in February 2013 Delhi announced that they are banning manual scavenging, making them the first state in India to do so, district magistrates are responsible for ensuring that there are no manual scavengers working in their district. Within 3 years time municipalities, railways and cantonments must make sufficient sanitary latrines available, the government of the state of Maharashtra has planned to abolish the menace of manual scavenging completely from the state soon. No convictions were obtained under the law during the 20 years it was in force, Government has passed the new legislation in September 2013 and issued Government notification for the same. In December,2013 Government has also formulated Rules-2013 called as The Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers, the details about Act and Rules are available on the website of Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, GOI. In India in 1970s, Dr. Bindeshwar Pathak introduced his Sulabh concept for building and managing public toilets in India, which has introduced hygienic and well-managed public toilet system. Activist Bezwada Wilson founded a group in 1994, Safai Karmachari Andolan, to campaign for the demolition of then newly illegal dry latrines, despite the efforts of Wilson and other activists, the practice persists two decades later. In July 2008 MissionSanitation was a show held by the United Nations as part of its International Year of Sanitation
34.
Personal protective equipment
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Personal protective equipment refers to protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearers body from injury or infection. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include physical, electrical, heat, chemicals, biohazards, Protective equipment may be worn for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, as well as for sports and other recreational activities. Protective clothing is applied to categories of clothing, and protective gear applies to items such as pads, guards, shields, or masks. PPE is needed there are hazards present. PPE has the limitation that it does not eliminate the hazard at source. Any item of PPE imposes a barrier between the wearer/user and the working environment and this can create additional strains on the wearer, impair their ability to carry out their work and create significant levels of discomfort. Any of these can discourage wearers from using PPE correctly, therefore placing them at risk of injury, ill-health or, under extreme circumstances, death. Good ergonomic design can help to minimise these barriers and can help to ensure safe. Practices of occupational safety and health can use hazard controls and interventions to mitigate workplace hazards, the hierarchy of hazard controls provides a policy framework which ranks the types of hazard controls in terms of absolute risk reduction. At the top of the hierarchy are elimination and substitution, which remove the hazard entirely or replace the hazard with a safer alternative. If elimination or substitution measures cannot apply, engineering controls and administrative controls, Personal protective equipment ranks last on the hierarchy of controls, as the workers are regularly exposed to the hazard, with a barrier of protection. The hierarchy of controls is important in acknowledging that, while personal protective equipment has tremendous utility, Personal protective equipment can be categorized by the area of the body protected, by the types of hazard, and by the type of garment or accessory. The protective attributes of each piece of equipment must be compared with the expected to be found in the workplace. More breathable types of protective equipment may not lead to more contamination. Respirators serve to protect the user from breathing in contaminants in the air, there are two main types of respirators. One type functions by filtering out chemicals and gases, or airborne particles, the filtration may be either passive or active. Gas masks and particulate respirators are examples of type of respirator. A second type protects users by providing clean, respirable air from another source and this type includes airline respirators and self-contained breathing apparatus
35.
Chena River State Recreation Area
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Chena River State Recreation Area is a 254, 080-acre state park in the U. S. state of Alaska, located east of Fairbanks. The recreation area is centered on the Chena River, facilities include campgrounds, hiking, ATV, snowmachine and sled dog trails, a shooting range, fishing ponds, and several public-use cabins. Fishing for Arctic grayling is catch-and-release only in the river, the area is also noted for several concentrations of granite tors. The road through the area ends at the privately owned and operated Chena Hot Springs resort. Chena River SRA from Alaskas Division of Parks and Outdoor Recreation
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Paddling
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Paddling with regard to watercraft is the act of manually propelling a boat using a paddle. The paddle, which consists of one or two blades joined to a shaft, is used to steer the vessel. The paddle is not connected to the boat, canoeing is the activity of paddling a canoe for leisure, navigation or exploration. In America the term refers exclusively to using one or more single blades or paddles to propel a canoe, in the United Kingdom and some other countries in Europe however, canoeing is also used to refer to kayaking and Canadian canoeing is used then to distinguish canoeing from kayaking. There are sub-varieties of canoeing, such as touring and whitewater or wildwater canoeing, outrigger canoeing, travelling whitewater in a whitewater raft can involve using either paddles, or a pair of oars, or both. Outrigger canoe racing is a team paddling sport which uses the outrigger canoe, in his lifetime, according to the Guinness Book of World Records Verlen Kruger paddled the most miles of anyone in the sport. Kayaking is the use of a kayak for moving across water, kayaking is differentiated from canoeing by the fact kayakers use a double bladed paddle and sit in a seat with their legs extended out in front of them. Canoeists will either sit on a bench seat or kneel directly on the bottom of the boat with two knees or one knee in the high kneel posture. The kayak may be either sit-in or sit-on-top, sit-in kayaks provide more protection from water and the elements, and are popular for day trips and touring. Sit-on-top kayaks are growing in popularity for fishing and surfing, a dragon boat is a long and narrow human powered boat used in the team paddling sport of dragon boat racing which originated in China. For racing events, dragon boats are not rigged with full decorative Chinese dragon heads, the decorative boats are used in ceremonial events. They do howevever use smaller and lighter dragon heads and tails and they are not normally used during practice. Rafting or whitewater rafting uses a raft to navigate a river or other bodies of water and this is usually done on whitewater or different degrees of rough water, in order to thrill and excite the raft passengers. The development of activity as a leisure sport has become popular since the mid-1970s. Stand-up paddleboards, are steered with a singled bladed paddle, originating in Hawaii to help navigate the waves, the sport has grown to include flat water lakes, easy rivers, and spring runs. Traditional paddleboarding is done kneeling on a board and paddling with the hands
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Hiking
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Hiking is the preferred term, in Canada and the United States, for a long, vigorous walk, usually on trails, in the countryside, while the word walking is used for shorter, particularly urban walks. On the other hand, in the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland, the word hiking is also often used in the UK, along with rambling, hillwalking, and fell walking. The term bushwalking is endemic to Australia, having been adopted by the Sydney Bush Walkers club in 1927, in New Zealand a long, vigorous walk or hike is called tramping. It is an activity with numerous hiking organizations worldwide. In the United States, Canada, the Republic of Ireland, a day hike refers to a hike that can be completed in a single day. However, in the United Kingdom, the walking is also used, as well as rambling. In Northern England, Including the Lake District and Yorkshire Dales, fellwalking describes hill or mountain walks, hiking sometimes involves bushwhacking and is sometimes referred to as such. This specifically refers to walking through dense forest, undergrowth, or bushes. In extreme cases of bushwhacking, where the vegetation is so dense that human passage is impeded, the Australian term bushwalking refers to both on and off-trail hiking. Common terms for hiking used by New Zealanders are tramping, walking or bushwalking, trekking is the preferred word used to describe multi-day hiking in the mountainous regions of India, Pakistan, Nepal, North America, South America, Iran and in the highlands of East Africa. Hiking a long-distance trail from end-to-end is also referred to as trekking, in North America, multi-day hikes, usually with camping, are referred to as backpacking. The idea of taking a walk in the countryside for pleasure developed in the 18th-century, in earlier times walking generally indicated poverty and was also associated with vagrancy. Thomas West, an English priest, popularized the idea of walking for pleasure in his guide to the Lake District of 1778. To this end he included various stations or viewpoints around the lakes, published in 1778 the book was a major success. Another famous early exponent of walking for pleasure, was the English poet William Wordsworth, in 1790 he embarked on an extended tour of France, Switzerland, and Germany, a journey subsequently recorded in his long autobiographical poem The Prelude. His famous poem Tintern Abbey was inspired by a visit to the Wye Valley made during a tour of Wales in 1798 with his sister Dorothy Wordsworth. Wordsworths friend Coleridge was another keen walker and in the autumn of 1799, he and Wordsworth undertook a three weeks tour of the Lake District. John Keats, who belonged to the generation of Romantic poets began, in June 1818, a walking tour of Scotland, Ireland
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Mountaineering
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The term mountaineering describes the sport of mountain climbing, including ski mountaineering. Hiking in the mountains can also be a form of mountaineering when it involves scrambling, or short stretches of the more basic grades of rock climbing. All require experience, athletic ability, and technical knowledge to maintain safety, mountaineering is often called Alpinism, especially in European languages, which implies climbing with difficulty such high and often snow and ice-covered mountains as the Alps. A mountaineer with such great skill is called an Alpinist, historically, many cultures have harbored superstitions about mountains, which they often regarded as sacred due to their proximity with heaven, such as Mount Olympus for the Ancient Greeks. In 1492 Antoine de Ville, lord of Domjulien and Beaupré, was the first to ascend the Mont Aiguille, in France, with a team, using ladders. It appears to be the first recorded climb of any technical difficulty, in 1573 Francesco De Marchi and Francesco Di Domenico ascended Corno Grande, the highest peak in the Apennine Mountains. During the Enlightenment, as a product of the new spirit of curiosity for the natural world, in 1741 Richard Pococke and William Windham made a historic visit to Chamonix. By the early 19th century many of the peaks were reached, including the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812. In 1808 Marie Paradis became the first female to climb Mont Blanc and this inaugurated what became known as the Golden age of alpinism, with the first mountaineering club - the Alpine Club - being founded in 1857. Well-known guides of the era include Christian Almer, Jakob Anderegg, Melchior Anderegg, J. J. Bennen, Michel Croz, in the early years of the golden age, scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall. In the later years, it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and this ascent is generally regarded as marking the end of the mountaineering golden age. By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a body of professional guides, equipment, mountaineering in the Americas became popular in the 1800s. In North America, Pikes Peak in the Colorado Rockies was first climbed by Edwin James, though lower than Pikes Peak, the heavily glaciated Fremont Peak in Wyoming was thought to be the tallest mountain in the Rockies when it was first climbed by John C. Frémont and two others in 1842, pico de Orizaba, the tallest peak in Mexico and third tallest in North America, was first climbed by U. S. military personnel which included William F. Raynolds and a half dozen other climbers in 1848. Heavily glaciated and more technical climbs in North American were not achieved until the late 19th, in 1897 Mount Saint Elias on the Alaska-Yukon border was summitted by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party. But it was not until 1913 that Mount Mckinley, the tallest peak in North America was successfully climbed by Hudson Stuck, Mount Logan, the tallest peak in Canada was first summitted by a half dozen climbers in 1925 in an expedition that took more than two months. In 1879-1880 the exploration of the highest Andes in South America began when English mountaineer Edward Whymper climbed Chimborazo, the summit of Aconcagua was finally reached on January 14,1897 by Swiss mountaineer Matthias Zurbriggen during an expedition led by Edward FitzGerald that began in December 1896. The Andes of Bolivia were first explored by Sir William Martin Conway in 1898 and it took until the late 19th century for European explorers to penetrate Africa
39.
Mount Everest
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Mount Everest, also known in Nepal as Sagarmāthā and in China as Chomolungma/珠穆朗玛峰, is Earths highest mountain. Its peak is 8,848 metres above sea level, Mount Everest is in the Mahalangur Range. The international border between China and Nepal runs across Everests summit point and its massif includes neighbouring peaks Lhotse,8,516 m, Nuptse,7,855 m, and Changtse,7,580 m. In 1856, the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India established the first published height of Everest, then known as Peak XV, at 8,840 m. The current official height of 8,848 m as recognised by China and Nepal was established by a 1955 Indian survey, in 2005, China remeasured the height of the mountain and got a result of 8844.43 m. An argument regarding the height between China and Nepal lasted five years from 2005 to 2010, China argued it should be measured by its rock height which is 8,844 m but Nepal said it should be measured by its snow height 8,848 m. In 2010, an agreement was reached by both sides that the height of Everest is 8,848 m and Nepal recognises Chinas claim that the rock height of Everest is 8,844 m. In 1865, Everest was given its official English name by the Royal Geographical Society upon a recommendation by Andrew Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India. As there appeared to be several different local names, Waugh chose to name the mountain after his predecessor in the post, Sir George Everest, Mount Everest attracts many climbers, some of them highly experienced mountaineers. There are two main climbing routes, one approaching the summit from the southeast in Nepal and the other from the north in Tibet, as of 2016 there are well over 200 corpses on the mountain, with some of them even serving as landmarks. The first recorded efforts to reach Everests summit were made by British mountaineers, with Nepal not allowing foreigners into the country at the time, the British made several attempts on the north ridge route from the Tibetan side. Tragedy struck on the descent from the North Col when seven porters were killed in an avalanche. They had been spotted high on the mountain that day but disappeared in the clouds, never to be seen again, Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary made the first official ascent of Everest in 1953 using the southeast ridge route. Tenzing had reached 8,595 m the previous year as a member of the 1952 Swiss expedition, the Chinese mountaineering team of Wang Fuzhou, Gonpo, and Qu Yinhua made the first reported ascent of the peak from the north ridge on 25 May 1960. In 1802, the British began the Great Trigonometric Survey of India to fix the locations, heights, starting in southern India, the survey teams moved northward using giant theodolites, each weighing 500 kg and requiring 12 men to carry, to measure heights as accurately as possible. They reached the Himalayan foothills by the 1830s, but Nepal was unwilling to allow the British to enter the country due to suspicions of political aggression, several requests by the surveyors to enter Nepal were turned down. The British were forced to continue their observations from Terai, a region south of Nepal which is parallel to the Himalayas, conditions in Terai were difficult because of torrential rains and malaria. Three survey officers died from malaria while two others had to retire because of failing health, nonetheless, in 1847, the British continued the survey and began detailed observations of the Himalayan peaks from observation stations up to 240 km distant
40.
Green Mountain Club
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Conceived on March 11,1910 by James P. Taylor who was at the time the Assistant Headmaster of the Vermont Academy in Windsor, Vermont. In 1912, work began on the construction of Americas first long-distance hiking path known as The Long Trail, the club completed the Long Trail in 1930. With 10,000 members, the club responsible for the trail, and is recognized by the state legislature as the founder, sponsor, defender. In addition to being the steward of the Long Trail, the Clubs advocacy, moreover, The GMC publishes guidebooks, newsletters, and other printed media that serve hikers who wish to walk the Long Trail. The Green Mountain Club also manages the Appalachian Trail through Vermont, the GMC also manages other hiking trails in Vermonts Northeast Kingdom region. The Green Mountain Club separates out into chapters, called sections — since they maintain sections of the Long Trail and its side trails — are located throughout the state
41.
Clivus Multrum
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Clivus Multrum is a type of composting toilet and the name of a company that markets this brandname of composting toilets. Clivus is Latin for incline or slope, multrum is a Swedish composite word meaning compost room, the first prototype was built in 1939 in Tyresö, Sweden by art teacher Rikard Lindström, who owned a property on the Baltic Sea in Stockholm, Sweden. Lindström built a single chamber concrete tank, with sloped bottom and chimney, for disposal of kitchen and it functioned for several decades and was eventually patented in 1962. In 1964, the first commercial model was constructed out of fiberglass, in the 1970s, Abby Rockefeller, in the United States, read about the idea and wanted to buy a system, but was told they were not for sale due to lack of technical support. In 1973, Rockefeller founded Clivus Multrum, Inc. in Massachusetts under license from Lindström to market its composting toilet, the brand of Clivus Multrum composting toilets is marketed globally. Clivus Multrum today has designed a number of different prototypes and sizes
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Incinerating toilet
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An incinerating toilet is a type of dry toilet that burns human feces instead of flushing them away with water, like a flush toilet does. Incinerating toilets are used only for niche applications, Incinerating toilets may be powered by electric, gas, dried feces or other energy sources. They are used in environments where human waste cannot be otherwise dumped, such toilets gather excrement in a holding tank and then incinerate it, reducing it to pathogen-free ash. Some will also incinerate grey and black water created from showers, in 2011 the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation launched the Reinvent the Toilet Challenge to promote safer, more effective ways to treat human excreta. Some research teams have received funding to work on developing toilets based entirely, or in-part, for example, a toilet under development by RTI International is based on electrochemical disinfection and solid waste combustion. Incinerating Toilets - Compendium of Information on Alternative Onsite Septic System Technology in Massachusetts, barnstable County Department of Health and Environment. 12V Diesel, Oil, Kerosene, Jet Fuel, Fired Toilet, using Incinerating Toilets as Components of Alternative Septic Systems for Difficult Sites. Water Efficiency Technology Fact Sheet, Incinerating Toilets
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Cottage
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A cottage is, typically, a small house. It may carry the connotation of being an old or old-fashioned building, in modern usage, a cottage is usually a modest, often cosy dwelling, typically in a rural or semi-rural location. The word comes from the architecture of England, where it referred to a house with ground floor living space. In British English the term now denotes a small dwelling of traditional build, Cottages may be detached houses, or terraced, such as those built to house workers in mining villages. The tied accommodation provided to workers was usually a cottage. Peasant farmers were known as cotters. The holiday cottage exists in many cultures under different names, in American English, cottage is one term for such holiday homes, although they may also be called a cabin, chalet, or even camp. In certain countries the term cottage has local synonyms, In Finnish mökki, in Estonian suvila, in Swedish stage, in Norwegian hytte, in Slovak chalupa, in Russian дача. There are cottage-style dwellings in American cities that were primarily for the purpose of housing slaves In places such as Canada. Originally in the Middle Ages, cottages housed agricultural workers and their friends, the term cottage denoted the dwelling of a cotter. Thus, cottages were smaller peasant units, in that early period, a documentary reference to a cottage would most often mean, not a small stand-alone dwelling as today, but a complete farmhouse and yard. Thus, in the Middle Ages, the word cottage denoted not just a dwelling, but included at least a dwelling and a barn, as well as, usually, a fenced yard or piece of land enclosed by a gate. The word is probably a blend of Old English cot, cote hut and Old French cot hut, cottage, from Old Norse kot hut, examples of this may be found in 15th century manor court rolls. The house of the cottage bore the Latin name, domus, later on, cottage might also have denoted a smallholding comprising houses, outbuildings, and supporting farmland or woods. A cottage, in sense, would typically include just a few acres of tilled land. Examples of this included the Welsh Tŷ unnos or house in a night. Much later, from around the 18th century onwards, the development of industry led to the development of weavers cottages, in England and Wales the legal definition of a cottage is a small house or habitation without land. However, originally under an Elizabethan statute, the cottage had to be built with at least 4 acres of land, traditionally the owner of the cottage and small holding would be known as a cottager
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Propane
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Propane is a three-carbon alkane with the molecular formula C3H8, a gas, at standard temperature and pressure, but compressible to a transportable liquid. A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is used as a fuel for engines, oxy-gas torches, portable stoves. Propane is one of a group of liquefied petroleum gases, the others include butane, propylene, butadiene, butylene, isobutylene, and mixtures thereof. Propane was first identified as a component in gasoline by Walter O. Snelling of the U. S. Bureau of Mines in 1910. The volatility of these lighter hydrocarbons caused them to be known as wild because of the vapor pressures of unrefined gasoline. On March 31, the New York Times reported on Snellings work with liquefied gas and that a steel bottle will carry enough gas to light an ordinary home for three weeks. It was during this time that Snelling, in cooperation with Frank P. Peterson, Chester Kerr, together, they established American Gasol Co. the first commercial marketer of propane. Snelling had produced relatively pure propane by 1911, and on March 25,1913, a separate method of producing LP gas through compression was created by Frank Peterson and its patent granted on July 2,1912. The 1920s saw increased production of LP gas, with the first year of recorded production totaling 223,000 US gallons in 1922. In 1927, annual marketed LP gas production reached 1 million US gallons, and by 1935, major industry developments in the 1930s included the introduction of railroad tank car transport, gas odorization, and the construction of local bottle-filling plants. The year 1945 marked the first year that annual LP gas sales reached a billion gallons, by 1947, 62% of all U. S. homes had been equipped with either natural gas or propane for cooking. In 1950,1,000 propane-fueled buses were ordered by the Chicago Transit Authority, in 2004 it was reported to be a growing $8-billion to $10-billion industry with over 15 billion US gallons of propane being used annually in the U. S. The prop- root found in propane and names of compounds with three-carbon chains was derived from propionic acid. Propane is produced as a by-product of two processes, natural gas processing and petroleum refining. The processing of natural gas involves removal of butane, propane, additionally, oil refineries produce some propane as a by-product of cracking petroleum into gasoline or heating oil. The supply of propane cannot easily be adjusted to meet increased demand, about 90% of U. S. propane is domestically produced. The United States imports about 10% of the propane consumed each year, with about 70% of that coming from Canada via pipeline, the remaining 30% of imported propane comes to the United States from other sources via ocean transport. After it is produced, North American propane is stored in salt caverns
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