1.
U.S. Supreme Court
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
2.
Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe
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It also stands as a notable example of the power of litigation by grassroots citizen movements to block government action. The case concerned the decision by the Secretary of Transportation John A. Volpe to construct Interstate 40 through Overton Park in Memphis and that changed in the mid-1960s, under §4 of the Department of Transportation Act of 1966, a federal statute commonly called Section 4. It required the government to demonstrate that there were no feasible and they claimed that the Secretary had not complied with §4 of the Department of Transportation Act. The Secretary responded by filing a summary judgment motion, which was granted by the court, on appeal, the 6th Circuit affirmed the district courts decision. On March 3,1971, the U. S. Supreme Court ruled on Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe, upholding the feasible, the Court held that summary judgment was improperly granted. While the Secretary was not required to make findings, the Secretarys sole reliance on litigation affidavits was inadequate. The Secretarys decision did not fall into the Administrative Procedure Acts exception for action committed to agency discretion, Justice Black, joined by Justice Brennan, agreed with the Court that the judgment of the Court of Appeals was wrong and that its action should be reversed. However, they did not agree that the matter should have been remanded to the District Court. Rather, Black and Brennan would have remanded the case to the Secretary of Transportation, I dissent from the Courts failure to send the case back to the Secretary, whose duty has not yet been performed. List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 401 Text of Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe,401 U. S.402 is available from, Findlaw Justia
3.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
4.
Historic districts in the United States
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Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some have hundreds of structures, the U. S. federal government designates historic districts through the United States Department of Interior under the auspices of the National Park Service. Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, state-level historic districts may follow similar criteria or may require adherence to certain historic rehabilitation standards. Local historic district designation offers, by far, the most legal protection for historic properties because most land use decisions are made at the local level, local districts are generally administered by the county or municipal government. The first U. S. historic district was established in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931, Charleston city government designated an Old and Historic District by local ordinance and created a board of architectural review to oversee it. New Orleans followed in 1937, establishing the Vieux Carré Commission, other localities picked up on the concept, with the city of Philadelphia enacting its historic preservation ordinance in 1955. The Supreme Court case validated the protection of resources as an entirely permissible governmental goal. In 1966 the federal government created the National Register of Historic Places, conference of Mayors had stated Americans suffered from rootlessness. By the 1980s there were thousands of federally designated historic districts, Historic districts are generally two types of properties, contributing and non-contributing. In general, contributing properties are integral parts of the historic context, in addition to the two types of classification within historic districts, properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places are classified into five broad categories. They are, building, structure, site, district and object, all but the eponymous district category are also applied to historic districts listed on the National Register. A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district, however, the Register is an honorary status with some federal financial incentives. The National Register of Historic Places defines a historic district per U. S. federal law, a district may also comprise individual elements separated geographically but linked by association or history. Districts established under U. S. federal guidelines generally begin the process of designation through a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, the National Register is the official recognition by the U. S. government of cultural resources worthy of preservation. While designation through the National Register does offer a district or property some protections, if the federal government is not involved, then the listing on the National Register provides the site, property or district no protections. If, however, company A was under federal contract the Smith House would be protected, a federal designation is little more than recognition by the government that the resource is worthy of preservation. Usually, the National Register does not list religious structures, moved structures, reconstructed structures, however, if a property falls into one of those categories and are integral parts of districts that do meet the criteria then an exception allowing their listing will be made. Historic district listings, like all National Register nominations, can be rejected on the basis of owner disapproval, in the case of historic districts, a majority of owners must object in order to nullify a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places
5.
Memphis, Tennessee
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Memphis is a city in the southwestern corner of the U. S. state of Tennessee and the county seat of Shelby County. The city is located on the fourth Chickasaw Bluff, south of the confluence of the Wolf, Memphis had a population of 653,450 in 2013, making it the largest city in the state of Tennessee. It is the largest city on the Mississippi River, the third largest in the greater Southeastern United States, the greater Memphis metropolitan area, including adjacent counties in Mississippi and Arkansas, had a 2014 population of 1,317,314. This makes Memphis the second-largest metropolitan area in Tennessee, surpassed by metropolitan Nashville, Memphis is the youngest of Tennessees major cities, founded in 1819 as a planned city by a group of wealthy Americans including judge John Overton and future president Andrew Jackson. A resident of Memphis is referred to as a Memphian, and the Memphis region is known, particularly to media outlets, as Memphis and the Mid-South. Occupying a substantial bluff rising from the Mississippi River, the site of Memphis has been a location for human settlement by varying cultures over thousands of years. The historic Chickasaw Indian tribe, believed to be their descendants, French explorers led by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto would encounter the Chickasaw in that area, in the 16th century. J. D. L. Chickasaw Bluffs, located on the Mississippi River at the present day location of Memphis, spain and the United States vied for control of this site, which was a favorite of the Chickasaws. The United States gained the right to navigate the Mississippi River, the Spanish dismantled the fort, shipping its lumber and iron to their locations in Arkansas. Captain Isaac Guion led an American force down the Ohio River to claim the land, by this time, the Spanish had departed. The forts ruins went unnoticed twenty years later when Memphis was laid out as a city, the city of Memphis was founded on May 22,1819 by John Overton, James Winchester and Andrew Jackson. They named it after the ancient capital of Egypt on the Nile River, Memphis developed as a trade and transportation center in the 19th century because of its flood-free location high above the Mississippi River. Located in the delta region along the river, its outlying areas were developed as cotton plantations. The cotton economy of the antebellum South depended on the labor of large numbers of African-American slaves. Through the early 19th century, one million slaves were transported from the Upper South, Many were transported by steamboats along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. This gave planters and cotton brokers access to the Atlantic Coast for shipping cotton to England, the citys demographics changed dramatically in the 1850s and 1860s under waves of immigration and domestic migration. Due to increased immigration since the 1840s and the Great Famine, ethnic Irish made up 9.9 percent of the population in 1850, but 23.2 percent in 1860, when the total population was 22,623. They had encountered considerable discrimination in the city but by 1860 and they also gained many elected and patronage positions in the Democratic Party city government, and an Irish man was elected as mayor before the Civil War
6.
Midtown, Memphis
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Midtown Memphis, Tennessee is a collection of neighborhoods to the east of Downtown. Midtown is home to cultural attractions, institutions of higher education. The district is an anchor in Memphis arts scene, including the Playhouse on the Square, the Hattiloo Theater, the Brooks Museum of Art, the Memphis College of Art, the annual Cooper-Young Arts Festival draws over 120,000 visitors to the district. Midtown also plays host to multiple universities and colleges, including Memphis College of Art, Rhodes College, Midtown is characterized by vintage residential housing, a blend of independent and chain retailers, and high-rise buildings. Multiple historic districts are located in Midtown, and commercial corridors such as Overton Square, mixed use areas with housing, religious, commercial and office spaces are common in Midtown. Midtown is known in the Memphis region for its bumper stickers displaying Midtown is Memphis and 38104, Midtown has an evenly distributed black and white population, as well as a notable Asian population. Cleveland Street in Crosstown is the heart of the Vietnamese population in Memphis, with multiple Vietnamese-owned businesses, the exact boundaries of Midtown are often disputed. Generally, it is the area between the Medical District to the west and East Memphis to the east, the eastern boundary is variously defined as East Parkway, the CN railroad east of East Parkway. The northern boundary is Vollintine Avenue, VECA is generally considered the northern-most neighborhood in Midtown. Cooper-Young and Rozelle are generally regarded as the southern-most neighborhoods in Midtown, interstate 240 provides the western border for the neighborhood, separating Midtown from Downtown and the Medical District. Due to the eastward expansion of the city, automobile traffic in Midtown is primarily served by east-west arteries. Midtown Memphis is connected to the Medical District and downtown via the Madison Avenue trolley line, with a park, most of this stretch of Madison contains its original granite curbs, and in a few locations the original brick pavers can be seen in the gutters. Bicycle infrastructure is growing in Midtown, with bike lanes now installed on McLean Boulevard, Madison Avenue, Southern Avenue, protected bike lanes have been installed on portions of Overton Park Avenue. Additionally, the Hampline is a bicycle track that will connect Overton Park to Shelby Farms in suburban Memphis via the Shelby Farms Greenline. Several private and parochial schools are found throughout Midtown, including Grace-St. Lukes Episcopal School, Immaculate Conception Cathedral School. The 1st Class Montessori School has operated for twenty years on Peabody Avenue in Midtown. Midtown is home to two private undergraduate universities, Rhodes College is a classical liberal arts college housing roughly two thousand students in the Vollintine-Evergreen neighborhood. Christian Brothers University is located adjacent to the Lenox neighborhood on East Parkway, several specialized colleges and schools are also located in Midtown
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
George Kessler
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George Edward Kessler was an American pioneer city planner and landscape architect. His projects can be found in 23 states,100 cities, in places as far flung as Shanghai, New York, planning, wrote Kessler, should be comprehensive. Even though an urban design could only be realized in bits and pieces. Each bit and piece should be understandable by reference to the plan of which it is a part. Planning must also be relevant to the city, its geography, its economic character. We must, he insisted, deal with it in its application to the entire city, the object is to make cities decent places for masses of people to live in. Cities grow mostly by accident in response to trends in the real estate market, very little thought is given to their qualitative characters. But there comes a time when development must be subject to control, George E. Kessler was born in Frankenhausen, Germany, to Edward Carl Kessler and Adolphe Clotilde Zeitsche Kessler on July 16,1862. In 1865 the family, including Georges sister, Fredericka Antionette Louisa, after living briefly in New Jersey, Missouri, and Wisconsin, the family ultimately settled in Dallas, Texas, where Georges father and uncle invested in a cotton plantation. After his fathers death, George, at the age of sixteen, after consultation with relatives, Clotilde decided that landscape architecture would combine the right degree of creativity and practicality to suit her sons temperament. The family moved back to Germany, where George received formal training and he then worked for several months with Haage and Schmidt, a major German plant nursery in Erfurt. Of all of it, he said, the travel was of most value. In October 1881, the Kessler family returned to New York, from January 1882 through March, Kessler sent four letters to Frederick Law Olmsted. The January 22 letter is the first record of his attempt to work in the United States. In the letter Kessler wrote of his studies and travel in Europe, in the February 15 letter, Kessler wrote that he was “certain of a situation in Central Park” and of an offer of a partnership with a florist in Woodlawn. “Since November”, Kessler wrote, “I have been in the employ of A. LeMoult 172 and 174 Bowery, having charge of his greenhouse, seed and grass stock. Decoration of concert halls were also mostly in my care. ”Olmsted responded in March and urged Kessler to be ambitious to be master in higher fields than pleasure grounds, a recommended reading list of book was included. Olmsted concluded by writing that the Kansas City, Fort Scott and he told Kessler that the President, H. H. Hunniwell, would be in New York, and that Olmsted had given him Kessler’s address
9.
Memphis Brooks Museum of Art
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Memphis Brooks Museum of Art is an art museum in Memphis, Tennessee. The Brooks Museum, which was founded in 1916, is the oldest and largest art museum in the state of Tennessee, the museum is a privately funded nonprofit institution located in Overton Park in Midtown Memphis. The original Beaux-Arts building, a registered U. S. National Landmark designed by James Gamble Rogers in 1913, was donated by Bessie Vance Brooks in memory of her husband, the cylindrical extension, opened in 1955, was designed by Memphis architect Everett Woods. The Brooks’ facilities also include the Brooks Museum Store, the Brushmark Restaurant, the Holly Court garden, in 1989, the building was expanded and reoriented by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill. The expansion, which doubled the square footage of the building, included a new public entrance as well as a three-story gallery space where the old. The facility consists of 29 galleries, art classrooms, a print study room with over 4,500 works of art on paper, a library with over 5,000 volumes. The collection has over seven thousand works of art, including paintings, sculptures, drawings, prints, photographs, of particular note are the Samuel H. Kress Collection of Renaissance and Baroque paintings, the Hugo N. Paintings in the permanent collection include works by Italian Renaissance, Baroque, Impressionist, the Kress Collection is one of numerous collections of paintings distributed by this philanthropist among American museums. The Brooks also has a collection of English portraits, including works by Gainsborough, Reynolds, Lawrence. There are impressionist works by Camille Pissarro, Renoir, and many American impressionists, Winslow Homer, Thomas Hart Benton, Childe Hassam, the contemporary collection includes paintings by Kenneth Noland, Robert Motherwell, and Nancy Graves, plus the nationally-known Memphis artist Carroll Cloar. The Brooks Museum also conserves a selection of 19th and 20th century sculpture and decorative arts, including furniture, list of museums in Tennessee Official website
10.
Memphis Zoo
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The Memphis Zoo, located in Midtown, Memphis, Tennessee, United States, is home to more than 3,500 animals representing over 500 different species. Created in April 1906, the zoo has been a tenant of Overton Park for more than 100 years. The land currently designated to the Memphis Zoo was defined by the Overton Park master plan in 1988, the zoo is set on 76 acres, of which approximately 55 acres are developed. In 2008, the Memphis Zoo was ranked #1 Zoo in the U. S. by TripAdvisor, the ranking was based on visitor opinions. Since the early 1990s, the Memphis Zoo has invested over $77 million for renovation and expansion, early 1900s The zoo was established on April 4,1906, with $1,200 from the Memphis Park Commission. In August 1906,23 cages and concrete bear enclosures were built with another $3,628 thanks to the head of the Commission, Galloway Hall, the Memphis Zoos first building, was finished in 1907. It was named in honor of Col. Galloway, but was demolished to make room for newer exhibits. The Carnivora Building was constructed in 1909 to house the first cats at the zoo and it was later replaced by Cat Country, and converted into an inner-zoo restaurant. The Elephant House opened in 1910, the building is still used as the main building of the zoos educational department, but the elephants were moved to the African Veldt exhibit. In 1916, the Botanical Display Building opened and it was later converted into the Tropical Bird House. The Memphis Zoo acquired a round barn from the Memphis Police Department in 1923, the zoos round barn exhibit is a collection of exotic hoofstock and birds. In 1936, the zoos first primate exhibit, Monkey Island, was built and it was replaced in 1995 by Primate Canyon. Mid-1900s The Aquarium was completed in 1959 and it is one of the oldest exhibits at the Memphis Zoo. The building houses aquatic life from both fresh and salt water environments, in 1979, it had major renovations. The Herpetarium was constructed in 1960, located across from the Tropical Bird House, the Herpetarium is home to the zoos snakes, alligators, lizards and frogs. Later in the year, the Pachyderm/Elephant exhibit was finished, late 1900s to present The zoo renovated its entrance in 1990. Cat Country, a 3-acre, open-air exhibit focused on predators and prey of the cat world, opened in 1993. Tigers and lions share common space with fennec foxes and meerkats, an Education Complex, Discovery Center, and the Elephants Trunk Zoo Shop also opened at this time
11.
Golf
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Golf is a club and ball sport in which players use various clubs to hit balls into a series of holes on a course in as few strokes as possible. Golf, unlike most ball games, cannot and does not utilize a standardized playing area, the game is played on a course with an arranged progression of 18 holes. Each hole on the course must contain a tee box to start from, there are other standard forms of terrain in between, such as the fairway, rough, sand traps, and hazards but each hole on a course is unique in its specific layout and arrangement. Stroke play is the most commonly seen format at all levels, while the modern game of golf originated in 15th-century Scotland, the games ancient origins are unclear and much debated. Some historians trace the sport back to the Roman game of paganica, one theory asserts that paganica spread throughout Europe as the Romans conquered most of the continent, during the first century BC, and eventually evolved into the modern game. Others cite chuiwan as the progenitor, a Chinese game played between the eighth and 14th centuries, the game is thought to have been introduced into Europe during the Middle Ages. Another early game that resembled modern golf was known as cambuca in England, the Persian game chaugán is another possible ancient origin. In addition, kolven was played annually in Loenen, Netherlands, beginning in 1297, to commemorate the capture of the assassin of Floris V, a year earlier. The modern game originated in Scotland, where the first written record of golf is James IIs banning of the game in 1457, as an unwelcome distraction to learning archery. James IV lifted the ban in 1502 when he became a golfer himself, with golf clubs first recorded in 1503-1504, to many golfers, the Old Course at St Andrews, a links course dating to before 1574, is considered to be a site of pilgrimage. In 1764, the standard 18-hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes. Golf is documented as being played on Musselburgh Links, East Lothian, Scotland as early as 2 March 1672, which is certified as the oldest golf course in the world by Guinness World Records. The oldest surviving rules of golf were compiled in March 1744 for the Company of Gentlemen Golfers, later renamed The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers, Andrews Golf Club in Yonkers, New York. The levels of grass are varied to increase difficulty, or to allow for putting in the case of the green, while many holes are designed with a direct line-of-sight from the teeing area to the green, some holes may bend either to the left or to the right. This is commonly called a dogleg, in reference to a dogs knee, the hole is called a dogleg left if the hole angles leftwards and dogleg right if it bends right. Sometimes, a holes direction may bend twice, this is called a double dogleg, a regular golf course consists of 18 holes, but nine-hole courses are common and can be played twice through for a full round of 18 holes. Early Scottish golf courses were laid out on links land. This gave rise to the golf links, particularly applied to seaside courses
12.
Memphis College of Art
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It offers Bachelor of Fine Arts, Master of Fine Arts, Master of Arts in Art Education and Master of Arts in Teaching degrees. Some of the majors include graphic design, drawing, painting, printmaking, book arts, computer arts, photography, animation and it was founded in 1936 and was once housed in the James Lee House. Since 1959, the building of the college has been Rust Hall. Memphis College of Art averages around 450 students each year, with 350 being undergraduate and 100 being graduate students and it is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and National Association of Schools of Art and Design. Memphis College of Art provides a curriculum in an intimate. It has enabled generations of leading artists, designers and educators to flourish professionally and it extends its programs to the public through gallery exhibitions, continuing education, childrens classes, and visiting artist lectures. It is more affordable, compared to similar colleges, as per Princeton Review, there is student housing on N. Rembert St. N. Tucker St. and two new buildings on N. Barksdale, Metz Hall and Fogelman Hall. Memphis College of Art College of Art Moving Its South Main Campus
13.
Old Forest Arboretum of Overton Park
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The Old Forest Arboretum of Overton Park is a forest tract and natural arboretum located in Overton Park, Memphis, Tennessee. It is open to the public daily without charge, the forest was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 as part of the Overton Park Historic District. Tree identification began in 1997, with some 70 tree species identified by 2002 when it was certified as an arboretum, today the arboretum contains walking trails with 49 tree markers identifying 32 species. Approximately three-fourths of the Arboretum was designated as the Old Forest State Natural Area in 2011, conservation of the Old Forest began in 1901, when Overton Park was created when the 342 acres Lea Woods was purchased by the city of Memphis. 172 acres of its original climax oak-hickory cover was preserved as the Old Forest, in 1912, the area was described as follows, More than thirty kinds of native timber are found there. Plant taxonomist Dr. Tom Heineke was hired by Memphis to inventory the Old Forest during 2008 and 2009, large trees measured for possible inclusion as Tennessee Champion Trees included a 27-inch-diameter black cherry, a 46-inch southern red oak, a 62-inch shumard oak, and 9-inch pawpaw. A total of 332 flowering plant species were recorded in 85 families, heinekes management recommendation was removal of evergreen exotic species, such as Chinese privet and pin cherry, which are severely competing with native vegetation. On June 8,2011, Governor Bill Haslam signed the Old Forest State Natural Area bill into law, the bill creating the State Natural Area originally designated 142 acres for protection. To ease opposition from Memphis Mayor A C Wharton and Memphis Zoo officials,14 acres of forest adjacent to the zoo were removed from the protective area, a grassroots organization, the Citizens to Preserve Overton Park, rallied to protect the forest. In Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe the U. S. Supreme Court finally saved the Old Forest from highway construction plans in 1971, in 1987, the Tennessee Department of Transportation deeded the 26-acre corridor back to the City of Memphis. In 2008, the Memphis Zoo clear-cut 4 acres to make way for a new exhibit, the destruction sparked the revival of CPOP to prevent further expansion of the zoo into the Old Forest. The Old Forest, Park Friends Inc, Citizens to Preserve Overton Park List of botanical gardens in the United States
14.
Old growth forest
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Old-growth features include diverse tree-related structures that provide diverse wildlife habitat that increases the biodiversity of the forested ecosystem. The concept of tree structure includes multi-layered canopies and canopy gaps, greatly varying tree heights and diameters. Old-growth forests are valuable, and logging of these forests has been a point of contention between the logging industry and environmentalists. Old-growth forests tend to have trees and standing dead trees, multi-layered canopies with gaps that result from the deaths of individual trees. Depending on the forest, this may take anywhere from a century to several millennia, hardwood forests of the eastern United States can develop old-growth characteristics in one or two generations of trees, or 150–500 years. In British Columbia, Canada, old growth is defined as 120 to 140 years of age in the interior of the province where fire is a frequent and natural occurrence. In British Columbia’s coastal rainforests, old growth is defined as more than 250 years. In Australia, eucalypt trees rarely exceed 350 years of age due to frequent fire disturbance, Forest types have very different development patterns, natural disturbances and appearances. Levels of biodiversity may be higher or lower in old-growth forests compared to that in second-growth forests, depending on circumstances, environmental variables. Logging in old-growth forests is an issue in many parts of the world. Excessive logging reduces biodiversity, affecting not only the old-growth forest itself, a forest in old-growth stage has a mix of tree ages, due to a distinct regeneration pattern for this stage. New trees regenerate at different times from other, because each one of them has different spatial location relative to the main canopy. The mixed age of the forest is an important criterion in ensuring that the forest is a stable ecosystem in the long term. A climax stand that is uniformly aged becomes senescent and degrades within a relatively short time-period to result in a new cycle of forest succession, thus, uniformly aged stands are a less stable ecosystem. Forest canopy gaps are essential in creating and maintaining mixed-age stands, also, some herbaceous plants only become established in canopy openings, but persist beneath an understory. Openings are a result of death due to small impact disturbances such as wind, low-intensity fires. Because old-growth forest is structurally diverse it provides higher-diversity habitat than forests in other stages, thus, sometimes higher biological diversity can be sustained in old-growth forest, or at least a biodiversity that is different from other forest stages. The characteristic topography of much old-growth forest consists of pits and mounds, mounds are caused by decaying fallen trees, and pits by the roots pulled out of the ground when trees fall due to natural causes, including being pushed over by animals
15.
Tennessee
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Tennessee is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th largest and the 16th most populous of the 50 United States, Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Appalachian Mountains dominate the eastern part of the state, Tennessees capital and second largest city is Nashville, which has a population of 654,610. Memphis is the states largest city, with a population of 655,770, the state of Tennessee is rooted in the Watauga Association, a 1772 frontier pact generally regarded as the first constitutional government west of the Appalachians. What is now Tennessee was initially part of North Carolina, Tennessee was admitted to the Union as the 16th state on June 1,1796. Tennessee was the last state to leave the Union and join the Confederacy at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, occupied by Union forces from 1862, it was the first state to be readmitted to the Union at the end of the war. Tennessee furnished more soldiers for the Confederate Army than any other state besides Virginia and this sharply reduced competition in politics in the state until after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-20th century. This city was established to house the Manhattan Projects uranium enrichment facilities, helping to build the worlds first atomic bomb, Tennessees major industries include agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism. Poultry, soybeans, and cattle are the primary agricultural products, and major manufacturing exports include chemicals, transportation equipment. In the early 18th century, British traders encountered a Cherokee town named Tanasi in present-day Monroe County, the town was located on a river of the same name, and appears on maps as early as 1725. The meaning and origin of the word are uncertain, some accounts suggest it is a Cherokee modification of an earlier Yuchi word. It has been said to mean meeting place, winding river, according to ethnographer James Mooney, the name can not be analyzed and its meaning is lost. The modern spelling, Tennessee, is attributed to James Glen, the governor of South Carolina, the spelling was popularized by the publication of Henry Timberlakes Draught of the Cherokee Country in 1765. In 1788, North Carolina created Tennessee County, the county to be established in what is now Middle Tennessee. When a constitutional convention met in 1796 to organize a new out of the Southwest Territory. Other sources differ on the origin of the nickname, according to the Columbia Encyclopedia. Tennessee ties Missouri as the state bordering the most other states, the state is trisected by the Tennessee River. The highest point in the state is Clingmans Dome at 6,643 feet, Clingmans Dome, which lies on Tennessees eastern border, is the highest point on the Appalachian Trail, and is the third highest peak in the United States east of the Mississippi River
16.
Arboretum
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An arboretum in a narrow sense is a collection of trees only. Related collections include a fruticetum, and a viticetum, a collection of vines, more commonly, today, an arboretum is a botanical garden containing living collections of woody plants intended at least partly for scientific study. An arboretum specializing in growing conifers is known as a pinetum, other specialist arboreta include saliceta, populeta, and querceta. The term arboretum was first used in an English publication by John Claudius Loudon in 1833 in The Gardeners Magazine, egyptian Pharaohs planted exotic trees and cared for them, they brought ebony wood from the Sudan, and pine and cedar from Syria. It is reported that Hatshepsut had these trees planted in the courts of her Deir el Bahri mortuary temple complex, Arboreta are special places for the cultivation and display of a wide variety of different kinds of trees and shrubs. Many tree collections have been claimed as the first arboretum, in most cases, however, Arboreta differ from pieces of woodland or plantations because they are botanically significant collections with a variety of examples rather than just a few kinds. Of course there are many tree collections that are older than the eighteenth century in different parts of the world. Loudons Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum,8 vols, Loudon urged that a national arboretum be created and called for arboreta and other systematic collections to be established in public parks, private gardens, country estates and other places. He regarded the Derby Arboretum as the most important landscape-gardening commission of the part of his career because it demonstrated the benefits of a public arboretum. The more lofty trees suffered from the high winds. We walked round the two spirals of this coil of trees and shrubs, viz. from Acer to Quercus. There is no garden scene about London so interesting, a plan of Loddiges arboretum was included in The Encyclopaedia of Gardening,1834 edition. One example of an early European tree collection is the Trsteno Arboretum, the date of its founding is unknown, but it was already in existence by 1492, when a 15 m span aqueduct to irrigate the arboretum was constructed, this aqueduct is still in use. The garden was created by the prominent local Gučetić/Gozze family and it suffered two major disasters in the 1990s but its two unique and ancient Oriental Planes remained standing. Udhagamandalam Arboretum, The Nilgiris, India The arboretum at Ooty was established in 1992 with an aim of conserving native and indigenous trees and it was established during the year 1992 and maintained by Department of Horticulture with Hill Area Development Programme funds. The area is the natural habitats of indigenous and migratory birds. During the year 2005-2006, it was rehabilated with funds provided by the Hill Area Development Programme by providing permanent fencing, a foot path, and other infrastructure facilities. The arboretum is the realization of the dream of William Douglas Cook, the arboretum is now the National Arboretum of New Zealand, and holds some 4,000 different trees, shrubs and climbers
17.
Memphis Parkway System
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They consist of South Parkway, East Parkway, and North Parkway. Designed by George Kessler, the Parkway System connects Martin Luther King Jr. Riverside Park with Overton Park, the system was put on the National Register of Historic Places on July 3,1989. Starting in 1897, several areas of land were annexed into the city and these lands were purchased in 1901. In that same year, the city selected George Kessler to lay out this new plan, planning and construction of the Leas Woods tract of land was started in 1902 and completed in the same year. The development and construction of Wilderberger Farm started in the same year, the development and construction of what is now known as the Parkway System started in 1904. The project had been delayed due to a lawsuit stating the government was using its power of eminent domain incorrectly, instead of a winding system of meandering parkways, Kessler decided to create a rectangular border around the city of Memphis using some existing streets. South Parkway and East Parkway were constructed first, North Parkway was originally known as Summer Avenue. North Parkway was also known as Speedway, Kessler originally designed parts of the Parkway System to be straight portions of tree-lined avenues where car and carriage owners could race against each other. However, the city of Memphis ended this practice in 1910, today, the roads racing past can still be seen in the name of the Speedway Terrace Historical District along North Parkway near Watkins Street. The entire parkway system was completed in 1906, after its completion, residential development along its route increased. Many cities in Tennessee used Memphis park and parkway system as a model for their own urban planning, the Parkway System roughly marked the citys boundaries for many years to come and is still an important corridor in the city of Memphis. Moving in a direction from the southwest corner, the Parkway System starts at Martin Luther King Jr. Riverside Park. It crosses Interstate 55 next to the park and continues east and this portion, known as South Parkway West, is a four-lane undivided road through an industrial area with no boulevard median or landscaping. After crossing Interstate 240/Interstate 69, the known as South Parkway East becomes divided with a wooded boulevard median. South Parkway, after passing U. S. Highway 78, temporarily, the routes name reverts to South Parkway East, as it turns eastbound and intersects with South Cooper St. and East McLemore Avenue. South Parkway East becomes East Parkway South once again at its intersection with Airways Boulevard and it also picks up the designation of State Route 277. East Parkway South continues north until it crosses under Union Avenue and becomes East Parkway North. At this point, it picks up U. S. Highway 64, U. S. Highway 70, U. S. Highway 79, when it passes Poplar Avenue, Hwy 72 goes to the east, but it picks up the State Route 57 designation
18.
John Overton (judge)
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John Overton was an American planter, advisor of Andrew Jackson, a judge at the Superior Court of Tennessee, a banker and political leader. Overton was born on April 9,1766 in Louisa County and his parents were James Overton and Mary Waller, his father was a great-grandson of Robert Overton, the Parliamentarian military commander during the English Civil War. In 1787, he began his law career and moved to Nashville, Tennessee in 1789 and he was elected to succeed his friend Andrew Jackson as a member of the Superior Court of Tennessee in 1804, where he served as a judge until 1810. His elder brother Thomas Overton served as Jacksons second in his duel with Charles Dickinson, in 1819, he founded Memphis, Tennessee on land he owned with Andrew Jackson and James Winchester. He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1820 and he was married to Mary McConnell White, the daughter of Knoxville founder, James White. He died April 12,1833 at Travellers Rest, his Nashville home, the nearby John Overton Comprehensive High School, located just across the railroad tracks that abut the property, is named in his honor. Overton Park in midtown of Memphis was named after John Overton, richard Arvine Overton, the oldest living World War II veteran, is his great-great-grandson, despite being of African-American descent. Currently, Karl Burrows, of Beacon Technology Solutions, and his family are living descendants of Overton, other living direct descendants include the Overton family in Nashville who live very close to Travellers Rest. Perkins Baxter Overton grew up playing on the Travelers rest grounds and is the great great grandson of Judge John. His son Thomas Perkins Overton also has a son named John Overton
19.
Andrew Jackson
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Andrew Jackson was an American soldier and statesman who served as the seventh President of the United States from 1829 to 1837 and was the founder of the Democratic Party. Before being elected to the presidency, Jackson served in Congress, as president, Jackson sought to advance the rights of the common man against what he saw as a corrupt aristocracy and to preserve the Union. Jackson was born in 1767 somewhere near the border between North and South Carolina, into a recently immigrated Scots-Irish farming family. During the American Revolutionary War, Jackson acted as a courier, at age 13, he was captured and mistreated by the British. He moved to Tennessee and practiced as a lawyer, in 1791, he married Rachel Donelson Robards. The couple later learned that Rachels previous husband had failed to finalize their divorce, Jackson served briefly in the U. S. House of Representatives and the U. S. Senate. Upon returning to Tennessee, he was appointed a judge on the Tennessee Supreme Court, in 1801, Jackson was appointed colonel in the Tennessee militia, and was elected its commander the following year. He built the Hermitage plantation in 1804, in 1806, he killed a man in a duel over a matter of honor regarding his wife. He led Tennessee militia and U. S. Army regulars during the Creek War of 1813-1814, Jackson won a decisive victory in the War of 1812 over the British army at the Battle of New Orleans, making him into a national hero. Because Spanish Florida was a refuge for blacks escaping slavery, who allied with the Seminole Indians, Jackson invaded the territory in 1816 to destroy the Negro Fort. He led an invasion in 1818, as part of the First Seminole War, resulting in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. Jackson briefly served as Floridas first Territorial Governor in 1821, Jackson was nominated by several state legislatures to be a candidate for president in 1824. Although he earned a plurality in both the electoral and popular vote against three major candidates, Jackson failed to get a majority and lost in the House of Representatives to John Quincy Adams, Jacksons supporters founded what became the Democratic Party. He ran again for president in 1828 against Adams, building and expanding upon his base of support in the West and South, he won in a landslide. He blamed the death of his wife, Rachel, which occurred after the election, on the Adams campaigners, as president, Jackson faced a threat of secession by South Carolina over the Tariff of Abominations, which Congress had enacted under Adams. In contrast to several of his successors, he denied the right of a state to secede from the union or to nullify federal law. The Nullification Crisis was defused when the tariff was amended and Jackson threatened the use of force if South Carolina attempted to secede. Jackson believed strongly in majority rule and he supported direct election of senators and abolition of the Electoral College, believing that these reforms would provide average citizens with greater power
20.
James Winchester
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James Winchester was an officer in the American Revolutionary War and a brigadier general during the War of 1812. He commanded the American forces at the Battle of Frenchtown, which led to the Massacre of the River Raisin, born in Carroll County, Maryland, Winchester enlisted in the Maryland militia during the American Revolution. He served Gen. Hugh Mercers Flying Camp battalion during the months of the war. He was captured by British forces during Gen. John Sullivans failed attempt to take Staten Island on August 22,1777, Winchester was released in a prisoner exchange, and in May 1778 he was commissioned a lieutenant in the 3rd Maryland Regiment. He was taken prisoner a second time at the surrender of Charlestown, exchanged in December, he was promoted to captain and served the remainder of the war under Gen. Nathanael Greene. In 1785, Winchester moved to what is now central Tennessee and he became an officer in the militia and eventually was promoted to brigadier general. Following Tennessees admission to the union in 1796, Winchester was elected to its first Tennessee General Assembly serving in the Tennessee State Senate, in 1802, he completed the construction of his plantation home, Cragfont. In March 1812, three months before the war with Britain began, Winchester was commissioned a general in the United States Army. When the hostilities started, he was placed in command of the Army of the Northwest, winchesters seniority was confirmed in September, but he was forced to relinquish command several days later when Harrison was commissioned a major general in the regular army. Later that month, Winchester commanded one wing of Harrisons advance to Fort Defiance, after engaging in several skirmishes with British and Native American forces, he camped at the Maumee Rapids in December 1812. Early in 1813, Winchester took part in an attempt to recapture Frenchtown, on January 18, his men drove off a smaller Canadian and Indian force and recaptured the American town. However, his men were attacked four days later by a combined British/Indian/Canadian force under Col. Henry Procter in the Battle of Frenchtown, Winchester himself was captured by Roundhead while trying to reach his men. Following the loss of hundreds of his soldiers in the initial assault, despite Procters pledge, Indians accompanying the British slaughtered 68 seriously wounded American soldiers in the Massacre of the River Raisin. Winchester was imprisoned in Canada for more than a year and he was released in a prisoner exchange and assigned to command the District of Mobile. After the wars end, he resigned his commission in March 1815. In 1819, Winchester served on the commission to regulate the Tennessee-Missouri boundary. Along with Andrew Jackson and John Overton, he founded the city of Memphis, Winchester died in Gallatin, Tennessee at the age of 74 on July 26,1826. He is buried in Winchester Cemetery at Gallatin, websters American Military Biographies, Springfield, Mass
21.
Interstate Highway 40
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Interstate 40 is a major east-west Interstate Highway running through the south-central portion of the United States generally north of Interstate 10 and Interstate 20 but south of Interstate 70. The western end is at Interstate 15 in Barstow, California, its end is at a concurrency of U. S. Route 117 and North Carolina Highway 132 in Wilmington. It is the third longest interstate in the United States, behind Interstate 80 and Interstate 90. Much of the part of I-40, from Oklahoma City to Barstow, parallels or overlays the historic U. S. Route 66, east of Oklahoma City the route generally parallels U. S. Route 64. Interstate 40 is a major east–west route of the Interstate Highway System and its western end is in Barstow, California. Known as the Needles Freeway, it heads east from Barstow across the Mojave Desert in San Bernardino County to Needles, I-40 covers 155 miles in California. A sign in California showing the distance to Wilmington, North Carolina has been several times. Interstate 40 is a route to the South Rim of the Grand Canyon, with the exits leading into Grand Canyon National Park in Williams. I-40 covers 359 miles in Arizona, just west of exit 190, west of Flagstaff, is its highest elevation along I-40 in the US, as the road crosses just over 7,320 feet. I-40 also passes through the Navajo Nation, the largest Indian reservation in the US, I-40 covers 374 miles in New Mexico. Notable cities along I-40 include Albuquerque, Santa Rosa, Tucumcari, Grants, I-40 also travels through several different Indian reservations in the western half of the state. It reaches its highest point of 7,275 feet at the Continental Divide in western New Mexico between Gallup and Grants. Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas are the three states where I-40 has a speed limit of 75 mph instead of 70 mph which happens in California, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Tennessee. In the west Texas panhandle area, there are several ranch roads connected directly to the interstate, one of the marked at-grade crossings is shown to the right. The only major city in Texas that is served by I-40 is Amarillo. I-40 has only one center in the state that Is located in Amarillo at the exit for Rick Husband Amarillo International Airport. I-40 covers 331 miles in Oklahoma, Interstate 40 enters the west-central part of the state and runs for 284 miles in Arkansas. The route passes through Van Buren, where it intersects the southbound Interstate 540/US71 to Fort Smith, the route continues east to Alma to intersect Interstate 49 north to Fayetteville, Arkansas
22.
United States Supreme Court
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
23.
Civil Rights Act of 1866
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The Civil Rights Act of 1866,14 Stat. 27-30, enacted April 9,1866, was the first United States federal law to define citizenship and it was mainly intended to protect the civil rights of persons of African descent born in or brought to America, in the wake of the American Civil War. This legislation was enacted by Congress in 1865 but vetoed by President Andrew Johnson, in April 1866 Congress again passed the bill. Although Johnson again vetoed it, a majority in each chamber overcame the veto. John Bingham and some other congressmen argued that Congress did not yet have sufficient constitutional power to enact this law, following passage of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868, Congress reenacted the 1866 Act in 1870. The author of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 was Senator Lyman Trumbull, do they mean that in all things civil, social, political, all citizens, without distinction of race or color, shall be equal. By no means can they be so construed, do they mean that all citizens shall vote in the several States. Nor do they mean that all citizens shall sit on the juries, the definition given to the term civil rights in Bouviers Law Dictionary is very concise, and is supported by the best authority. It is this, Civil rights are those which have no relation to the establishment, support, john Bingham was an influential supporter of this deletion, on the ground that courts might construe the term civil rights more broadly than people like Wilson intended. It could have no operation in Massachusetts, New York, Illinois, the next day, on April 5,1866, the Senate overrode President Johnsons veto. This marked the first time that the U. S. Congress ever overrode a veto for a major piece of legislation. A similar provision was written a few months later into the proposed Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Additionally, the Act guaranteed to all citizens the full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of person and property, as is enjoyed by white citizens, and. The Act used language similar to that of the Equal Protection Clause in the newly proposed Fourteenth Amendment. This statute was a part of general federal policy during Reconstruction. This section of the United States Code, §1981, is based on one of the Civil Rights Act of 1866. John A. Bingham, principal author of the first section of the Fourteenth Amendment, was one of several Republicans who believed that Congress lacked power to pass the 1866 Act, in the 20th century, the U. S. In any event, there is no consensus that the language of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 actually purports to confer any legal benefits upon white citizens
24.
Thurgood Marshall
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Thurgood Marshall was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, serving from October 1967 until October 1991. Marshall was the Courts 96th justice and its first African-American justice and he served on the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit after being appointed by President John F. Kennedy. He was appointed as the Solicitor General by President Lyndon Johnson in 1965, President Johnson nominated him to the United States Supreme Court in 1967 and he was approved by the Senate. Marshall was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on July 2,1908 and his original name was Thoroughgood, but he shortened it to Thurgood in second grade because he disliked spelling it. His father, William Marshall, worked as a porter, and his mother Norma, as a teacher, they instilled in him an appreciation for the United States Constitution. Marshall attended Frederick Douglass High School in Baltimore and was placed in the class with the best students and he graduated a year early in 1925 with a B-grade average, and placed in the top third of the class. It is commonly reported that he intended to study medicine and become a dentist, but according to his application to Lincoln University, Marshall said his goal was to become a lawyer. Among his classmates were poet Langston Hughes and musician Cab Calloway, initially he did not take his studies seriously, and was suspended twice for hazing and pranks against fellow students. He was not politically active at first, becoming a star of the debating team, in his freshman year he opposed the integration of African-American professors at the university. Hughes later described Marshall as rough and ready, loud and wrong, in his second year Marshall participated in a sit-in protest against segregation at a local movie theater. In that year, he was initiated as a member of Alpha Phi Alpha, Marshall wanted to study in his hometown law school, the University of Maryland School of Law, but did not apply because of the schools segregation policy. Marshall instead attended Howard University School of Law, where he worked harder than he had at Lincoln, in 1933, he graduated first in his class at Howard. After graduating from law school, Marshall started a law practice in Baltimore. He began his 25-year affiliation with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in 1934 by representing the organization in the law school discrimination suit Murray v. Pearson, in 1936, Marshall became part of the national staff of the NAACP. In Murray v. Black students in Maryland wanting to study law had to attend segregated establishments, Morgan College, whatever system is adopted for legal education must furnish equality of treatment now. At the age of 32, Marshall won U. S. Supreme Court case Chambers v. Florida,309 U. S.227 and that same year, he founded and became the executive director of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. In total, Marshall won 29 out of the 32 cases he argued before the Supreme Court, during the 1950s, Thurgood Marshall developed a friendly relationship with J. Edgar Hoover, the director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. In 1956, for example, he privately praised Hoovers campaign to discredit T. R. M, Howard, a maverick civil rights leader from Mississippi
25.
Art museum
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An art museum or art gallery is a building or space for the exhibition of art, usually visual art. Museums can be public or private, but what distinguishes a museum is the ownership of a collection, the term is used for both public galleries, which are non-profit or publicly owned museums that display selected collections of art. On the other hand, private galleries refers to the commercial enterprises for the sale of art, however, both types of gallery may host traveling exhibits or temporary exhibitions including art borrowed from elsewhere. In broad terms, in North American usage, the word gallery alone often implies a private gallery, the term contemporary art gallery refers usually to a privately owned for-profit commercial gallery. These galleries are found clustered together in large urban centers. Smaller cities are home to at least one gallery, but they may also be found in towns or villages. Contemporary art galleries are open to the general public without charge, however. They usually profit by taking a portion of art sales, from 25% to 50% is typical, there are also many non-profit or collective galleries. Some galleries in cities like Tokyo charge the artists a flat rate per day, curators often create group shows that say something about a certain theme, trend in art, or group of associated artists. Galleries sometimes choose to represent artists exclusively, giving them the opportunity to show regularly, a gallerys definition can also include the artist cooperative or artist-run space, which often operates as a space with a more democratic mission and selection process. A vanity gallery is an art gallery that charges fees from artists in order to show their work, the shows are not legitimately curated and will frequently or usually include as many artists as possible. Most art professionals are able to identify them on an artists resume, University art museums and galleries constitute collections of art that are developed, owned, and maintained by all kinds of schools, community colleges, colleges, and universities. This phenomenon exists in both the West and East, making it a global practice, although largely overlooked, there are over 700 university art museums in America alone. This number, in comparison to other kinds of art museums, throughout history, large and expensive works of art have generally been commissioned by religious institutions and monarchs and been displayed in temples, churches, and palaces. Although these collections of art were private, they were made available for viewing for a portion of the public. In classical times, religious institutions began to function as a form of art gallery. Wealthy Roman collectors of engraved gems and other precious objects often donated their collections to temples and it is unclear how easy it was in practice for the public to view these items. At the Palace of Versailles, entrance was restricted to wearing the proper apparel – the appropriate accessories could be hired from shops outside
26.
Levitt Shell
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The Levitt Shell is an open-air amphitheater located in Overton Park, Memphis, Tennessee. Elvis Presley gave his first paid concert there on July 30,1954, the Overton Park Shell was built in 1936 by the City of Memphis and the Works Progress Administration for $11,935, as part of the New Deal. Designed by architect Max Furbringer, it was modeled after similar shells in Chicago, New York, the WPA built 27 band shells, the Overton Park Shell is one of only a few that still remain. During the 1930s and 1940s, the Shell was the site of Memphis Open Air Theater orchestral shows, along with light opera. However, on July 30,1954, Elvis Presley opened for headliner Slim Whitman, in the mid-1960s, the Shell was turned over to the Memphis Arts Center, who planned to raze it in order to build a $2 million theater. However, a campaign led by Noel Gilbert, long-time conductor of the Memphis Concert Orchestra, later, in 1972, the Shell was nearly removed in order to build a parking garage, but was again saved by the outcry from the community. In 1982, the National Conference of Christians and Jews proposed a restoration, however, they could not raise the necessary funds, so by 1984, the previous plan for a parking lot began once again. This time, the Shell was saved by Mayor Richard Hackett and he pledged to fund a renovation if a private group would spearhead an arts program. In 1985, the Shell lay dormant for the first time in its history, in 1986, a corporation was formed by private citizens named Save Our Shell, Inc. For the following 20 years, Save Our Shell presented hundreds of free programs there, in 2007, the Shell was renamed Levitt Shell at Overton Park and a large-scale renovation funded by the Levitt Foundation took place. The renovation was conducted by Memphis firm Askew Nixon Ferguson Architects with state-of-the-art audio, with the completion of the renovations on September 8,2008, free concerts are now once again held in the Shell. The Shell offers concerts on Thursday, Friday, Saturday, and Sunday nights during its spring, in the summer of 2011, Indie Memphis debuted The Concert Film Series, presenting free concert films for the public on weekends during the summer months
27.
Elvis Presley
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Elvis Aaron Presley was an American singer and actor. Regarded as one of the most significant cultural icons of the 20th century, he is referred to as the King of Rock and Roll. Presley was born in Tupelo, Mississippi, and relocated to Memphis and his music career began there in 1954, when he recorded a song with producer Sam Phillips at Sun Records. Accompanied by guitarist Scotty Moore and bassist Bill Black, Presley was a popularizer of rockabilly. RCA Victor acquired his contract in a deal arranged by Colonel Tom Parker, Presleys first RCA single, Heartbreak Hotel, was released in January 1956 and became a number-one hit in the United States. He was regarded as the figure of rock and roll after a series of successful network television appearances. In November 1956, Presley made his debut in Love Me Tender. In 1958, he was drafted into military service, in 1973, Presley featured in the first globally broadcast concert via satellite, Aloha from Hawaii. Several years of drug abuse severely damaged his health. Presley is one of the most celebrated and influential musicians of the 20th century and he won three Grammys, also receiving the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award at age 36, and has been inducted into multiple music halls of fame. Presley was born on January 8,1935, in Tupelo, Mississippi, to Gladys Love and Vernon Elvis Presley, Jesse Garon Presley, his identical twin brother, was delivered stillborn 35 minutes before his own birth. Thus, as a child, Presley became close to both parents and formed an especially close bond with his mother. The family attended an Assembly of God, where he found his musical inspiration. Although he was in conflict with the Pentecostal church in his later years, rev. Rex Humbard officiated at his funeral, as Presley had been an admirer of Humbards ministry. Presleys ancestry was primarily a Western European mix, including Scots-Irish, Scottish, German, gladyss great-great-grandmother, Morning Dove White, was possibly a Cherokee Native American. Gladys was regarded by relatives and friends as the dominant member of the small family, Vernon moved from one odd job to the next, evincing little ambition. The family often relied on help from neighbors and government food assistance, the Presleys survived the F5 tornado in the 1936 Tupelo–Gainesville tornado outbreak. In 1938, they lost their home after Vernon was found guilty of kiting a check written by the landowner, Orville S. Bean and he was jailed for eight months, and Gladys and Elvis moved in with relatives
28.
Works Progress Administration
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In a much smaller but more famous project, Federal Project Number One, the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in large arts, drama, media, and literacy projects. Almost every community in the United States had a new park, the WPAs initial appropriation in 1935 was for $4.9 billion. Headed by Harry Hopkins, the WPA provided jobs and income to the unemployed during the Great Depression in the United States. At its peak in 1938, it provided jobs for three million unemployed men and women, as well as youth in a separate division, the National Youth Administration. Between 1935 and 1943, when the agency was disbanded, the WPA employed 8.5 million people, most people who needed a job were eligible for employment in some capacity. Hourly wages were set to the prevailing wages in each area. The stated goal of building programs was to end the depression or, at least, alleviate its worst effects. Millions of people needed subsistence incomes, Work relief was preferred over public assistance because it maintained self-respect, reinforced the work ethic, and kept skills sharp. The WPA was a program that operated its own projects in cooperation with state and local governments. Usually the local sponsor provided land and often trucks and supplies, WPA sometimes took over state and local relief programs that had originated in the Reconstruction Finance Corporation or Federal Emergency Relief Administration programs. It was liquidated on June 30,1943, as a result of low unemployment due to the shortage of World War II. The WPA had provided millions of Americans with jobs for eight years, on May 6,1935, FDR issued Executive Order 7034, establishing the Works Progress Administration. The WPA superseded the work of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, direct relief assistance was permanently replaced by a national work relief program—a major public works program directed by the WPA. The WPA was largely shaped by Harry Hopkins, supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, both Roosevelt and Hopkins believed that the route to economic recovery and the lessened importance of the dole would be in employment programs such as the WPA. The Division of Professional and Service Projects, which was responsible for projects including education programs, recreation programs. It was later named the Division of Community Service Programs and the Service Division, the Division of Investigation, which succeeded a comparable division at FERA and investigated fraud, misappropriation of funds and disloyalty. The Division of Statistics, also known as the Division of Social Research, the Project Control Division, which processed project applications. Other divisions including the Employment, Management, Safety, Supply, the goal of the WPA was to employ most of the unemployed people on relief until the economy recovered
29.
New Deal
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The New Deal was a series of programs, including, most notably, Social Security, that were enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938, and a few that came later. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as executive orders during the first term of the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Republicans were split, with opposing the entire New Deal as an enemy of business and growth. By 1936 the term liberal typically was used for supporters of the New Deal, from 1934 to 1938, Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavours by a pro-spender majority in Congress. In the 1938 midterm elections, however, Roosevelt and his supporters lost control of Congress to the bipartisan conservative coalition. Many historians distinguish between a First New Deal and a Second New Deal, with the one more liberal. The First New Deal dealt with the banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act. The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted to prevent a repeated stock market crash, the controversial work of the National Recovery Administration was also part of the First New Deal. The economic downturn of 1937–38, and the split between the AFL and CIO labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938. Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal Conservative Coalition, by 1942–43 they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and Civilian Conservation Corps and blocked major liberal proposals. Roosevelt himself turned his attention to the war effort, and won reelection in 1940 and 1944, the Supreme Court declared the National Recovery Administration and the first version of the Agricultural Adjustment Act unconstitutional, however the AAA was rewritten and then upheld. As the first Republican president elected after Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower left the New Deal largely intact, Johnsons Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs, which Republican Richard M. Nixon generally retained. After 1974, however, the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support, the New Deal regulation of banking was suspended in the 1990s. The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System, the phrase New Deal was coined by an adviser to Roosevelt, Stuart Chase. Although the term was used by Mark Twain in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court. From 1929 to 1933 manufacturing output decreased by one third, prices fell by 20%, causing deflation that made repaying debts much harder. Unemployment in the U. S. increased from 4% to 25%, additionally, one-third of all employed persons were downgraded to working part-time on much smaller paychecks. In the aggregate, almost 50% of the nations human work-power was going unused, before the New Deal, there was no insurance on deposits at banks
30.
American black bear
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The American black bear is a medium-sized bear native to North America. It is the continents smallest and most widely distributed bear species, Black bears are omnivores, with their diets varying greatly depending on season and location. They typically live in forested areas, but do leave forests in search of food. Sometimes they become attracted to human communities because of the availability of food. The American black bear is the worlds most common bear species, along with the brown bear, it is one of only two of the eight modern bear species not considered globally threatened with extinction by the IUCN. American black bears often mark trees using their teeth and claws as a form of communication with other bears, a behavior common to many species of bears. Despite living in North America, American black bears are not closely related to bears and polar bears. American and Asian black bears are considered sister taxa, and are closely related to each other than to other species of bear. Reportedly, the sun bear is also a recent split from this lineage. A small primitive bear called Ursus abstrusus is the oldest known North American fossil member of the genus Ursus and this suggests that U. abstrusus may be the direct ancestor of the American black bear, which evolved in North America. Although Wolverton and Lyman still consider U. vitabilis an apparent precursor to modern black bears, the ancestors of American black bears and Asiatic black bears diverged from sun bears 4.58 mya. The American black bear then split from the Asian black bear 4.08 mya, the earliest American black bear fossils, which were located in Port Kennedy, Pennsylvania, greatly resemble the Asiatic species, though later specimens grew to sizes comparable to grizzlies. From the Holocene to present, American black bears seem to have shrunk in size, the American black bear lived during the same period as short-faced bears and the Florida spectacled bear. These Tremarctine bears evolved from bears that had emigrated from Asia to North America 7–8 ma, however, both Arctodus and Tremarctos had survived several other ice ages. American black bears are reproductively compatible with several other bear species, according to Jack Hannas Monkeys on the Interstate, a bear captured in Sanford, Florida, was thought to have been the offspring of an escaped female Asian black bear and a male American black bear. In 1859, a bear and a Eurasian brown bear were bred together in the London Zoological Gardens. In the reports published since this date three species have produced young, a black bear shot in autumn 1986 in Michigan was thought by some to be a black bear/grizzly bear hybrid, due to its unusually large size and its proportionately larger braincase and skull. DNA testing was unable to determine whether it was a black bear or grizzly
31.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
32.
Panda
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The giant panda, also known as panda bear or simply panda, is a bear native to south central China. It is easily recognized by the large, distinctive black patches around its eyes, over the ears, the name giant panda is sometimes used to distinguish it from the unrelated red panda. Though it belongs to the order Carnivora, the giant pandas diet is over 99% bamboo, Giant pandas in the wild will occasionally eat other grasses, wild tubers, or even meat in the form of birds, rodents or carrion. In captivity, they may receive honey, eggs, fish, yams, shrub leaves, oranges, the giant panda lives in a few mountain ranges in central China, mainly in Sichuan province, but also in neighbouring Shaanxi and Gansu. As a result of farming, deforestation, and other development, the giant panda is a conservation reliant vulnerable species. A2007 report showed 239 pandas living in captivity inside China, as of December 2014,49 giant pandas lived in captivity outside China, living in 18 zoos in 13 different countries. Some reports also show that the number of giant pandas in the wild is on the rise, in March 2015, Mongabay stated that the wild giant panda population had increased by 268, or 16. 8%, to 1,864 individuals. In 2016, the IUCN reclassified the species from endangered to vulnerable, while the dragon has often served as Chinas national symbol, internationally the giant panda appears at least as commonly. As such, it is becoming widely used within China in international contexts, for many decades, the precise taxonomic classification of the giant panda was under debate because it shares characteristics with both bears and raccoons. However, molecular studies suggest the giant panda is a bear and part of the family Ursidae. The giant pandas closest extant relative is the bear of South America. The giant panda has been referred to as a living fossil, despite the shared name, habitat type, and diet, as well as a unique enlarged bone called the pseudo thumb the giant panda and red panda are only distantly related. The word panda was borrowed into English from French, but no explanation of the origin of the French word panda has been found. The closest candidate is the Nepali word ponya, possibly referring to the adapted wrist bone of the red panda, the Western world originally applied this name to the red panda. Until 1901, when it was stated to be related to the red panda. Even in 2013, the Encyclopædia Britannica still used giant panda or panda bear for the bear, since the earliest collection of Chinese writings, the Chinese language has given the bear 20 different names, such as huāxióng and zhúxióng. The most popular names in China today is dàxióngmāo, or simply xióngmāo, the name xióngmāo was originally used to describe the red panda, but since giant panda was thought to be closely related to red panda, dàxióngmāo was named relatively. In Taiwan, another name for panda is the inverted dàmāoxióng, though many encyclopediae
33.
Polar bear
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The polar bear is a carnivorous bear whose native range lies largely within the Arctic Circle, encompassing the Arctic Ocean, its surrounding seas and surrounding land masses. It is a bear, approximately the same size as the omnivorous Kodiak bear. A boar weighs around 350–700 kg, while a sow is about half that size, although most polar bears are born on land, they spend most of their time on the sea ice. Their scientific name means maritime bear and derives from this fact, Polar bears hunt their preferred food of seals from the edge of sea ice, often living off fat reserves when no sea ice is present. Because of expected habitat loss caused by change, the polar bear is classified as a vulnerable species. For decades, large-scale hunting raised international concern for the future of the species, for thousands of years, the polar bear has been a key figure in the material, spiritual, and cultural life of circumpolar peoples, and polar bears remain important in their cultures. Constantine John Phipps was the first to describe the polar bear as a species in 1774. He chose the scientific name Ursus maritimus, the Latin for maritime bear, the Inuit refer to the animal as nanook. The Yupik also refer to the bear as nanuuk in Siberian Yupik, the bear is umka in the Chukchi language. In Russian, it is usually called бе́лый медве́дь, though a word still in use is ошку́й. In the Norwegian-administered Svalbard archipelago, the bear is referred to as Isbjørn. The polar bear was considered to be in its own genus. The bear family, Ursidae, is thought to have split off from other carnivorans about 38 million years ago, the Ursinae subfamily originated approximately 4.2 million years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is a 130,000 to 110, 000-year-old jaw bone, fossils show that between 10,000 and 20,000 years ago, the polar bears molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear. Polar bears are thought to have diverged from a population of bears that became isolated during a period of glaciation in the Pleistocene or from the eastern part of Siberia. The evidence from DNA analysis is more complex, the mitochondrial DNA of the polar bear diverged from the brown bear, Ursus arctos, roughly 150,000 years ago. The mtDNA of extinct Irish brown bears is particularly close to polar bears, when the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified, Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter Simon Pallas in 1776. This distinction has since been invalidated, one alleged fossil subspecies has been identified, Ursus maritimus tyrannus became extinct during the Pleistocene
34.
Animal
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Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia. The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the group to the choanoflagellates. Animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives and their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs, they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance, most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates, vertebrates have a backbone or spine, and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, the remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs, arthropods, annelids, nematodes, flatworms, cnidarians, ctenophores, the study of animals is called zoology. The word animal comes from the Latin animalis, meaning having breath, the biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges, jellyfish, insects, and humans. Aristotle divided the world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carl Linnaeus, in the first hierarchical classification. In Linnaeuss original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, in 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms, Metazoa and Protozoa. The protozoa were later moved to the kingdom Protista, leaving only the metazoa, thus Metazoa is now considered a synonym of Animalia. Animals have several characteristics that set apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and they are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals. With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges and Placozoa and these include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals
35.
Species
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In biology, a species is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. While this definition is often adequate, looked at more closely it is problematic, for example, with hybridisation, in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies, or in a ring species, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear. Other ways of defining species include similarity of DNA, morphology, all species are given a two-part name, a binomial. The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs, the second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet. For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus, Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed kinds that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time, Charles Darwins 1859 book The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal transfer, and species may become extinct for a variety of reasons. In his biology, Aristotle used the term γένος to mean a kind, such as a bird or fish, a kind was distinguished by its attributes, for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. His approach remained influential until the Renaissance, when observers in the Early Modern period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical, animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently, one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa. In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics and he established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was widely believed that there was no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appeared. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, by the 19th century, naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in 1859, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace provided a compelling account of evolution and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals and this required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what appear to be, ideas
36.
TripAdvisor
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TripAdvisor, Inc. is an American travel website company providing reviews of travel-related content. It also includes interactive travel forums, TripAdvisor was an early adopter of user-generated content. The website services are free to users, who provide most of the content, and the website is supported by a business model. K. In February 2000, TripAdvisor was founded by Stephen Kaufer, Langley Steinert, Kaufer says the original idea wasnt a user generated social media site to swap reviews. Rather, We started as a site where we were focused more on those official words from guidebooks or newspapers or magazines and we also had a button in the very beginning that said, Visitors add your own review, and boy, did that just take off. Pretty soon the number of average consumer reviews far surpassed the number of professional reviews and that is when the site really turned into this collection of what the normal traveler was saying wherever they were going. Original financing was obtained from Flagship Ventures, the Bollard Group, in 2004, the company was purchased by IAC/InterActiveCorp. In August 2005, IAC spun off its travel group of businesses under the Expedia, in April 2009, TripAdvisor launched its official site in China, www. daodao. com. Since then it has indexed more than 20,000 hotels and restaurants information and customer reviews, in September 2010, SmarterTravel, part of TripAdvisor Media Group, launched SniqueAway, the first members-only site where each travel deal is endorsed by the people. In March 2011, TripAdvisor informed all registered TripAdvisor members that a third party had stolen some of TripAdvisors email list. No passwords or other information was stolen and this happened shortly before many other companies reported similar thefts of the addresses on their email lists. In April 2011, it was announced that Expedia would split into two publicly traded companies by spinning off the TripAdvisor brand of travel sites. According to Expedia CEO Dara Khosrowshahi, the allows the two businesses to be pure plays and to operate with the proper amount of focus to grow respectively. In December 2011, TripAdvisor was spun off from Expedia in a public offering, TripAdvisor states it is the world’s largest travel site, with nearly 280 million unique monthly visitors. In April 2012, the company launched a connection to Facebook that lets users select reviews from people in their social graph, in August 2014, a survey found that TripAdvisor was the most widely recognized, used, and trusted travel website. In October 2014, Trip Advisor released a new feature, Just for you, offering tailored hotel recommendations based on the users preferences and this feature mirrored the Tribes feature launched on competitor site Gogobot in 2013. In 2015, Tripadvisor started letting users not only places but tag them, saying, for example that a place offers brunch, is open on Sunday, or offers delivery, takeout. In May 2007 TripAdvisor acquired Smarter Travel Media operator of SmarterTravel. com and BookingBuddy. com, SeatGuru. com, TravelPod. com, and Travel-Library. com
37.
Renovation
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Renovation is the process of improving a broken, damaged, or outdated structure. Renovations are typically either commercial or residential, additionally, renovation can refer to making something new, or bringing something back to life and can apply in social contexts. For example, a community can be renovated if it is strengthened and revived, builders often renovate homes because it is a stable source of income. Wood is versatile and flexible, making it the easiest construction material for renovations, few homeowners or professional remodellers possess the skill and equipment that is required to alter steel-frame or concrete structures. Forest certification verifies that products have been sourced from well-managed forests. In North America, most structures are demolished because of forces such as zoning changes. Additionally, buildings that cannot be modified to serve the needs of the occupants are subject to demolition. Very few buildings on the continent are demolished due to structural degradation, the Athena Institute surveyed 227 commercial and residential buildings that were demolished in St. Paul, Minnesota, between 2000 and mid-2003. Thirty percent of the buildings were less than 50 years old, the four top reasons for demolition were “area redevelopment”, “building’s physical condition”, “not suitable for anticipated use”, and “fire damage”. Lack of maintenance was cited as the problem for 54 of the 70 buildings where physical condition was given as the reason for demolition. Most builders focus on building new homes, so renovating is typically an activity for such tradespeople. The processes and services required for renovations are quite specific and, once plans are signed off, renovations usually require all of the sub-trades that are needed for the construction of a new building. During renovation projects, flexibility is required from renovation companies to respond to unexpected issues that arise. Projects involving renovation require not just flexibility, but a plan that had agreed upon by multiple parties. The planning process will involve feedback from financial investors of the project, part of planning will also entail the collection of data for the completion of the project and then the project plan will be revised and given consent before continuing with renovations
38.
Giant panda
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The giant panda, also known as panda bear or simply panda, is a bear native to south central China. It is easily recognized by the large, distinctive black patches around its eyes, over the ears, the name giant panda is sometimes used to distinguish it from the unrelated red panda. Though it belongs to the order Carnivora, the giant pandas diet is over 99% bamboo, Giant pandas in the wild will occasionally eat other grasses, wild tubers, or even meat in the form of birds, rodents or carrion. In captivity, they may receive honey, eggs, fish, yams, shrub leaves, oranges, the giant panda lives in a few mountain ranges in central China, mainly in Sichuan province, but also in neighbouring Shaanxi and Gansu. As a result of farming, deforestation, and other development, the giant panda is a conservation reliant vulnerable species. A2007 report showed 239 pandas living in captivity inside China, as of December 2014,49 giant pandas lived in captivity outside China, living in 18 zoos in 13 different countries. Some reports also show that the number of giant pandas in the wild is on the rise, in March 2015, Mongabay stated that the wild giant panda population had increased by 268, or 16. 8%, to 1,864 individuals. In 2016, the IUCN reclassified the species from endangered to vulnerable, while the dragon has often served as Chinas national symbol, internationally the giant panda appears at least as commonly. As such, it is becoming widely used within China in international contexts, for many decades, the precise taxonomic classification of the giant panda was under debate because it shares characteristics with both bears and raccoons. However, molecular studies suggest the giant panda is a bear and part of the family Ursidae. The giant pandas closest extant relative is the bear of South America. The giant panda has been referred to as a living fossil, despite the shared name, habitat type, and diet, as well as a unique enlarged bone called the pseudo thumb the giant panda and red panda are only distantly related. The word panda was borrowed into English from French, but no explanation of the origin of the French word panda has been found. The closest candidate is the Nepali word ponya, possibly referring to the adapted wrist bone of the red panda, the Western world originally applied this name to the red panda. Until 1901, when it was stated to be related to the red panda. Even in 2013, the Encyclopædia Britannica still used giant panda or panda bear for the bear, since the earliest collection of Chinese writings, the Chinese language has given the bear 20 different names, such as huāxióng and zhúxióng. The most popular names in China today is dàxióngmāo, or simply xióngmāo, the name xióngmāo was originally used to describe the red panda, but since giant panda was thought to be closely related to red panda, dàxióngmāo was named relatively. In Taiwan, another name for panda is the inverted dàmāoxióng, though many encyclopediae
39.
Association of Zoos & Aquariums
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The AZA is headquartered in Silver Spring, Maryland. In October 1924, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums was formed as an affiliate of the American Institute of Park Executives, in 1966, the AAZPA became a professional branch affiliate of the newly formed National Recreation and Park Association. In January 1994, the shorter name American Zoo and Aquarium Association was adopted, in 1998, there were 134 million visits to North American zoos and aquariums. Ten years later, in 2008, there were 175 million visits to AZA-accredited zoos, the organization is active in institution accreditation, animal care initiatives, education and conservation programs, collaborative research and advocacy in order to achieve this goal. It serves as a body for zoos and aquariums and ensures that accredited facilities meet higher standards of animal care than are required by law. Institutions are evaluated every five years in order to ensure standards are met, the association also facilitates both Species Survival Plans and Population Management Plans, which serve to sustainably manage genetically diverse captive populations of various animal species. In addition, the association sponsors the scientific journal Zoo Biology, the association has established a computerized database called the Annual Report on Conservation and Science. It provides a model for a database to help track research projects worldwide. The database can be searched by key word, name of researcher, topic, country or region, name of institution, conservation program title, name of cooperating institution, type of research, or date. In 2000-2001, member institutions reported that they participated in over 2,230 conservation projects in 94 countries and they published 1,450 books, book chapters, journal articles, conference proceeding papers, posters and theses or dissertations. The publications can be searched using keywords, name of author, type of publication, institution name, or date. Depending on the animals they exhibit, the activities of zoos are regulated by laws including the Endangered Species Act, the Animal Welfare Act, additionally, zoos in North America may choose to pursue accreditation by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums. They shall further be defined as having as their business the exhibition, conservation and preservation of the earths fauna in an educational. Inspection is performed by three experts and then reviewed by a panel of experts before accreditation is awarded. This accreditation process is repeated every five years. The AZA estimates that there are approximately 2,400 animal exhibits operating under USDA license as of February 2007, list of AZA member zoos and aquariums Official website
40.
Old Forest Arboretum
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The Old Forest Arboretum of Overton Park is a forest tract and natural arboretum located in Overton Park, Memphis, Tennessee. It is open to the public daily without charge, the forest was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 as part of the Overton Park Historic District. Tree identification began in 1997, with some 70 tree species identified by 2002 when it was certified as an arboretum, today the arboretum contains walking trails with 49 tree markers identifying 32 species. Approximately three-fourths of the Arboretum was designated as the Old Forest State Natural Area in 2011, conservation of the Old Forest began in 1901, when Overton Park was created when the 342 acres Lea Woods was purchased by the city of Memphis. 172 acres of its original climax oak-hickory cover was preserved as the Old Forest, in 1912, the area was described as follows, More than thirty kinds of native timber are found there. Plant taxonomist Dr. Tom Heineke was hired by Memphis to inventory the Old Forest during 2008 and 2009, large trees measured for possible inclusion as Tennessee Champion Trees included a 27-inch-diameter black cherry, a 46-inch southern red oak, a 62-inch shumard oak, and 9-inch pawpaw. A total of 332 flowering plant species were recorded in 85 families, heinekes management recommendation was removal of evergreen exotic species, such as Chinese privet and pin cherry, which are severely competing with native vegetation. On June 8,2011, Governor Bill Haslam signed the Old Forest State Natural Area bill into law, the bill creating the State Natural Area originally designated 142 acres for protection. To ease opposition from Memphis Mayor A C Wharton and Memphis Zoo officials,14 acres of forest adjacent to the zoo were removed from the protective area, a grassroots organization, the Citizens to Preserve Overton Park, rallied to protect the forest. In Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe the U. S. Supreme Court finally saved the Old Forest from highway construction plans in 1971, in 1987, the Tennessee Department of Transportation deeded the 26-acre corridor back to the City of Memphis. In 2008, the Memphis Zoo clear-cut 4 acres to make way for a new exhibit, the destruction sparked the revival of CPOP to prevent further expansion of the zoo into the Old Forest. The Old Forest, Park Friends Inc, Citizens to Preserve Overton Park List of botanical gardens in the United States
41.
Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem
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The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem is one of the last remaining large, nearly intact ecosystems in the northern temperate zone of the Earth. It is located within the northern Rocky Mountains, in areas of northwestern Wyoming, southwestern Montana, Yellowstone National Park and the Yellowstone Caldera hotspot are within it. Conflict over ecological and resource management has been controversial, and the area is a flagship site among conservation groups that promote ecosystem management, the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem is one of the worlds foremost natural laboratories in landscape ecology and Holocene geology, and is a world-renowned recreational destination. It is also home to the native plants and animals of Yellowstone. Yellowstone National Park boundaries were drawn in 1872 to include all the known geothermal basins in the region, no other landscape ecology considerations were incorporated into boundary decisions. Since then, definitions of the greater ecosystems size have grown larger. A1994 study listed the size as 76,890 square kilometres, federally managed areas within the GYE include, United States National Park Service — Yellowstone National Park, Grand Teton National Park, and John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway. The GYE also encompasses some privately held and state lands surrounding those managed by the U. S. Government, the great ecosystem concept has been most often advanced through concerns over individual species rather than over broader ecological principles. The Yellowstone hot springs are important for their diversity of thermophilic bacteria and these bacteria have been useful in studies of the evolution of photosynthesis and as sources of thermostable enzymes for molecular biology. Although the smell of sulfur is common and there are some sulfur fixing cyanobacteria, in this case, researchers do not have a good long-term data set on the species, but they understand its ecology well enough to project declining future conservation status. A more immediate and serious threat to whitebark pines is an introduced fungal rust disease, White Pine Blister Rust, occasional resistant individuals occur, but in the short to medium term, a severe population decline is expected. Estimates of the decline of quaking aspen on the northern range since 1872 range from 50% to 95%. Perhaps no conservation controversy underway in Greater Yellowstone more clearly reveals the need for comprehensive interdisciplinary research, European influences on wildfire frequency since 1886, regional climate warming. Human harvests of beaver and ungulates in the first 15 years of the parks history, anecdotal information on grizzly bear abundance dates to the mid-19th century, and administrators have made informal population estimates for more than 70 years. From these sources, ecologists know the species was common in Greater Yellowstone when Europeans arrived and that the population was not isolated before the 1930s, researchers do not know if bears were more or less common than now. A 1959-1970 bear study suggested a grizzly bear population size of about 176, later revised to about 229. Later estimates have ranged as low as 136 and as high as 540, the most recent is an estimate of 236. Although the Greater Yellowstone population is close to recovery goals
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Grizzly bear
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The grizzly bear, less commonly known as the silvertip bear, is a large subspecies of brown bear inhabiting North America. Scientists generally do not use the name grizzly bear but call it the North American brown bear, on average bears near the coast tend to be larger while inland Grizzlies tend to be smaller. The Ussuri brown bear inhabiting Russia, Northern China, and Korea is sometimes referred to as black grizzly although it is a different subspecies from the bears in America, meriwether Lewis and William Clark named it to be grisley or grizzly, which could have meant grizzled or fear-inspiring. Nonetheless, after study, naturalist George Ord formally classified it in 1815 – not for its hair. Classification has been revised along genetic lines, there are two morphological forms of Ursus arctos, the grizzly and the coastal brown bears, but these morphological forms do not have distinct mtDNA lineages. Brown bears originated in Eurasia and traveled to North America approximately 50,000 years ago, in the 19th century, the grizzly was classified as 86 distinct species. However, by 1928 only seven grizzlies remained and by 1953 only one species remained globally, however, modern genetic testing reveals the grizzly to be a subspecies of the brown bear. Rausch found that North America has but one species of grizzly, therefore, everywhere it is the brown bear, in North America, it is the grizzly, but these are all the same species, Ursus arctos. Kodiak grizzly bears were also at one time considered distinct, therefore, at one time there were five different species of brown bear, including three in North America. Most adult female grizzlies weigh 130–180 kg, while males weigh on average 180–360 kg. Average total length in this subspecies is 198 cm, with a shoulder height of 102 cm. Newborn bears may weigh less than 500 grams, in the Yukon River area, mature female grizzlies can weigh as little as 100 kg. One study found that the weight for an inland male grizzly was around 272 kilograms. For a female, these average weights would be 136 kilograms inland and 227 kilograms coastal, on the other hand, an occasional huge male grizzly has been recorded which greatly exceeds ordinary size, with weights reported up to 680 kg. A large coastal male of this size may stand up to 3 metres tall on its hind legs, although variable in color from blond to nearly black, grizzly bear fur is typically brown with darker legs and commonly white or blond tipped fur on the flank and back. A pronounced hump appears on their shoulders, the hump is a way to distinguish a grizzly bear from a black bear. Aside from the distinguishing hump a grizzly bear can be identified by a dished in profile of their face with short, rounded ears, whereas a black bear has a straight face profile and longer ears. A grizzly bear can also be identified by its rump, which is lower than its shoulders, a grizzly bears front claws measure about 2-4 inches in length and a black bears measure about 1-2 inches in length
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Gray wolves
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The gray wolf or grey wolf, also known as the timber wolf or western wolf, is a canine native to the wilderness and remote areas of Eurasia and North America. It is the largest extant member of its family, with males averaging 43–45 kg, like the red wolf, it is distinguished from other Canis species by its larger size and less pointed features, particularly on the ears and muzzle. Its winter fur is long and bushy, and predominantly a mottled gray in color, although pure white, red. As of 2005,37 subspecies of C. lupus are recognised by MSW3 and it is nonetheless closely related enough to smaller Canis species, such as the eastern wolf, coyote, and golden jackal to produce fertile hybrids. It is an animal, travelling in nuclear families consisting of a mated pair. The gray wolf is typically an apex predator throughout its range, with only humans and it feeds primarily on large ungulates, though it also eats smaller animals, livestock, carrion, and garbage. The gray wolf is one of the worlds best known and well researched animals, although the fear of wolves is pervasive in many human societies, the majority of recorded attacks on people have been attributed to animals suffering from rabies. The English wolf stems from the Old English wulf, which is thought to be derived from the Proto-Germanic *wulfaz. The Latin lupus is a Sabine loanword, both derive from the Proto-Indo-European root *wlqwos/*lukwos. The species Canis lupus was first recorded by Carl Linnaeus in his publication Systema Naturae in 1758, the thirty-seven subspecies of Canis lupus are listed under the designated common name of wolf in Mammal Species of the World third edition that was published in 2005. The nominate subspecies is the Eurasian wolf, also known as the common wolf, the subspecies includes the domestic dog, dingo, eastern wolf and red wolf, but lists C. l. italicus and C. l. communis as synonyms of C. l. lupus. However, the classification of several as either species or subspecies has recently been challenged, ecological factors including habitat type, climate, prey specialization and predatory competition will greatly influence the wolfs genetic population structure and cranio-dental plasticity. The domestic dog is the most widely abundant large carnivore and a descendant from one of those now-extinct wolf populations, in 2013, a genetic study found that the wolf population in Europe was divided along a north-south axis and formed five major clusters. Three clusters were identified occupying southern and central Europe in Italy, the Carpathians, another two clusters were identified occupying north-central Europe and the Ukrainian steppe. The Italian wolf consisted of a population with low genetic diversity. Wolves from Croatia, Bulgaria, and Greece formed the Dinaric-Balkans cluster, the wolves from the Carpathians were more similar to the wolves from the Pontic-Caspian Steppe than they were to wolves from north-central Europe. These clusters may have been the result of expansion from glacial refugia, an adaptation to environments, and landscape fragmentation. These six wolf ecotypes were named West Forest, Boreal Forest, Arctic, High Arctic, Baffin, the studies found that precipitation and mean diurnal temperature range were the most influential variables
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Trumpeter swan
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The trumpeter swan is a species of swan found in North America. The heaviest living bird native to North America, it is also the largest extant species of waterfowl with a wingspan that may exceed 10 ft. It is the American counterpart and a relative of the whooper swan of Eurasia. Careful reintroductions by wildlife agencies and the Trumpeter Swan Society gradually restored the North American wild population to over 46,000 birds by 2010, the trumpeter swan is the largest extant species of waterfowl. Adults usually measure 138–165 cm long, though males can exceed 180 cm in total length. The weight of birds is typically 7–13.6 kg. Possibly due to seasonal variation based on access and variability due to age, average weights in males have been reported to range from 10.9 to 12.7 kg. It is one of the heaviest living birds or animals capable of flight, the trumpeter swans wingspan ranges from 185 to 250 cm, with the wing chord measuring 60–68 cm. The largest known male trumpeter attained a length of 183 cm, a wingspan of 3.1 m, the adult trumpeter swan is all white in plumage. Like mute swans cygnets, the cygnets of the trumpeter swan have light grey plumage and pinkish legs, as with a whooper swan, this species has upright posture and generally swims with a straight neck. The trumpeter swan has a large, wedge-shaped black bill that can, in some cases, the bill, measuring 10. 5–12 cm, is up to twice the length of a Canada gooses bill and is the largest of any waterfowl. The legs are gray-pink in color, though in some birds can appear gray to even black. The mute swan, introduced to North America, is scarcely smaller, however, it can easily be distinguished by its orange bill and different physical structure. The tundra swan more closely resembles the trumpeter, but is significantly smaller, the neck of a male trumpeter may be twice as long as the neck of a tundra swan. The tundra swan can be distinguished by its yellow lores. However, some trumpeter swans have yellow lores, many of these appear to be leucistic and have paler legs than typical trumpeters. Trumpeter swans have similar calls to whooper swans and Bewicks swans and they are loud and somewhat musical creatures, with their cry sounding similar to a trumpet, which gave the bird its name. Beginning in 1968, repeated in 1975, and then conducted at 5-year intervals, from 1968 to 2010 the population has increased from 3,722 to approximately 46,225 birds, in large part due to re-introductions to its historic range
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Sandhill crane
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The sandhill crane is a species of large crane of North America and extreme northeastern Siberia. The common name of this bird refers to habitat like that at the Platte River and this is the most important stopover area for the nominotypical subspecies, the lesser sandhill crane, with up to 450,000 of these birds migrating through annually. The scientific name is from Latin, grus is crane, adults are gray overall, during breeding, their plumage is usually much worn and stained, particularly in the migratory populations, and looks nearly ochre. The average weight of the males is 4.57 kg, while the average weight of females is 4.02 kg. Sandhill cranes have red foreheads, white cheeks, and long, dark, in flight, their long, dark legs trail behind, and their long necks keep straight. Immature birds have reddish-brown upperparts and gray underparts, sizes vary among the different subspecies, the average height of these birds is around 80 to 122 cm. Their wing chords are typically 41. 8–60 cm, tails are 10–26.4 cm, the exposed culmens are 6. 9–16 cm long, and the tarsi measure 15. 5–26.6 cm. These cranes frequently give a loud, trumpeting call that suggests a rolled r in the throat, mated pairs of cranes engage in unison calling. The cranes stand close together, calling in a synchronized and complex duet, the female makes two calls for every one from the male. Sandhill cranes large wingspans, typically 1.65 to 2.30 m, make them very skilled soaring birds, similar in style to hawks and eagles. Using thermals to obtain lift, they can stay aloft for many hours, requiring only occasional flapping of their wings, migratory flocks contain hundreds of birds, and can create clear outlines of the normally invisible rising columns of air they ride. Sandhill cranes fly south for the winter, in their wintering areas, they form flocks over 10,000. One place this happens is at Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge,100 mi south of Albuquerque, an annual Sandhill Crane Festival is held there in November. Sandhill cranes have one of the longest fossil histories of any extant bird, a 10-million-year-old crane fossil from Nebraska is said to be of this species, but this may be from a prehistoric relative or the direct ancestor of sandhill cranes and not belong in the genus Grus. As these ancient sandhill cranes varied as much in size as present-day birds, Grus haydeni may have been a prehistoric relative, or it may comprise material of a sandhill crane and its ancestor. Sandhill cranes vary considerably in size and in migratory habits, a female of G. c. canadensis averages 3.46 kg,37 in in length and has a wingspan of 1.6 m. A male of G. c. tabida averages 5 kg,119 cm in length and has a wingspan of 2.12 m, the southern subspecies are intermediate, roughly according to Bergmanns rule. Three subspecies are resident, G. c. pulla of the Gulf Coast of the U. S. G. c. pratensis of Florida and Georgia and G. c. nesiotes of Cuba
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Tennessee General Assembly
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The Tennessee General Assembly is the state legislature of the U. S. state of Tennessee. It is a bicameral legislature consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Speaker of the Senate carries the title and office of Lieutenant Governor of Tennessee. In addition to passing a budget for state government plus other legislation and it is also the initiating body in any process to amend the states constitution. To keep the legislature a part-time body, it is limited to ninety legislative days per two-year term, a legislative day is considered any day that the House or Senate formally meets in the chambers of each house. Legislators are paid a salary of $19,009 along with a per diem expense of $171 per legislative day. If the legislature remains in session longer than ninety legislative days, legislators also receive an office allowance of $1,000 per month, ostensibly for the maintenance of an office area devoted to their legislative work in their homes or elsewhere within their district. Traditionally, it has been easier, politically speaking, to raise the per diem, the speaker of each house is entitled to a salary triple that of other members. Under a law enacted in 2004, legislators will receive an equal to that given to state employees the previous year. The governor may also call extraordinary sessions, limited to the topic or topics outlined in the call, two-thirds of each house may also initiate such a call by petitioning for it. See Tennessee Senate and Tennessee House of Representatives for current member lists, legislative days are scheduled no more than three days a week during the session. Legislative sessions in both the House and Senate occur on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays, tuesdays and the majority of Wednesdays are used primarily for committee meetings and hearings rather than actual sessions. Sessions begin each year in January and usually end by May, membership in the legislature is best regarded as being a full-time job during the session and a part-time job the rest of the year due to committee meetings and hearings. In keeping with Tennessees agricultural roots, some senators and representatives are farmers, members are also forbidden from holding campaign fundraising events for themselves during the time they are actually in session. Each house sets its own rules and elects its own speaker, for over three decades, both speakers were from West Tennessee, this caused considerable resentment in the eastern two-thirds of the state. From 1971 until January 2007, Tennessee had the same Lieutenant Governor, John S. Wilder, Wilder was re-elected to the position even after Tennessee Republicans re-took the State Senate in the 2004 election. However, in January 2007, after Republicans gained additional seats in the 2006 General Assembly elections, the General Assembly districts of both houses are supposed to be reapportioned based on population as determined by the U. S. federal census on a decennial basis. This was not done between 1902 and 1962, resulting in the United States Supreme Court decision in Baker v. Carr, which required this action to be taken
