1.
Herbert Hoover
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Herbert Clark Hoover was an American politician who served as the 31st President of the United States from 1929 to 1933 during the Great Depression. He was defeated in a landslide in 1932 by Democrat Franklin D, a lifelong Quaker, he became a successful mining engineer around the globe and retired in 1912. In the First World War he built a reputation as a humanitarian by leading relief efforts in Belgium during the war. He headed the U. S. Food Administration during World War I and his reputation as a Progressive businessman fighting for efficiency and elimination of waste was built as the Secretary of Commerce 1921-28. Hoover was a leader in the Efficiency Movement, which held that every institution public and they all could be improved by experts who could identify the problems and solve them. He also believed in the importance of volunteerism and of the role of individuals in society, in the presidential election of 1928, Hoover easily won the Republican nomination, despite having no elected-office experience. Although Hoover never raised the issue, some of his supporters did in mobilizing anti-Catholic sentiment against his opponent Al Smith. He reluctantly approved the Smoot–Hawley Tariff of 1930, which sent foreign trade spiralling down and he believed it was essential to balance the budget despite falling tax revenue, so he raised the tax rates. The economy kept falling, and the unemployment rate rose to 25%, with industry, mining. This downward spiral, plus his support for policies that had lost favor, set the stage for Hoovers overwhelming defeat in 1932 by Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt. Most historians agree that Hoovers defeat in the 1932 election was caused primarily by the downward economic spiral, Hoover became a conservative spokesman for opposition to the domestic and foreign policies of the New Deal. He opposed entry into the Second World War and was not given any role to play, in 1946, President Harry S. Truman liked Hoover and appointed him to survey war-torn Germany which produced a number of reports that changed U. S. occupation policy. In 1947, Truman appointed Hoover to head the Hoover Commission, by the time of his death, he had rehabilitated his image. Nevertheless, Hoover is often ranked by historians as one of the worst U. S. presidents. Herbert Hoover was born on August 10,1874, in West Branch, Iowa, he would become the only President so far born in that state and the first born west of the Mississippi River. His father, Jesse Hoover, was a blacksmith and farm implement store owner, of German, German-Swiss, Jesse Hoover and his father Eli had moved to Iowa from Ohio twenty years previously. Hoovers mother, Hulda Randall Minthorn, was born in Norwich, Ontario, Canada, both of his parents were Quakers. At about age two he contracted the croup and he was so ill that he was momentarily thought to have died, until he was resuscitated by his uncle, John Minthorn
Herbert Hoover
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Herbert Hoover
Herbert Hoover
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1877 Herbert Hoover Tintype
Herbert Hoover
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Herbert Hoover birthplace cottage, West Branch, Iowa
Herbert Hoover
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Lou Henry, age 17, on a burro and rifle-ready at
Acton, California on August 22, 1891
2.
Edward Terry Sanford
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Edward Terry Sanford was an American jurist who served as an Associate Justice on the United States Supreme Court from 1923 until his death in 1930. Sanford is typically viewed as a justice, favoring strict adherence to antitrust laws. A graduate of Harvard Law School, Sanford practiced law in his hometown of Knoxville, Tennessee, during the 1890s, Sanfords most lasting impact on American law is arguably his majority opinion in the landmark case, Gitlow v. New York. This case, which introduced the doctrine, helped pave the way for many of the Warren Courts decisions expanding civil rights. Sanford was born in Knoxville in 1865, the eldest son of prominent Knoxville businessman Edward J. Sanford, Sanfords father, as president or vice president of nearly a dozen banks and corporations, was one of the primary driving forces behind Knoxvilles late-19th century industrial boom. In 1891, Sanford married Lutie Mallory Woodruff, the daughter of Knoxville hardware magnate W. W. Sanford received a B. A. and a Ph. B. from the University of Tennessee in 1883, a B. A. from Harvard University in 1885, an M. A. from Harvard in 1889, and an LL. B. from Harvard Law School in 1889. He was in practice in Knoxville from 1890 to 1907. One of Sanfords earliest appearances before the Supreme Court came as a representing the appellant, Knoxville Iron Company. The court ruled in favor of Harbison and upheld states right to ban companies from paying employees in scrip rather than cash, as an Assistant Attorney General he was the lead prosecutor in the high-profile trial, United States v. Shipp, et al. This case involved a sheriff, Joseph Shipp, who was convicted of allowing a condemned Negro prisoner, Sanfords conduct of the trial—and particularly his exemplary closing argument— are said to be part of a Great American Trial. This is the criminal trial conducted before the U. S. Supreme Court in which the court exercised original jurisdiction. It was widely followed in the newspapers, Sanford was confirmed by the United States Senate on May 18,1908, and received his commission the same day. Upon the advice of Sanfords friend, Chief Justice William Howard Taft, President Warren Harding nominated Sanford to the Supreme Court on January 24,1923, Sanford was confirmed by the Senate, and received his commission, on January 29,1923. Sanford wrote 130 opinions during his seven years on the Court, Sanford authored the majority opinion in Okanogan Indians v. United States, which upheld the power of the Presidents pocket veto. Other noteworthy opinions by him are Taylor v. Voss,271 U. S.176, Sanford concurred with Tafts dissent in Adkins v. Childrens Hospital. Chief Justice Taft is considered by some to have been Justice Sanfords mentor and they routinely sided together in decisions, and were a part of the courts conservative inner club that regularly met at the Chief Justices house for libations and conviviality on Sundays. As had been the case in their careers, Chief Justice Tafts death overshadowed Justice Sanfords demise, Sanford is interred at Greenwood Cemetery in Knoxville
Edward Terry Sanford
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Edward Terry Sanford
Edward Terry Sanford
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Justice Sanford in his office
3.
Harold Hitz Burton
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Harold Hitz Burton was an American politician and lawyer. He served as the 45th mayor of Cleveland, Ohio, as a U. S, Senator from Ohio, and as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He was known as a dispassionate jurist who prized equal justice under the law, Harold was born in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, the second son of Anna Gertrude and Alfred E. Burton. His younger brother was named Felix Arnold Burton, harolds father was an engineer and the first Dean of Student Affairs at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, reporting to the president. He taught at MIT before being selected as dean, as a former explorer, Burton had accompanied Robert Peary on several expeditions to the North Pole. In 1906, his father married Lena Yates, a poet and they met that year on a walking trip in France. Yates published childrens books as Lena Dalkeith, the couple had three children, Christine, Virginia, and Alexander Ross Burton. The half siblings developed warm relationships over time, Virginia became an author and illustrator. Burton attended Bowdoin College, where he was elected to the Phi Beta Kappa honor society, was quarterback of the football team and his roommate and Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity brother was Owen Brewster, later a U. S. Burton went on to Harvard Law School, graduating in 1912, Felix Arnold Buton became an architect after also attending Bowdoin. The Burton brothers and J. Edgar Hoover were second cousins on their mothers side and their common great-grandparents were Johannes Hitz, first Swiss Consul General to the United States, and his wife Anna Kohler. Burton married Selma Florence Smith in 1912 and they had four children, Barbara, William, Deborah, and Robert. After graduation and marriage, Burton moved with his wife to Cleveland, however, in 1914 he joined his wifes uncle as a company attorney for Utah Power and Light Company in Salt Lake City. He later worked for Utah Light and Traction, and then for Idaho Power Company and Boise Valley Traction Company, when the U. S. entered World War I, Burton joined the United States Army, rising to the rank of Captain. He served as an officer, saw heavy action in France and Belgium. After the war, Burton joined several organizations, including the Army and Navy Union, the Veterans of Foreign Wars. After the war, Burton returned with his family to Cleveland and he also taught at Western Reserve University Law School. In the late 1920s, Burton entered politics as a Republican and he was elected to the East Cleveland Board of Education in 1927, and to the Ohio House of Representatives in 1928
Harold Hitz Burton
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Harold Hitz Burton
4.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
Philadelphia
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From top left, the Philadelphia skyline, a
statue of Benjamin Franklin, the
Liberty Bell, the
Philadelphia Museum of Art,
Philadelphia City Hall, and
Independence Hall
Philadelphia
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An 18th century map of Philadelphia.
Philadelphia
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Penn's Treaty with the Indians by
Benjamin West
Philadelphia
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Benjamin Franklin, 1777
5.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
Pennsylvania
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World's End State Park, Sullivan County
Pennsylvania
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Flag
Pennsylvania
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Autumn in North Branch Township,
Wyoming County, Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
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Penn's Treaty with the Indians, by
Edward Hicks
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
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Flag
United States
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The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
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The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
7.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883. The Republicans supported the pietistic Protestants who demanded Prohibition, nevertheless, by 1890 the Republicans had agreed to the Sherman Antitrust Act and the Interstate Commerce Commission in response to complaints from owners of small businesses and farmers
Republican Party (United States)
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Abraham Lincoln, the first Republican U.S. President (1861–1865).
Republican Party (United States)
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Theodore Roosevelt,
26th President of the United States (1901–1909)
Republican Party (United States)
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Dwight Eisenhower,
34th President of the United States (1953–1961)
Republican Party (United States)
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Richard Nixon,
37th President of the United States (1969–1974)
8.
University of Pennsylvania
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The University of Pennsylvania is a private Ivy League research university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Incorporated as The Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, Penn is one of 14 founding members of the Association of American Universities, the university coat of arms features a dolphin on the red chief, adopted directly from the Franklin familys own coat of arms. Penn was one of the first academic institutions to follow a multidisciplinary model pioneered by several European universities and it was also home to many other educational innovations. The first school of medicine in North America, the first collegiate school. With an endowment of $10.72 billion, Penn had the seventh largest endowment of all colleges in the United States, all of Penns schools exhibit very high research activity. In fiscal year 2015, Penns academic research budget was $851 million, over its history, the university has also produced many distinguished alumni. S. House of Representatives,8 signers of the United States Declaration of Independence, in addition, some 30 Nobel laureates,169 Guggenheim Fellows, and 80 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, have been affiliated with Penn. In addition, Penn has produced a significant number of Fortune 500 CEOs, in 1740, a group of Philadelphians joined together to erect a great preaching hall for the traveling evangelist George Whitefield, who toured the American colonies delivering open air sermons. The building was designed and built by Edmund Woolley and was the largest building in the city at the time and it was initially planned to serve as a charity school as well, however, a lack of funds forced plans for the chapel and school to be suspended. According to Franklins autobiography, it was in 1743 when he first had the idea to establish an academy, however, Peters declined a casual inquiry from Franklin and nothing further was done for another six years. Unlike the other Colonial colleges that existed in 1749—Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Franklin assembled a board of trustees from among the leading citizens of Philadelphia, the first such non-sectarian board in America. At the first meeting of the 24 members of the Board of Trustees the issue of where to locate the school was a prime concern. The original sponsors of the dormant building still owed considerable construction debts and asked Franklins group to assume their debts and, accordingly, on February 1,1750 the new board took over the building and trusts of the old board. On August 13,1751, the Academy of Philadelphia, using the hall at 4th and Arch Streets. A charity school also was chartered July 13,1753 in accordance with the intentions of the original New Building donors, June 16,1755, the College of Philadelphia was chartered, paving the way for the addition of undergraduate instruction. All three schools shared the same Board of Trustees and were considered to be part of the same institution, the institution of higher learning was known as the College of Philadelphia from 1755 to 1779. In 1779, not trusting then-provost the Rev. William Smiths Loyalist tendencies, the result was a schism, with Smith continuing to operate an attenuated version of the College of Philadelphia. In 1791 the Legislature issued a new charter, merging the two institutions into a new University of Pennsylvania with twelve men from each institution on the new Board of Trustees
University of Pennsylvania
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"House intended for the President of the United States" (if Philadelphia remained the National Capital of the United States) from "
Birch's Views of Philadelphia " (1800). Home of the College of Philadelphia/University of Pennsylvania. from 1801 to 1829.
University of Pennsylvania
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Arms of the University of Pennsylvania
University of Pennsylvania
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Benjamin Franklin, (1705/06-1790), was the primary founder, President of the Board of Trustees, and a trustee of the
Academy and College of Philadelphia, which merged with the
University of the State of Pennsylvania to form the University of Pennsylvania in 1791. (
Charles Willson Peale, 1785)
University of Pennsylvania
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Ninth Street Campus (above Chestnut Street): Medical Hall (left) and College Hall (right), both built 1829-1830.
9.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
Bachelor of Arts
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A certificate or diploma evidencing the granting of a bachelor's degree
10.
Juris Doctor
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The Juris Doctor degree, also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence degree, is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. It is earned by completing law school in Australia, Canada and the United States and it has the academic standing of a second-entry, professional baccalaureate degree in Canada, a masters degree in Australia and a professional doctorate in the United States. The degree was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th century and was created as a version of the old European doctor of law degree. Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the study of law. It involves a program in most jurisdictions. To be authorized to practice law in the courts of a state in the United States. Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar of the court before they are authorized to practice in that court. Admission to the bar of a district court includes admission to the bar of the related bankruptcy court. In the United States, the doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor and at some law schools Doctor of Law. Juris Doctor literally means Teacher of Law, while the Latin for Doctor of Jurisprudence—Jurisprudentiae Doctor—literally means Teacher of Legal Knowledge, the J. D. is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor. In institutions where the latter can be earned, e. g. D, the LL. D. is invariably an honorary degree in the United States. The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the school in that city. This served as the model for law schools of the Middle Ages. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees were introduced in Paris, the nature of the J. D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes, the universities taught only civil and canon law but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, by the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the role grew tremendously. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades
Juris Doctor
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Example of a diploma from
Suffolk University Law School conferring the Juris Doctor degree.
Juris Doctor
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The
Inns of Court of London served as a professional school for lawyers in England
Juris Doctor
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Tapping Reeve, founder of the first law school in North America, the
Litchfield Law School, in 1773
Juris Doctor
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Joseph Story, U.S. Supreme Court Justice, lecturer of law at Harvard and proponent of the scientific study of law
11.
Attack on Pearl Harbor
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The attack, also known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor, led to the United States entry into World War II. The Japanese military leadership referred to the attack as the Hawaii Operation and Operation AI, Japan intended the attack as a preventive action to keep the U. S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions they planned in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. Over the next seven hours there were coordinated Japanese attacks on the U. S. -held Philippines, Guam and Wake Island and on the British Empire in Malaya, Singapore, the attack commenced at 7,48 a. m. The base was attacked by 353 Imperial Japanese fighter planes, bombers, all eight U. S. Navy battleships were damaged, with four sunk. All but the USS Arizona were later raised, and six were returned to service, the Japanese also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft training ship, and one minelayer. 188 U. S. aircraft were destroyed,2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded. Important base installations such as the station, shipyard, maintenance. Japanese losses were light,29 aircraft and five midget submarines lost, one Japanese sailor, Kazuo Sakamaki, was captured. The surprise attack came as a shock to the American people. The following day, December 8, the United States declared war on Japan, the U. S. responded with a declaration of war against Germany and Italy. Domestic support for non-interventionism, which had been fading since the Fall of France in 1940, Roosevelt to proclaim December 7,1941, a date which will live in infamy. Because the attack happened without a declaration of war and without explicit warning, over the next decade, Japan continued to expand into China, leading to all-out war between those countries in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China and achieve sufficient resource independence to attain victory on the mainland, from December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay, the Allison incident, and the Nanking Massacre swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan. Fearing Japanese expansion, the United States, the United Kingdom, in 1940, Japan invaded French Indochina in an effort to control supplies reaching China. The United States halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools, and aviation gasoline to Japan, an invasion of the Philippines was also considered necessary by Japanese war planners. War Plan Orange had envisioned defending the Philippines with a 40 and this was opposed by Douglas MacArthur, who felt that he would need a force ten times that size, and was never implemented. By 1941, U. S. planners anticipated abandonment of the Philippines at the outbreak of war and orders to that effect were given in late 1941 to Admiral Thomas Hart, commander of the Asiatic Fleet
Attack on Pearl Harbor
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Photograph of
Battleship Row taken from a Japanese plane at the beginning of the attack. The explosion in the center is a torpedo strike on the
USS West Virginia. Two attacking Japanese planes can be seen: one over the
USS Neosho and one over the Naval Yard.
Attack on Pearl Harbor
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Pearl Harbor on October 30, 1941, looking southwest
Attack on Pearl Harbor
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Route followed by the Japanese fleet to Pearl Harbor and back.
Attack on Pearl Harbor
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An Imperial Japanese Navy
Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter on the aircraft carrier
Akagi.
12.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
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Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
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The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
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Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
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Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
13.
University of Pennsylvania Law School
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The University of Pennsylvania Law School, located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, is the law school of the University of Pennsylvania. A member of the Ivy League, it is among the most prestigious, selective and it is currently ranked 7th overall by U. S. News & World Report. It offers the degrees of Juris Doctor, Master of Laws, Master of Comparative Laws, the entering class typically consists of approximately 250 students, and admission is highly competitive. For the class entering in the fall of 2014, 16% out of 5859 applicants were offered admission, the 25th and 75th LSAT percentiles for the 2014 entering class were 164 and 170, respectively, with a median of 169. The 25th and 75th undergraduate GPA percentiles were 3.52 and 3.95, respectively, Penn Laws July 2012 Pennsylvania Bar Examination passage rate was 96. 08%. The Law School is one of the T14 law schools, that is, the school prides itself on its collegiality and the importance it places on diversity. Over a third of students identify as persons of color, although well known for its corporate and criminal law faculty, the Law School offers an extensive curriculum and hosts various student groups, research centers and activities. Students publish the University of Pennsylvania Law Review, the oldest law journal in the country, according to Penns 2014 ABA-required disclosures,94. 24% of the Class of 2014 obtained full-time, long-term, JD-required employment nine months after graduation, excluding solo practitioners. The law school was ranked #2 of all law schools nationwide by the National Law Journal in terms of sending the highest percentage of 2015 graduates to the largest 100 law firms in the US. Penn began offering a program in law in 1850, under the leadership of George Sharswood. William Draper Lewis was named dean in 1896, in 1900, the Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania approved a move to the Law Schools current location at the intersection of 34th and Chestnut. Under Lewis deanship, the law school was one of the first schools to emphasize legal teaching by full-time professors instead of practitioners, as legal education became more formalized, the school initiated a three-year curriculum and instituted stringent admissions requirements. After 30 years with the law school, Lewis eventually founded the American Law Institute, in 1925, the ALI was later chaired by another of Penn Laws Deans, Herbert Funk Goodrich. Two years before Goodrich was named Dean, the Law School graduated with a J. D. Sadie Tanner Mossell Alexander, the first African-American woman to ever receive a Ph. D. in the United States. The first woman to join the faculty was Martha Field in 1969, now a professor at Harvard Law School, the University of Pennsylvania campus covers over 269 acres in a contiguous area of West Philadelphias University City district. All of Penns schools, including the Law School, and most of its research institutes are located on this campus, the Law School consists of four interconnecting buildings around a central courtyard. Directly opposite is Tanenbaum Hall, home to the Biddle Law Library several law journals, administrative offices, the law library houses 1,053,824 volumes and volume equivalents making it the 4th largest law library in the country. Gittis Hall sits on the side and has new classrooms and new
University of Pennsylvania Law School
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William Draper Lewis, Penn Law's Dean and founder of the
American Law Institute
University of Pennsylvania Law School
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Silverman Hall
University of Pennsylvania Law School
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Professor
Anita L. Allen
University of Pennsylvania Law School
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Owen Roberts, US Supreme Court Justice
14.
Calvin Coolidge
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John Calvin Coolidge Jr. was the 30th President of the United States. A Republican lawyer from Vermont, Coolidge worked his way up the ladder of Massachusetts state politics and his response to the Boston Police Strike of 1919 thrust him into the national spotlight and gave him a reputation as a man of decisive action. Soon after, he was elected as the 29th vice president in 1920, elected in his own right in 1924, he gained a reputation as a small-government conservative, and also as a man who said very little, although having a rather dry sense of humor. Coolidge restored public confidence in the White House after the scandals of his predecessors administration, as a Coolidge biographer wrote, He embodied the spirit and hopes of the middle class, could interpret their longings and express their opinions. That he did represent the genius of the average is the most convincing proof of his strength, Coolidges retirement was relatively short, as he died at the age of 60 in January 1933, less than two months before his immediate successor, Herbert Hoover, left office. Though his reputation underwent a renaissance during the Ronald Reagan administration, John Calvin Coolidge Jr. was born in Plymouth Notch, Windsor County, Vermont, on July 4,1872, the only U. S. president to be born on Independence Day. He held various offices, including justice of the peace and tax collector. Coolidges mother was the daughter of a Plymouth Notch farmer and she was chronically ill and died, perhaps from tuberculosis, when Coolidge was twelve years old. His younger sister, Abigail Grace Coolidge, died at the age of fifteen, probably of appendicitis, Coolidges father remarried in 1891, to a schoolteacher, and lived to the age of eighty. Coolidges family had roots in New England, his earliest American ancestor, John Coolidge, emigrated from Cottenham, Cambridgeshire, England, around 1630 and settled in Watertown. Another ancestor, Edmund Rice, arrived at Watertown in 1638, Coolidges great-great-grandfather, also named John Coolidge, was an American military officer in the Revolutionary War and one of the first selectmen of the town of Plymouth Notch. His grandfather, Calvin Galusha Coolidge, served in the Vermont House of Representatives, many of Coolidges ancestors were farmers, and numerous distant cousins were prominent in politics. Coolidge attended Black River Academy and then Amherst College, where he distinguished himself in the class, as a senior joined the fraternity Phi Gamma Delta. While there, Coolidge was profoundly influenced by philosophy professor Charles Edward Garman, the only hope of perfecting human relationships is in accordance with the law of service under which men are not so solicitous about what they shall get as they are about what they shall give. Yet people are entitled to the rewards of their industry, what they earn is theirs, no matter how small or how great. But the possession of property carries the obligation to use it in a larger service, at his fathers urging after graduation, Coolidge moved to Northampton, Massachusetts to become a lawyer. To avoid the cost of law school, Coolidge followed the practice of apprenticing with a local law firm, Hammond & Field. John C. Hammond and Henry P. Field, both Amherst graduates, introduced Coolidge to law practice in the county seat of Hampshire County, in 1897, Coolidge was admitted to the bar, becoming a country lawyer
Calvin Coolidge
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Coolidge in the late 1910s
Calvin Coolidge
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Prof. Charles E. Garman
Calvin Coolidge
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Grace Coolidge
Calvin Coolidge
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Coolidge inspects militia in Boston police strike
15.
Teapot Dome scandal
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The Teapot Dome Scandal was a bribery incident that took place in the United States from 1921 to 1922, during the administration of President Warren G. Harding. In 1922 and 1923, the became the subject of a sensational investigation by Senator Thomas J. Walsh. Fall was later convicted of accepting bribes from the oil companies, no person was ever convicted of paying the bribes, however. Before the Watergate scandal, Teapot Dome was regarded as the greatest and most sensational scandal in the history of American politics, in the early 20th century, the U. S. Navy largely converted from coal to fuel oil. To ensure that the Navy would always have enough fuel available and this was not implemented until 1922, when Interior Secretary Fall persuaded Navy Secretary Edwin C. Later in 1922, Interior Secretary Albert Fall leased the oil production rights at Teapot Dome to Harry F. Sinclair of Mammoth Oil and he also leased the Elk Hills reserve to Edward L. Doheny of Pan American Petroleum and Transport Company. Both leases were issued without competitive bidding and this manner of leasing was legal under the Mineral Leasing Act of 1920. The lease terms were very favorable to the oil companies, which secretly made Fall a rich man, Fall had received a no-interest loan from Doheny of $100,000 in November 1921. He received other gifts from Doheny and Sinclair totaling about $404,000 and it was this money changing hands that was illegal, not the leases. Fall attempted to keep his actions secret, but the improvement in his standard of living was suspect. In April 1922, a Wyoming oil operator wrote to Senator John B, kendrick, angered that Sinclair had been given a contract to the lands in a secret deal. Kendrick did not respond, but two later on April 15, he introduced a resolution calling for an investigation of the deal. La Follette, Sr. of Wisconsin led an investigation by the Senate Committee on Public Lands, at first, La Follette believed Fall was innocent. However, his suspicions deepened after his own office in the Senate Office Building was ransacked, democrat Thomas J. Walsh of Montana, the most junior minority member, led a lengthy inquiry. For two years, Walsh pushed forward while Fall stepped backward, covering his tracks as he went, no evidence of wrongdoing was initially uncovered as the leases were legal enough, but records kept disappearing mysteriously. Fall had made the leases appear legitimate, but his acceptance of the money was his undoing, by 1924, the remaining unanswered question was how Fall had become so rich so quickly and easily. Money from the bribes had gone to Falls cattle ranch and investments in his business, finally, as the investigation was winding down with Fall apparently innocent, Walsh uncovered a piece of evidence Fall had forgotten to cover up, Dohenys $100,000 loan to Fall. This discovery broke the scandal open, civil and criminal suits related to the scandal continued throughout the 1920s
Teapot Dome scandal
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Oil businessman Edward L. Doheny (second from right, at table) testifying before the Senate Committee investigating the Teapot Dome oil leases in 1924
Teapot Dome scandal
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Teapot Dome around the time of the scandal, featuring Teapot Rock (from postcard, ca 1922)
Teapot Dome scandal
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Teapot Rock viewed from the south. The Teapot Dome oil fields are located north of the rock to the right. (image ca 2009).
Teapot Dome scandal
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Senator
Albert B. Fall, the first former U.S. cabinet official sentenced to prison
16.
John J. Parker
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John Johnston Parker was a U. S. judge who failed confirmation to the Supreme Court by one vote. He was also the U. S. alternate judge at the Nuremberg Trials of Nazi war criminals, John J. Parker was born in Monroe, North Carolina, the son of John Daniel and Frances Johnston Parker. He received the Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1907 and a law degree in 1908. While at the university, Parker was president of his class in his freshman and senior years, of the student council, of the athletic association and he was also a member of the Dialectic Society and an intercollegiate debater. In addition, he won a number of prizes and medals, after leaving the university, Parker practiced law in Greensboro, North Carolina in 1908–1909, and then, from 1910 until 1922, he practiced law in his hometown of Monroe. Parker married Maria Burgwin Maffitt of Wilmington, North Carolina in 1910 and he was nominated by the Republican Party for the United States Congress in 1910 and for North Carolina Attorney General in 1916 and ran unsuccessfully against Cameron A. Morrison for Governor in 1920. In 1922, Parker moved to Charlotte and became head of the law firm of Parker, Stewart, McRae, in 1924, he was elected Republican National Committeeman from North Carolina and delegate to the Republican National Convention which nominated Calvin Coolidge. He became Chief Judge in 1931 and served in capacity until his death in 1958. On March 21,1930, Parker was nominated by President Herbert Hoover to the United States Supreme Court, the rejection of his nomination by the U. S. Senate was the first such unsuccessful nomination to the Supreme Court since that of Wheeler Hazard Peckham in 1894. Owen Roberts was later appointed and confirmed to the seat, in 1945–1946, Parker served as an alternate judge on the International Allied Military Tribunal at Nuremberg, Germany. In 1954, he was elected to serve on the United Nations International Law Commission and he was active in the American Bar Association and the North Carolina Bar Association which occasionally offers the John J. Parker Award, its highest award. Parker was an active Episcopalian and for years a member of the Board of Trustees of the University of North Carolina. Parker died of an attack on March 17,1958 in Washington. Judge John J. Parker Memorial Award North Carolina Bar Associations John J. Parker Memorial Award for 2004 John J. Parker picture | Public Library of Charlotte and Mecklenburg County OurCampaigns. com
John J. Parker
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Francis Biddle (left) with Parker
John J. Parker
John J. Parker
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Parker's Supreme Court nomination
17.
Herbert Hoover Supreme Court candidates
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Additionally, with his failed nomination of John J. Parker, Hoover became the first president since Grover Cleveland to have a Supreme Court nomination rejected by the United States Senate. Chief Justice William Howard Taft retired on February 3,1930, Hughes was confirmed by the United States Senate on February 13,1930 by a vote of 52-26. Hughes had served as Governor of New York, law professor at Cornell, and he ran for President in 1916 and was Secretary of State from 1921 to 1925. Hughes nomination was opposed by progressives and southern Democrats, and also due to his age, at 67, Hughes was the oldest man ever nominated as Chief Justice. He survived the contentious confirmation process, accepted by a vote of 52 to 26, for all of its eleven years, the Hughes Court had to wrestle with the economic problems of the Great Depression. Hughes was prolific, producing 283 opinions during his tenure and he was considered a judicial activist with regard to civil liberties. On economic issues he generally supported limits on the powers of the federal government and states until 1937. Associate Justice Edward T. Sanford died on March 8,1930, on March 21,1930, Hoover nominated John J. Parker to fill the vacancy. Parkers nomination came under fire from organized labor and the NAACP, Hoover moved quickly to name a replacement and nominated Philadelphia attorney Owen Roberts on May 9,1930. Roberts garnered widespread support due to his role in prosecuting the Teapot Dome scandal, in 1932, Justice Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes retired from the Court. Hoover was immediately pressured on a number of fronts to appoint highly esteemed New York judge Benjamin N. Cardozo to the vacancy, the entire faculty of the University of Chicago Law School, as well as the deans of the law schools at Harvard, Yale, and Columbia. Justice Harlan Fiske Stone also strongly urged Hoover to name Cardozo, Hoover, however, originally demurred, there were already two justices from New York, and a Jew on the court, in addition, Justice James McReynolds was a notorious anti-Semite. The New York Times said of Cardozos appointment that seldom, if ever, however, Hoover was running for re-election, eventually against Franklin D. Roosevelt, so a larger political calculation may have been operating. Cardozo was confirmed by a voice vote in the Senate on February 24,1932. On a radio broadcast on March 1,1932, the day of Cardozos confirmation, dill, Democratic Senator for Washington, called Hoovers appointment of Cardozo the finest act of his career as President. Parker Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit William S. Kenyon Benjamin N. Roberts - Private attorney United States federal judge Federal judicial appointment history
Herbert Hoover Supreme Court candidates
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Contents
18.
Four Horsemen (Supreme Court)
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They were Justices Pierce Butler, James Clark McReynolds, George Sutherland, and Willis Van Devanter. They were opposed by the liberal Three Musketeers—Louis Brandeis, Benjamin Cardozo, chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes and Justice Owen J. Roberts controlled the balance. Hughes was more inclined to join the liberals, but Roberts was often swayed to the side of the conservatives, the Court had also struck down the National Industrial Recovery Act in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States 295 U. S.495 the previous May. The Four Horsemen would ride in a car to and from the Court together to coordinate positions and they were bitterly opposed to the New Deal policies for unemployment and economic recovery, and they invalidated state laws regulating labor and business relations. The Fours votes kept Congress and the states from regulating the economy, the result of these dynamics was a steady drift of the Court towards a crisis, the 1935 term was labeled by Justice Stone one of the most disastrous in history. New Dealers decried the Courts actions as economic dictatorship, and some even hanged the justices in effigy. This, together with the retirement of Van Devanter in June 1937, Black and Roosevelt considered the Four the direct descendants of Darwin and Spencer
Four Horsemen (Supreme Court)
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Butler
Four Horsemen (Supreme Court)
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Sutherland
Four Horsemen (Supreme Court)
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McReynolds
Four Horsemen (Supreme Court)
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van Devanter
19.
Three Musketeers (Supreme Court)
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They were Justices Louis Brandeis, Benjamin N. Cardozo, and Harlan Fiske Stone. They were opposed by the Four Horsemen, consisting of Justices James Clark McReynolds, George Sutherland, Willis Van Devanter, Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes and Justice Owen J. Roberts controlled the balance. During the 1935 term, the Four Horsemen would often ride together to, to counter them, the Three Musketeers started meeting at Brandeiss apartment on Friday afternoons. However, the Four Horsemen held sway, leading to Roosevelts court-packing scheme and this ended the Four Horsemens sway. By 1941, Brandeis, Cardozo, Butler, McReynolds, only Stone and Roberts remained, and by then Stone had been elevated to the position of Chief Justice. The Constitution and the New Deal
Three Musketeers (Supreme Court)
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Brandeis
Three Musketeers (Supreme Court)
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Cardozo
Three Musketeers (Supreme Court)
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Stone
20.
Charles Evans Hughes
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Charles Evans Hughes, Sr. was an American statesman, lawyer, and Republican politician from New York. He was the Republican nominee in the 1916 U. S, Presidential election, losing narrowly to incumbent President Woodrow Wilson. Historian Clinton Rossiter has hailed him as a leading American conservative, Charles Evans Hughes was born in Glens Falls, New York, the son of a Welsh immigrant minister Rev. David C. Hughes and Mary C. Hughes, a sister of State Senator Henry C and he was active in the Northern Baptist church, a Mainline Protestant denomination. Hughes early education included attending Lafayette School in Newark, NJ, at the age of 14, he enrolled at Madison University, where he became a member of Delta Upsilon fraternity. He then transferred to Brown University, continuing as a member of Delta Upsilon and he graduated third in his class at the age of 19, having been elected to Phi Beta Kappa in his junior year. He read law and entered Columbia Law School in 1882, where he graduated in 1884 with highest honors, in 1885, Hughes met Antoinette Carter, the daughter of a senior partner of the law firm where he worked, and they were married in 1888. They had one son, Charles Evans Hughes Jr. and three daughters and their youngest child, Elizabeth Hughes Gossett, was one of the first humans injected with insulin, and later served as president of the Supreme Court Historical Society. Hughes was the grandfather of Charles Evans Hughes III and H. Stuart Hughes, after graduating Hughes began working for Chamberlain, Carter & Hornblower where he met his future wife. In 1888, shortly after he was married, he became a partner in the firm, later the name was changed to Hughes, Hubbard & Reed. In 1891, Hughes left the practice of law to become a professor at Cornell Law School, in 1893, he returned to his old law firm in New York City to continue practicing until he ran for governor in 1906. He continued his association with Cornell as a lecturer at the Law School from 1893 to 1895. He was also a lecturer for New York University Law School. At that time, in addition to practicing law, Hughes taught at New York Law School with Woodrow Wilson, in 1905, he was appointed as counsel to the New York state legislative Stevens Gas Commission, a committee investigating utility rates. His uncovering of corruption led to lower gas rates in New York City, in 1905, he was appointed to the Armstrong Insurance Commission to investigate the insurance industry in New York as a special assistant to U. S. Attorney General. Hughes served as the Governor of New York from 1907 to 1910 and he defeated William Randolph Hearst in the 1906 election, and was the only Republican statewide candidate to win office. As a supporter of progressive policies, Hughes was able to play on the popularity of Theodore Roosevelt, in 1908, he was offered the vice-presidential nomination by William Howard Taft, but he declined it to run again for Governor. Theodore Roosevelt became an important supporter of Hughes and he pushed the passage of the Moreland Act, which enabled the governor to oversee city and county officials as well as officials in semi-autonomous state bureaucracies
Charles Evans Hughes
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Charles Hughes
Charles Evans Hughes
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Charles Evans Hughes, age 16
Charles Evans Hughes
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Governor Charles Evans Hughes
Charles Evans Hughes
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Hughes as he appears in the
National Portrait Gallery in
Washington, D.C.
21.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Roosevelt in 1933
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Roosevelt in 1884, 2 years old.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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The birthplace of FDR at Springwood.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Roosevelt sailing with half-niece Helen and father James, 1899.
22.
New Deal
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The New Deal was a series of programs, including, most notably, Social Security, that were enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938, and a few that came later. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as executive orders during the first term of the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Republicans were split, with opposing the entire New Deal as an enemy of business and growth. By 1936 the term liberal typically was used for supporters of the New Deal, from 1934 to 1938, Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavours by a pro-spender majority in Congress. In the 1938 midterm elections, however, Roosevelt and his supporters lost control of Congress to the bipartisan conservative coalition. Many historians distinguish between a First New Deal and a Second New Deal, with the one more liberal. The First New Deal dealt with the banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act. The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted to prevent a repeated stock market crash, the controversial work of the National Recovery Administration was also part of the First New Deal. The economic downturn of 1937–38, and the split between the AFL and CIO labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938. Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal Conservative Coalition, by 1942–43 they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and Civilian Conservation Corps and blocked major liberal proposals. Roosevelt himself turned his attention to the war effort, and won reelection in 1940 and 1944, the Supreme Court declared the National Recovery Administration and the first version of the Agricultural Adjustment Act unconstitutional, however the AAA was rewritten and then upheld. As the first Republican president elected after Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower left the New Deal largely intact, Johnsons Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs, which Republican Richard M. Nixon generally retained. After 1974, however, the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support, the New Deal regulation of banking was suspended in the 1990s. The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System, the phrase New Deal was coined by an adviser to Roosevelt, Stuart Chase. Although the term was used by Mark Twain in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court. From 1929 to 1933 manufacturing output decreased by one third, prices fell by 20%, causing deflation that made repaying debts much harder. Unemployment in the U. S. increased from 4% to 25%, additionally, one-third of all employed persons were downgraded to working part-time on much smaller paychecks. In the aggregate, almost 50% of the nations human work-power was going unused, before the New Deal, there was no insurance on deposits at banks
New Deal
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Top left: The
Tennessee Valley Authority, part of the New Deal, being signed into law in 1933. Top right: President Roosevelt was responsible for initiatives and programs of the New Deal. Bottom: A public mural from one of the artists employed by the Works Progress Administration, part of the New Deal.
New Deal
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USA annual real GDP from 1910 to 1960, with the years of the Great Depression (1929–1939) highlighted.
New Deal
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1935 cartoon by
Vaughn Shoemaker; he parodied the New Deal as a card game with alphabetical agencies.
New Deal
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Roosevelt's ebullient public personality, conveyed through his declaration that "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself" and his "fireside chats" on the radio did a great deal to help restore the nation's confidence.
23.
West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish
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The decision is usually regarded as having ended the Lochner era, a period in American legal history during which the Supreme Court tended to invalidate legislation aimed at regulating business. The trial court, using Adkins as precedent, ruled for the defendant, the Washington Supreme Court, taking the case on a direct appeal, reversed the trial court and found in favor of Parrish. The hotel appealed to the U. S. Supreme Court, Oregon,208 U. S.412, where the Court had found in favor of the regulation of womens working hours. Hughes CJ said the following, Muller v. Oregon was one of the few exceptions to decades of Court invalidation of economic regulation, coming shortly after President Franklin D. Roberts move was notoriously referred to as the switch in time that saved nine. Shortly after leaving the Court, Roberts reportedly burned all of his legal and judicial papers, as a result, there is no significant collection of Roberts manuscript papers, as there is for most other modern Justices. Roberts did prepare a short memorandum discussing his alleged change of stance around the time of the court-packing effort, fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 Text of West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish,300 U. S.379 is available from, Findlaw Justia
West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish
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Supreme Court of the United States
24.
The switch in time that saved nine
–
The term itself is a reference to the aphorism A stitch in time saves nine, meaning that preventive maintenance is preferable. This conservative wing of the bench is viewed to have been in opposition to the liberal Three Musketeers, Justice Roberts and Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes, the remaining two justices, were the center swing votes. The switch came in the case West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, Roberts joined Chief Justice Hughes, and Justices Louis Brandeis, Benjamin N. Cardozo, and Harlan Fiske Stone in upholding a Washington State minimum wage law. The decision was handed down less than two months after President Franklin D. Roosevelt announced his court-reform bill, the ruling also marked the end of the Lochner era, a forty-year period in which the Supreme Court often struck down legislation that regulated business activity. Popular as well as some scholarly understanding of the Hughes Court has typically cast it as divided between a conservative and liberal faction, with two critical swing votes. The conservative Justices Pierce Butler, James Clark McReynolds, George Sutherland, opposed to them were the liberal Justices Louis Brandeis, Benjamin Cardozo and Harlan Fiske Stone, dubbed The Three Musketeers. Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes and Justice Owen Roberts were regarded as the votes on the court. Recent scholarship has eschewed these labels since they suggest more legislative, Roberts had voted to grant certiorari to hear the Parrish case before the election of 1936. Tipaldo in the spring of 1936. In Tipaldo, the appellant had not challenged the Adkins precedent, having no case or controversy legs upon which to stand, Roberts and the rest of the majority deferred to the Adkins precedent, voting to strike the New York statute. Justice Butler authored the opinion of the Court in the Tipaldo case and he and the rest of the majority, excluding Roberts, shortly thereafter found themselves in the minority on the Parrish case. In the Parrish case, Roberts indicated his desire to overturn Adkins immediately after oral arguments on Dec.17,1936, the eight voting justices anticipated Justice Stone—absent due to illness—would be the fifth vote necessary for a majority opinion affirming the constitutionality of the minimum wage law. President Franklin D. Roosevelt announced his reform bill on February 5,1937. Roosevelt later made his justifications for the bill to the public on March 9,1937 during his 9th Fireside Chat, the Courts opinion in Parrish was not published until March 29,1937, after Roosevelts radio address. In one of his notes from 1936, Hughes wrote that Roosevelts re-election forced the court to depart from its fortress in public opinion. The failure of the bill preserved the size of the U. S. Supreme Court at nine justices, as it had been since 1869, and so remains to this day. Roberts burned his legal and judicial papers, so there is no significant collection of his papers as there is for most other modern Justices. However, in 1945 Roberts did provide Justice Felix Frankfurter with a memorandum detailing his own account of the leading up to his vote in the Parrish case
The switch in time that saved nine
–
Associate Justice Owen J. Roberts. Conventional history has characterized his vote in
West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish as a strategic measure to save the judicial integrity and independence of the
U.S. Supreme Court.
25.
Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937
–
The Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937 was a legislative initiative proposed by U. S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt to add more justices to the U. S. Supreme Court. Roosevelts purpose was to obtain favorable rulings regarding New Deal legislation that the court had ruled unconstitutional, in the Judiciary Act of 1869 Congress had established that the United States Supreme Court would consist of the Chief Justice and eight associate justices. During Roosevelts first term the Supreme Court struck down several New Deal measures as being unconstitutional, Constitution does not define the size of the Supreme Court, Roosevelt pointed out that it was within the power of the Congress to change it. The legislation was viewed by members of both parties as an attempt to stack the court, and was opposed by many Democrats, the bill came to be known as Roosevelts court-packing plan. In November 1936, Roosevelt won a sweeping reelection victory, in the months following, Roosevelt boldly proposed to reorganize the federal judiciary by adding a new justice each time a justice reached age seventy and failed to retire. The legislation was unveiled on February 5,1937, and was the subject of Roosevelts 9th Fireside chat of March 9,1937. Three weeks after the address the Supreme Court published an opinion upholding a Washington state minimum wage law in West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish. The 5–4 ruling was the result of the apparently sudden jurisprudential shift by Associate Justice Owen Roberts, since Roberts had previously ruled against most New Deal legislation, his support here was seen as a result of the political pressure the president was exerting on the court. Some interpreted his reversal as an effort to maintain the Courts judicial independence by alleviating the pressure to create a court more friendly to the New Deal. As a result of his efforts, the bill was held in committee for 165 days. The bill was further undermined by the death of its chief advocate in the U. S. Senate, Senate Majority Leader Joseph T. Robinson. Contemporary observers broadly viewed Roosevelts initiative as political maneuvering and its failure exposed the limits of Roosevelts abilities to push forward legislation through direct public appeal. The public perception of his efforts here was in stark contrast to the reception of his efforts during his first term. Roosevelt ultimately prevailed in establishing a majority on the friendly to his New Deal legislation. The 1932 election also saw a new Democratic majority sweep into both houses of Congress, giving Roosevelt legislative support for his reform platform, both Roosevelt and the 73rd Congress called for greater governmental involvement in the economy as a way to end the depression. During the presidents first term, a series of challenges to various New Deal programs were launched in federal courts. It soon became clear that the overall constitutionality of much of the New Deal legislation, especially that which extended the power of the federal government, a minor aspect of Roosevelts New Deal agenda may have itself directly precipitated the showdown between the Roosevelt administration and the Supreme Court. Shortly after Roosevelts inauguration, Congress passed the Economy Act, a provision of which cut many government salaries, Associate Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. who had retired in 1932, saw his pension halved from $20,000 to $10,000 per year
Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937
–
The Hughes Court, 1932–1937. Front row: Justices
Brandeis and
Van Devanter,
Chief Justice Hughes, and Justices
McReynolds and
Sutherland. Back row: Justices
Roberts,
Butler,
Stone, and
Cardozo.
Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937
–
President Franklin D. Roosevelt. His dissatisfaction over Supreme Court decisions holding
New Deal programs unconstitutional prompted him to seek out methods to change the way the court functioned.
Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937
–
Associate Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. Holmes's loss of half his pension pay due to New Deal legislation after his 1932 retirement is believed to have dissuaded Justices Van Devanter and Sutherland from departing the bench.
Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937
–
Associate Justice Owen J. Roberts. The balance of the Supreme Court in 1935 caused the Roosevelt administration much concern over how Roberts would adjudicate New Deal challenges.
26.
Supreme Court of the United States
–
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
Supreme Court of the United States
–
Chief Justice Marshall
Supreme Court of the United States
–
Supreme Court of the United States
Supreme Court of the United States
–
The Roberts Court, October 2010 Back row (left to right):
Sonia Sotomayor,
Stephen G. Breyer,
Samuel A. Alito, and
Elena Kagan. Front row (left to right):
Clarence Thomas,
Antonin Scalia,
Chief Justice John Roberts,
Anthony Kennedy, and
Ruth Bader Ginsburg
Supreme Court of the United States
–
Roberts, John
John Roberts (
Chief Justice)
27.
Japanese American internment
–
62 percent of the internees were United States citizens. These actions were ordered by President Franklin D. Roosevelt shortly after Imperial Japans attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese Americans were incarcerated based on local population concentrations and regional politics. More than 110,000 Japanese Americans in the mainland U. S. who mostly lived on the West Coast, were forced into interior camps. However, in Hawaii, where 150, 000-plus Japanese Americans composed over one-third of the population, the internment is considered to have resulted more from racism than from any security risk posed by Japanese Americans. Those who were as little as 1/16 Japanese and orphaned infants with one drop of Japanese blood were placed in internment camps. The majority of nearly 130,000 Japanese Americans living in the U. S. mainland were relocated from their West Coast homes during the spring of 1942. The United States Census Bureau assisted the internment efforts by providing confidential neighborhood information on Japanese Americans, the Bureau denied its role for decades, but it became public in 2007. In 1944, the U. S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the removal by ruling against Fred Korematsus appeal for violating an exclusion order. The Court limited its decision to the validity of the exclusion orders and he appointed the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians to investigate the camps. The Commissions report, titled Personal Justice Denied, found evidence of Japanese disloyalty at the time. It recommended that the government pay reparations to the survivors, the legislation admitted that government actions were based on race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership. The U. S. government eventually disbursed more than $1.6 billion in reparations to 82,219 Japanese Americans who had been interned and their heirs. Of 127,000 Japanese Americans living in the continental United States at the time of the Pearl Harbor attack,112,000 resided on the West Coast, about 80,000 were nisei and sansei. The rest were issei immigrants born in Japan who were ineligible for U. S. citizenship under U. S. law, from 1869 to 1924 approximately 200,000 immigrated to the islands of Hawaii, mostly laborers expecting to work on the islands sugar plantations. Some 180,000 went to the U. S. mainland, with the majority settling on the West Coast, most arrived before 1908, when the Gentlemens Agreement between Japan and the United States banned the immigration of unskilled laborers. A loophole allowed the wives of men already in the US to join their husbands, the practice of women marrying by proxy and immigrating to the U. S. resulted in a large increase in the number of picture brides. Groups such as the Asiatic Exclusion League, the California Joint Immigration Committee, and they lobbied successfully to restrict the property and citizenship rights of Japanese immigrants, as similar groups had previously organized against Chinese immigrants. Several laws and treaties attempting to slow immigration from Japan were introduced beginning in the late 19th century, the Immigration Act of 1924, following the example of the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, effectively banned all immigration from Japan and other undesirable Asian countries
Japanese American internment
–
San Francisco Examiner, February 1942.
Japanese American internment
–
Internment camps and further institutions of the War Relocation Authority in the western United States.
Japanese American internment
–
A Japanese American unfurled this banner the day after the Pearl Harbor attack. This
Dorothea Lange photograph was taken in March 1942, just prior to the man's internment.
Japanese American internment
–
Children at the Weill public school in San Francisco
pledge allegiance to the
American flag in April 1942, prior to the internment of Japanese Americans.
28.
Korematsu v. United States
–
Korematsu v. United States,323 U. S. In a 6–3 decision, the Court sided with the government, six of eight Roosevelt appointees sided with Roosevelt. The lone Republican appointee, Owen Roberts, dissented, the decision in Korematsu v. United States has been controversial. Korematsus conviction for evading internment was overturned on November 10,1983, Constitutional scholars like Bruce Fein and Noah Feldman have compared Korematsu to Dred Scott and Plessy v. The decision has been described as an odious and discredited artifact of popular bigotry, Feldman summarized the present view of the case as, Korematsus uniquely bad legal status means its not precedent even though it hasnt been overturned. Shortly after the wave of the attack on Pearl Harbor. Island locals—not yet knowing of the attack, but aware of the strained diplomatic relations between the U. S. and Japan—quickly detained the pilot and seized documents he was carrying. Of these three, Shintani was a Japanese-born immigrant, and the Haradas were American-born children of such immigrants. Awaiting the arrival of the owner to decide what to do next, the islanders housed Nishikaichi with the Japanese-Americans. Five days later, the Haradas aided Nishikaichi in an escape attempt, as the captors became fatigued, the hostages attacked, killing Nishikaichi. Realizing the escape plan had failed, Yoshio Harada then committed suicide, historian Gordon Prange notes that it was the rapidity with which the three resident Japanese went over to the pilots cause which troubled the Hawaiians. The more pessimistic among them cited the Niʻihau incident as proof that no one could trust any Japanese, even if an American citizen, not to go over to Japan if it appeared expedient. A U. S. Navy report issued in late January 1942 concluded that the Niihau incident evidenced the likelihood that Japanese residents previously believed loyal to the United States may aid Japan, approximately three weeks later, on February 19,1942, President Franklin D. On March 2,1942, the U. S. Army Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt, commander of the Western Defense Command, further military areas and zones were demarcated in Public Proclamation No.2. In the meantime, War Secretary Henry L. Stimson mailed to Senator Robert Rice Reynolds, by March 21, Congress had enacted the proposed legislation, which President Roosevelt signed into law. With the issuance of Civilian Restrictive Order No.1 on May 19,1942, fred Korematsu argued that the Executive Order 9066 was unconstitutional and that it violated the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution. No question was raised as to Korematsus loyalty to the United States, the Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the conviction, and the Supreme Court granted certiorari. Justice Black further denied that the case had anything to do with racial prejudice, according to my reading of Civilian Exclusion Order No
Korematsu v. United States
–
Japanese American Internment Center
Korematsu v. United States
–
Fred Korematsu
Korematsu v. United States
–
Key topics
29.
Smith v. Allwright
–
Smith v. Allwright,321 U. S.649, was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court with regard to voting rights and, by extension, racial desegregation. It overturned the Texas state law authorized the Democratic Party to set its internal rules. The court ruled that it was unconstitutional for the state to delegate its authority over elections to the Democratic Party in order to allow discrimination to be practiced and this ruling affected all other states where the party used the white primary rule. The Democrats had effectively excluded minority voter participation by this means and he challenged the 1923 state law that authorized the party to establish its internal rules, the party required all voters in its primary to be white. This crippled the Republican Party in most southern states, and resulted in the only competitive elections being held as the Democratic Party primary, Texas had used poll taxes and the white primary to exclude nearly all blacks, Mexican Americans, and other minorities from voting. Representing the NAACP, Thurgood Marshall argued this case in favor of Lonnie E. Smith, in 1932 the Democratic State Convention of Texas had established rules allowing only whites to vote in the party primaries. Texas claimed that the Democratic Party was an organization that could set its own rules of membership. The Court agreed that the restricted primary denied Smith his equal protection under the law and it said that by delegating its authority to the Democratic Party to regulate its primaries, the state was allowing discrimination to be practiced, which was unconstitutional. This decision enabled the revival of black participation in Texas politics, smiths efforts inspired Barbara Jordan, a Fifth Ward resident who would later become a black politician in Texas. Black Victory, The Rise and Fall of the White Primary in Texas, the White Primary Rulings, A Case Study in the Consequences of Supreme Court Decisionmaking. St. U. L. Rev.29, 55–107, works related to Smith v. Allwright at Wikisource Text of Smith v. Allwright,321 U. S.649 is available from, Findlaw Justia
Smith v. Allwright
–
Supreme Court of the United States
30.
Chester County, Pennsylvania
–
Chester County is a county in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the population was 498,886, the county seat is West Chester. Chester County was one of the three original Pennsylvania counties created by William Penn in 1682 and it was named for Chester, England. Chester County is part of the Philadelphia-Camden-Wilmington, PA-NJ-DE-MD Metropolitan Statistical Area, Chester County is the highest-income county in Pennsylvania and 24th highest in the nation as measured by median household income. Philadelphia, Bucks, and Chester were the three Pennsylvania counties initially created by William Penn on August 24,1682, much of the Welsh Tract was in eastern Chester County, and Welsh place names, given by early settlers, continue to predominate there. The fourth county in the state, Lancaster County, was formed from Chester County on May 10,1729, on March 11,1752, Berks County was formed from the northern section of Chester County, as well as parts of Lancaster and Philadelphia counties. The original Chester County seat was the city of Chester, a center of naval shipbuilding, apparently, this did not work, the eastern portion of the county separated from Chester County on September 26,1789, becoming Delaware County. West Chester remained the seat of the reduced Chester County, much of the history of Chester County arises from its location between Philadelphia and the Susquehanna River. The first road to the West passed through the part of Chester County, following the Great Valley westward, with some re-alignments, it became the Lincoln Highway. This road is still named Lancaster Avenue in most of the Chester county towns it runs through, the first railroad followed much the same route, and the Reading Railroad progressed up the Schuylkill River to Reading. Industry tended to concentrate along the rail lines, easy transportation allowed workers to commute to urban jobs, and the rise of the suburbs followed. To this day, the areas form fingers extending along major lines of transportation. During the American Revolutionary War, the Battle of Brandywine was fought at what is now the southeastern fringe of the county, the Valley Forge encampment was at the northeastern edge. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 759 square miles. The topography consists of rolling hills and valleys and it is part of the known as the Piedmont. Watersheds that serve Chester County include the Octoraro, the Brandywine, and Chester creeks, many of the soils are fertile, rich loam as much as twenty-four inches thick, together with the temperate climate, this was long a major agricultural area. Because of its proximity to Philadelphia, Chester County has seen waves of development over the past half-century due to suburbanization. Although development in Chester County has increased, agriculture is still a part of the countys economy
Chester County, Pennsylvania
–
Chester County Courthouse
Chester County, Pennsylvania
–
Chester County,
Pennsylvania sign
31.
Germantown Academy
–
Germantown Academy, informally known as GA and originally known as the Union School, is the oldest nonsectarian day school in the United States. The school was founded on December 6,1759, by a group of prominent Germantown citizens in the Green Tree Tavern on the Germantown Road, Germantown Academy ranks within the nations top 100 private and public schools that send the most students to the Ivy Leagues. The original campus is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the school shares the oldest continuous high school football rivalry with the William Penn Charter School. The academy recently completed the first two phases of a rebuilding plan. The Union School was founded on the evening of December 6,1759, the school was founded by prominent members of the Germantown community who wished to provide a country school for their children. As some of the founders and residents of Germantown were of German descent, the founders chose David James Dove to head the English department and Hilarius Becker of Bernheim, Germany, to head the German school. In 1761, land was given to the school by trustee Charles Bensell, the school found itself in the crossroads of early American history. In 1777, the Battle of Germantown was fought on the front lawn of trustee Benjamin Chew at his home Cliveden less than a mile from campus, during the American Revolution, the school served as a hospital and camp for British soldiers. Legend says that the British officers played the first game of cricket in America on the Academys front lawn, after the war, the school was visited by President George Washington. Washington sent his adopted step-grandson George Washington Parke Custis to the Academy during the 1793 yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia, the school was visited by the Marquis de Lafayette on his 1825 visit to America and hosted Fernando, the adopted son of South American liberator Simón Bolívar. In 1830, Amos Bronson Alcott, father of Louisa May Alcott, was appointed headmaster, after the Civil War, the school was in decline, with a small student body and outdated facilities. In 1877, Dr. William Kershaw was appointed headmaster, during his headmastership, GA graduated a future University of Pennsylvania president, a Supreme Court justice, and a primate of the Episcopal Church. In 1915, Dr. Kershaw retired and Dr. Samuel E. Osbourn was appointed headmaster, under Dr. Osbourns leadership, the school increased in size, focused on scholarship and continued to produce some of Philadelphias finest citizens. Under Osbourn, GA established the eighth oldest Cum Laude Society chapter in the nation, after the World Wars, GA was led by headmaster Donald Miller who was instrumental in the move from Germantown to the current Fort Washington campus. By the 1960s, GA families had left Germantown for nearby suburbs, in five years, The Miracle of Fort Washington occurred as the school moved from city to suburb. In this transition, GA coeducated, accepting girls in 1961 with the first co-ed class graduating in 1968, the school colors are red, black, and blue. Originally, red, white, and blue, the white was changed to black upon the death of Abraham Lincoln in 1865. GA/PC Day is a tradition where GA plays against its rival William Penn Charter School in football, soccer, field hockey, cross country, girls tennis, water polo
Germantown Academy
–
"By persevering we shall see the fruits."
Germantown Academy
–
A view of the Administration Building, an exact replica of the original schoolhouse in Germantown
Germantown Academy
–
A view of the original Germantown campus, 1954
Germantown Academy
–
A view of McLean Hall shortly after its construction in 1965
32.
Phi Beta Kappa
–
The Phi Beta Kappa Society - the oldest honor society for the liberal arts and sciences in the United States - is widely recognized and considered as the nations most prestigious honor society. Phi Beta Kappa aims to promote and advocate excellence in the arts and sciences and to induct the most outstanding students of arts. Phi Beta Kappa stands for Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης or in Latin letters Philosophia Biou Cybernētēs, according to Phi Beta Kappa, they have chapters in about 10% of American higher learning institutions, and about 10% of these schools Arts and Sciences graduates are invited to join the society. Although most students are elected their senior year, many colleges elect a limited number of extremely select students in their junior year. There is an initiation fee, which is sometimes covered by the inductees university. There had been earlier fraternal societies at the College, but these, Society, founded in 1750, were Latin-letter societies, their names were taken from initial letters of a secret Latin motto. William and Mary alumnus and third U. S. President Thomas Jefferson was perhaps the most famous member of the F. H. C, other notable members of the original Society included Col. James Innes, St. George Tucker, and George Wythe. Jefferson noted that When I was a student of Wm. & Mary college of this state, Society, confined to the number of six students only, of which I was a member, but it had no useful object, nor do I know whether it now exists. The best opinion is that the society did not survive the invasion by British forces during the Revolution, a second Latin-letter fraternity at William and Mary was the P. D. A. John Heath, chief organizer of Phi Beta Kappa, according to tradition earlier sought but was refused admission to the P. D. A, though he may instead have disdained to join it. The new society was intended to be purely of domestic manufacture, without any connexion whatever with anything European, either English or German. The founders of Phi Beta Kappa declared that the society was formed for congeniality and to good fellowship, with friendship as its basis and benevolence. Like the older, Latin-letter fraternities, the Phi Beta Kappa was a secret society, the new society was given the motto, Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης or in Latin letters Philosophia Biou Kybernētēs, which means in English The Love for Knowledge be the Guide of Life. Greek was chosen, because Greek was in Roman times the language of science like Latin in medieval times, one official historian of the society, William T. The heading on the original list of states, A List of the members. This new complex of gestures was created to allow the recognition of members in any foreign country or place. A second chapter was founded at Yale College in late 1780, a third, at Harvard College in 1781, from these new chapters, the Phi Beta Kappa evolved from a fraternity with principally academic and some social purposes to an entirely honorary organization recognizing scholastic achievement. Further chapters appeared at Union College in 1817, Bowdoin College in 1825, the original chapter at William and Mary was re-established
Phi Beta Kappa
–
Present day
Phi Beta Kappa Memorial Hall entrance at
The College of William & Mary.
Phi Beta Kappa
–
The Phi Beta Kappa Society
Phi Beta Kappa
–
The Phi Beta Kappa Society National Headquarters located in the historic
Dupont Circle neighborhood of
Washington, D.C.
33.
The Daily Pennsylvanian
–
The Daily Pennsylvanian is the independent daily student newspaper of the University of Pennsylvania. It is published every weekday when the university is in session, during the summer months, a smaller staff produces a weekly version called The Summer Pennsylvanian. The DP also publishes a weekly arts and entertainment magazine called 34th Street Magazine, the DP operates three principal websites—thedp. com, 34st. com, and underthebutton. com—as well as a variety of opinion, news, and sports blogs. The Daily Pennsylvanian was founded in 1885 as a successor to the University Magazine, the newspaper has been published daily since 1894, except for a hiatus from May 1943 to November 1945 on account of World War II. The DP broke away from the university in 1962 to become an independent publication, also in 1962 the previously all-male daily began to accept female students. Today the newspapers budget is funded primarily through the sale of advertising by a student business staff, the Daily Pennsylvanian has won many of the most prestigious awards in college journalism. In 2008, the newspaper was awarded the Society of Professional Journalists National Mark of Excellence Award, in the same year, the paper won the Spring 2008 Columbia Gold Crown, awarded to only eight college newspapers nationwide, an award it has won many times before. It also received first place in the Associated Collegiate Presss Kansas City Convention Best of Show Competition in 2008, in 2004, the DP won the Pacemaker, awarded by the Associated Collegiate Press and the Newspaper Association of America Foundation, for a fourth consecutive year. It also won the award in 1990,1997, and 1998, several of its writers win Gold Circles from the Columbia Scholastic Press Association every year. It was also ranked as the most read newspaper by The Princeton Review in 1990,1997,1998. In 2006, College Publisher awarded the DP first place in the category of Best Online Sports Coverage and, in 2008, it was awarded an online Gold Crown for thedp. com
The Daily Pennsylvanian
The Daily Pennsylvanian
–
Schools
34.
Crude oil
–
Petroleum is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earths surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation and it consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock, Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling. Drilling is carried out studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a variety of materials. Concern over the depletion of the earths finite reserves of oil, the burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming. The word petroleum comes from Greek, πέτρα for rocks and Greek, the term was found in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society. By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China, early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production. The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, Pechelbronn is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century. In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century, both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil, Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. The production of oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E. W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian, the worlds first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz. The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America, edwin Drakes 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well
Crude oil
–
Pumpjack pumping an oil well near
Lubbock, Texas
Crude oil
–
Proven world
oil reserves, 2013. Unconventional reservoirs such as natural heavy oil and
oil sands are included.
Crude oil
–
An oil refinery in Mina-Al-Ahmadi, Kuwait
Crude oil
–
Natural petroleum spring in
Korňa, Slovakia
35.
Albert B. Fall
–
Albert Bacon Fall was a United States Senator from New Mexico and the Secretary of the Interior under President Warren G. Harding, infamous for his involvement in the Teapot Dome scandal. Fall was born in Frankfort, Kentucky, to William R. and he attended schools as a child in Nashville, Tennessee, but was primarily self-educated. By age eleven Fall was employed in a cotton factory and this is most likely the cause of respiratory health problems he suffered throughout his life. Due to his illnesses, Fall moved west as a man to seek a better climate. He tried Oklahoma and Texas, but eventually he settled in Las Cruces, New Mexico Territory, between 1879 and 1881, he was a teacher while he studied law. On May 7,1883, Fall married Emma Garland Morgan in Clarksville and they had four children, a son, Jack Morgan Fall, and daughters Alexina Chase, Caroline Everhart and Jouett Elliott. Jack Fall and his sister Caroline died within a week of each other during the epidemic that swept the world in 1918. The family lived at the Three Rivers Ranch in the Tularosa Basin, Fall also had a home in El Paso, Texas. Fall was admitted to the bar in 1891 and he served in the New Mexico House of Representatives from 1891 to 1892. In 1892 and 1893 he served on the territorial council, Fall was appointed judge of the third judicial district 1893, and associate justice of the New Mexico Supreme Court later the same year. Fall served on the Territorial Council again from 1896 to 1897, during the Spanish–American War, Fall served as captain of an infantry company. He again served on the Territorial Council from 1902 to 1904 and he served as attorney general again in 1907. In 1910 he was a delegate to the constitutional convention. Fall and his neighbor, Oliver M. Lee, were owners in the area and were rivals to attorney Albert Jennings Fountain. Falls association with Lee began when Fall helped Lee in a criminal case, Lee employed Billy McNew and Jim Gilliland, both known as gunmen. In return for the services of Fall, Lee and his men terrorized men. By the late 1890s, Lee was rustling cattle from ranches in the area. When Lee and his gunmen were arrested, Fall handled the legal issues, Fall disliked Fountain, who showed little fear of the Fall-Lee faction, and challenged them openly in the courts and political arena
Albert B. Fall
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Albert B. Fall
Albert B. Fall
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Fall (center) with U.S. Senators
Marcus A. Smith (left) and
Frank B. Brandegee (right) in 1918
Albert B. Fall
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Albert Fall's Secretary of the Interior nomination
Albert B. Fall
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Swearing-in ceremony for Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall
36.
United States Secretary of the Interior
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The United States Secretary of the Interior is the head of the U. S. Department of the Interior. The Secretary also serves on and appoints the private citizens on the National Park Foundation board, the Secretary is a member of the Presidents Cabinet. The U. S. Department of the Interior should not be confused with the Ministries of the Interior as used in other countries. Ministries of the Interior in these other countries correspond primarily to the Department of Homeland Security in the U. S, Cabinet and secondarily to the Department of Justice. On December 13,2016, President-elect Donald Trump picked Ryan Zinke for the position of Interior Secretary, the most recent to die was William P. Clark, Jr. on August 10,2013. List of Secretaries of the Interior List of Secretaries of the Interior The Department of Everything Else, Highlights of Interior History
United States Secretary of the Interior
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Incumbent
Sally Jewell since April 12, 2013
United States Secretary of the Interior
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Seal of the U.S. Department of the Interior
United States Secretary of the Interior
United States Secretary of the Interior
37.
Louis Brandeis
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Louis Dembitz Brandeis was an American lawyer and associate justice on the Supreme Court of the United States from 1916 to 1939. He was born in Louisville, Kentucky, to Jewish immigrant parents from Bohemia and he attended Harvard Law School, graduating at the age of twenty with the highest grade average in the law schools history. Brandeis settled in Boston, where he founded a law firm and he later published a book titled Other Peoples Money And How the Bankers Use It, suggesting ways of curbing the power of large banks and money trusts. He fought against powerful corporations, monopolies, public corruption, and mass consumerism, all of which he felt were detrimental to American values and culture. He also became active in the Zionist movement, seeing it as a solution to antisemitism in Europe and Russia, when his familys finances became secure, he began devoting most of his time to public causes and was later dubbed the Peoples Lawyer. He insisted on serving on cases without pay so that he would be free to address the issues involved. The Economist magazine calls him A Robin Hood of the law, in 1916, President Woodrow Wilson nominated Brandeis to become a member of the Supreme Court. His nomination was contested, partly because, as Justice William O. Douglas wrote. He was dangerous not only because of his brilliance, his arithmetic and he was dangerous because he was incorruptible. The fears of the Establishment were greater because Brandeis was the first Jew to be named to the Court. On June 1,1916 he was confirmed by the Senate by a vote of 47 to 22, to one of the most famous. His opinions were, according to scholars, some of the greatest defenses of freedom of speech. Louis Dembitz Brandeis was born on November 13,1856, in Louisville, Kentucky and his parents, Adolph Brandeis and Frederika Dembitz, both of whom were Ashkenazi Jews, emigrated to the United States from their childhood homes in Prague, Bohemia. They emigrated as part of their families for both economic and political reasons. In addition, the Habsburg Empire had imposed taxes on Jews. Family elders sent Adolph Brandeis to America to observe and prepare for his familys possible emigration and he spent a few months in the Midwest and was impressed by the nations institutions and by the tolerance among the people he met. He wrote home to his wife, Americas progress is the triumph of the rights of man, the Brandeis family chose to settle in Louisville partly because it was a prosperous river port. His earliest childhood was shaped by the American Civil War, which forced the family to seek safety temporarily in Indiana, the Brandeis family held abolitionist beliefs that angered their Louisville neighbors
Louis Brandeis
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Brandeis in c. 1916
Louis Brandeis
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Photo of Louis Brandeis (c. 1900)
Louis Brandeis
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Brandeis in his canoe. Circa 1916.
38.
Benjamin Cardozo
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Benjamin Nathan Cardozo was an American jurist who served on the New York Court of Appeals and later as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court. Cardozo is remembered for his significant influence on the development of American common law in the 20th century, in addition to his philosophy, Cardozo served on the Supreme Court six years, from 1932 until his death in 1938. Many of his decisions were delivered during his eighteen-year tenure on the New York Court of Appeals. Cardozo was born in 1870 in New York City, the son of Rebecca Washington, both Cardozos maternal grandparents, Sara Seixas and Isaac Mendes Seixas Nathan, and his paternal grandparents, Ellen Hart and Michael H. The family were descended from Jewish-origin New Christian conversos who left the Iberian Peninsula for Holland during the Inquisition, Cardozo family tradition held that their marrano ancestors were from Portugal, although Cardozos ancestry has not been firmly traced to Portugal. However, Cardozo, Seixas and Mendes are the Portuguese, rather than Spanish, Benjamin Cardozo was a twin with his sister Emily. They had a total of four siblings, including a sister and brother. One of many cousins was the poet Emma Lazarus, another was the preacher, politician, Benjamin was named for his uncle, Benjamin Nathan, a vice president of the New York Stock Exchange and the victim of a noted famous unsolved murder case in 1870. Albert Cardozo, Benjamin Cardozos father, was a judge on the Supreme Court of New York until 1868, the scandal led to the creation of the Association of the Bar of the City of New York and his fathers resignation from the bench. After leaving the court, he practiced law for two decades more until his death in 1885. Rebecca Cardozo died in 1879 when Benjamin and Emily were young, the twins were raised during much of their childhood by their older sister Nell, who was 11 years older. One of Benjamins tutors was Horatio Alger, at age 15, Cardozo entered Columbia University where he was elected to Phi Beta Kappa, and then went on to Columbia Law School in 1889. Cardozo wanted to enter a profession that could materially aid himself and his siblings, when Cardozo entered Columbia Law School, the program was only two years long, in the midst of his studies, however, the faculty voted to extend the program to three years. Cardozo declined to stay for an year, and thus left law school without a law degree. He passed the bar in 1891 and began practicing law alongside his older brother. Benjamin Cardozo practiced law in New York City until 1914, in November 1913, Cardozo was narrowly elected to a 14-year term on the New York Supreme Court, taking office on January 1,1914. In February 1914, Cardozo was designated to the New York Court of Appeals under the Amendment of 1899, in 1926, he was elected, on both tickets again, to a 14-year term as Chief Judge. He took office on January 1,1927, and resigned on March 7,1932 to accept an appointment to the United States Supreme Court and his tenure was marked by a number of original rulings, in tort and contract law in particular
Benjamin Cardozo
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Benjamin N. Cardozo
Benjamin Cardozo
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Justice Cardozo in his robes
Benjamin Cardozo
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Cardozo's Supreme Court nomination
Benjamin Cardozo
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Cardozo had a flat in this apartment building in Washington, D.C.
39.
Harlan Fiske Stone
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Harlan Fiske Stone was an American political figure, lawyer, and jurist. A native of New Hampshire, he served as the dean of Columbia Law School, his alma mater, in the early 20th century. As a member of the Republican Party, he was appointed as the 52nd Attorney General of the United States before becoming an Associate Justice of the U. S. Supreme Court in 1925. In 1941, Stone became the 12th Chief Justice of the United States, Stone was the first Chief Justice not to have served in elected office. His most famous dictum was, Courts are not the only agency of government that must be assumed to have capacity to govern, Harlan Fiske Stone was born in Chesterfield, New Hampshire, to Fred Lauson Stone and his wife, Ann Sophia Stone. He prepared at Amherst High School, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Amherst College in 1894, from 1894 to 1895, he was the submaster of Newburyport High School. From 1895 to 1896 he was an instructor in history at Adelphi Academy in Brooklyn, Stone attended Columbia Law School from 1895 to 1898, received an LL. B. and was admitted to the New York bar in 1898. Stone practiced law in New York City, initially as a member of the firm Satterlee, Canfield & Stone, from 1899 to 1902 he lectured on law at Columbia Law School. He was a professor there from 1902 to 1905 and eventually served as the dean from 1910 to 1923. He lived in The Colosseum, an apartment building near campus, the Board was charged with determining the sincerity of each mans principles, but often devoted only a few minutes to interrogation and rendering a decision. Stone was impatient with men who took advantage of the benefits of life in America–using postage stamps was his example–without accepting the burdens of citizenship. In a majority of cases, the Boards subjects either relinquished their claims or were judged insincere. refused to yield to the opinions of others or to force. At the end of the war, he criticized Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer for his attempts to deport aliens based on administrative action without allowing for any review of their cases. During this time Stone also defended free speech claims for professors, Columbia soon became a center of a new school of jurisprudence, legal realism. Legal realists rejected formalism and static legal rules, instead, they searched for the experiential, although Dean Stone encouraged the realists, he was condemned by Columbia President Nicholas Murray Butler as an intellectual conservative who had let legal education at Columbia fall into the ruts. He received a higher salary and headed the firms litigation department. In full‑time private practice for only a time, Stone was considered a hard‑working, solid sort of person, willing on occasion to champion the rights of mankind. These scandals had besmirched Hardings Attorney General, Harry M. Daugherty, in one of his first acts as Attorney General, Stone fired Daughertys cronies in the Department of Justice and replaced them with men of integrity
Harlan Fiske Stone
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Harlan Stone
Harlan Fiske Stone
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Birthplace of Harlan Fiske Stone
Harlan Fiske Stone
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Vice President
40.
James Clark McReynolds
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James Clark McReynolds was an American lawyer and judge who served as United States Attorney General under President Woodrow Wilson and as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. He was best known for his opposition to the actions by Roosevelt. In his twenty-six years on the bench, McReynolds wrote more than 506 majority opinions for the court and 93 minority opinions against the New Deal and he was one of the Four Horsemen, who represented the opposition to Roosevelts New Deal. Born in Elkton, Kentucky, the county seat of Todd County, he was the son of John Oliver and Ellen McReynolds, the house in which he was born still stands, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976. He graduated from the prestigious Green River Academy and later matriculated at Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, at the University of Virginia School of Law, where he studied under John B. Minor, a man of morality and firm conservative convictions, McReynolds completed his studies in fourteen months and, again. McReynolds received his law degree in 1884 and he was secretary to Senator Howell Edmunds Jackson, who later became an associate justice himself. As head of the Tennessee delegation to the 1896 Democratic Convention, under Theodore Roosevelt he was Assistant Attorney General from 1903 to 1907, when he resigned to take up private practice with the noted law firm of Guthrie, Cravath, and Henderson in New York City. During his time in practice, McReynolds earned a reputation as an ardent trust buster. In spite of his views on corporate monopolies, McReynolds was also supportive of laissez-faire economic policies. On August 19,1914, Wilson appointed him to the Supreme Court, McReynolds was confirmed by the United States Senate and received his commission the same day, starting with the new term on October 12,1914. His reason was that with the country in the turmoil of the Great Depression, in his 27 years on the bench, he authored 506 decisions, an average of just under 19 opinions for each term of the Court during his tenure. In addition, he authored 93 minority opinions against the New Deal, §301 et seq. in Steward Machine Co. v. Davis,301 U. S.548,57 S. Ct.883,81 L. Ed.1279. He continued to vote against New Deal measures after the Courts 1937 switch to upholding New Deal legislation, howard Ball called McReynolds the most strident Court critic of Roosevelts New Deal programs. As a confirmed opponent of federal authority aimed toward social ends or economic regulation, McReynolds was a firm believer in laissez-faire economic theory which he said was constitutionally enshrined. After the Lochner era ended in 1937—the Courts switch in time that saved nine—McReynolds became a dissenter, unrepentant after the courts about face through his 1941 retirement, his dissents decried the federal governments exercises of power. In Steward Machine Co. v. Davis 301 U. S.548 and he wrote, I can not find any authority in the Constitution for making the Federal Government the great almoner of public charity throughout the United States. Justice McReynolds wrote two early decisions using the Fourteenth Amendment to protect civil liberties, Meyer v. Nebraska 262 U. S.390, Meyer involved a state law that prohibited the teaching of modern foreign languages in public schools
James Clark McReynolds
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James Clark McReynolds
James Clark McReynolds
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McReynolds' birthplace in Elkton
James Clark McReynolds
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Attorney General McReynolds (ca. 1913)
James Clark McReynolds
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McReynolds's Supreme Court nomination
41.
Pierce Butler (justice)
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Pierce Butler was an American jurist who served as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1923 until his death in 1939. He is notable for being the first Justice from Minnesota, and for being a Democrat appointed by a Republican president, Butler was born to Patrick and Mary Ann Butler, Catholic immigrants from County Wicklow, Ireland. Soon, the couple settled in Sciota, then Waterford, Dakota County and their son Pierce Butler was the sixth of nine children born in a log cabin, all but his sister would live to adulthood. Butler graduated from Carleton College, where he was a member of Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity and he read for the law and was admitted to the bar in 1888. He married Annie M. Cronin in 1891 and he was elected as county attorney in Ramsey County in 1892, and re-elected in 1894. Butler joined the law firm of How & Eller in 1896 and he accepted an offer to practice in St. Paul, Minnesota, where he took care of railroad-related litigation for James J. Hill. He was highly successful in representing railroads, in 1905 he returned to private practice and rejoined Jared How. He had also served as a lawyer for the company owned by his five brothers, in 1908, Butler was elected President of the Minnesota State Bar Association. From 1912 to 1922, he worked in law in Canada, alternately representing the shareholders of railroad companies. When he was nominated for the United States Supreme Court in 1922, the Senator-elect Henrik Shipstead of his home state opposed him, as did the Progressive Senator Robert M. Also against his confirmation were labor activists, some liberal magazines, the Senators who voted against him were five Democrats and three Republicans. He took his seat on the Court on January 2,1923, as an Associate Justice, Butler vigorously opposed regulation of business and the implementation of welfare programs by the federal government. This earned him a place among the so-called Four Horsemen, which also included James Clark McReynolds, George Sutherland, during his sixteen years on the bench, Justice Butler authored 327 majority opinions as well as 50 eloquent minority opinions. On November 15,1939, Butler went into the hospital for a minor ailment but died in the early morning hours of November 16. In Palko v. Connecticut, Butler was the lone dissenter on the court, Butler believed this violated the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. He sided with the majority in Pierce v. Society of Sisters, another consequential dissent was from the opinion expressed in Olmstead v. United States which upheld federal wiretapping. He took a view of 4th Amendment protections. Butler died in Washington, D. C. at the age of 73 while still on the court and he is buried in the Calvary Cemetery in St. Paul
Pierce Butler (justice)
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Pierce Butler
Pierce Butler (justice)
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Justice Pierce Butler
Pierce Butler (justice)
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Funeral of Justice Pierce Butler, members of the Supreme Court flanking, following high
requiem mass at
St. Matthew's Cathedral
42.
George Sutherland
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Alexander George Sutherland was an English-born U. S. jurist and politician. One of four appointments to the Supreme Court by President Warren G. Harding, Sutherland was born in Stony Stratford, Buckinghamshire, England, to a Scottish father, Alexander George Sutherland, and an English mother, Frances, née Slater. A recent convert to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, in the 1870s the Sutherland family left Mormonism, with George remaining unbaptized. At the age of twelve, the need to help his family financially forced Sutherland to leave school and take a job, first as a clerk in a clothing store, yet Sutherland aspired to a higher education, and in 1879 had saved enough to attend Brigham Young Academy. There he studied under Karl G. Cooley, Sutherland left school before earning his law degree. After admission to the Michigan bar, he married Rosamond Lee in 1883, their marriage proved a happy one, after his marriage, Sutherland moved back to Utah Territory, where he joined his father in a partnership in Provo. In 1886, they dissolved their partnership and Sutherland formed a new one with Samuel Thurman, after running unsuccessfully as the Liberal Party candidate for mayor of Provo, Sutherland moved to Salt Lake City in 1893. There he joined one of the leading law firms. In 1900, Sutherland received the Republican nomination as the candidate for Utahs seat in the U. S. House of Representatives. In the subsequent election, Sutherland narrowly defeated the Democratic incumbent, William H. King, Sutherland declined to run for a second term and returned to Utah in order to campaign for election to the United States Senate. With the state legislature firmly under Republican control, the contest was an intra-party battle with the incumbent, with the backing of Utahs other senator, Reed Smoot, Sutherland secured the unanimous support of the caucus in January 1905. Sutherland repaid his debt to Smoot in 1907 by speaking on the floor in the Senate in defense of the senator during the climax of the Smoot hearings. Sutherlands tenure in the Senate coincided with the Progressive Era in American politics and he voted for much of Theodore Roosevelt s legislative programs, including the Pure Food and Drug Act, the Hepburn Act, and the Federal Employers Liability Act. He was also a longstanding women’s rights advocate and he introduced the Nineteenth Amendment into the Senate. Campaigned for the passage of that amendment, helped draft the Equal Rights Amendment, yet he generally sided with the Old Guard of conservatives who battled with their Progressive counterparts within the party during William Howard Tafts presidency. The election of Woodrow Wilson and the Democratic takeover of Congress in 1912 put Sutherland, by now a national figure, Sutherland opposed many of Wilsons legislative proposals and foreign policy measures. Sutherlands opposition contributed to his defeat in 1916, when he faced reelection for the first time under the terms of the Seventeenth Amendment, once again he faced William H. King, who campaigned on Sutherlands opposition to the president. Following his Senate defeat, he resumed the practice of law in Washington, D. C
George Sutherland
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George Sutherland
George Sutherland
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Senator George Sutherland c. 1910
43.
Willis Van Devanter
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Willis Van Devanter was an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, January 3,1911 to June 2,1937. Born in Marion, Indiana, he received a LL. B. from the Cincinnati Law School in 1881 and he was a member of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity and the Knights of Pythias. After three years practice in Marion, he moved to the Wyoming Territory where he served as city attorney of Cheyenne, Wyoming. At the age of 30, he was appointed judge of the territorial court. Upon statehood, he served as Chief Justice of the Wyoming Supreme Court for four days, and again took up private practice for seven years, including much work for the Union Pacific and other railroads. In 1896 he represented the state of Wyoming before the U. S. Supreme Court in Ward v. Race Horse 163 U. S.504. At issue was a state poaching charge for hunting out of season, the Native Americans won in the U. S. Federal District Court, the judgment was revised on appeal to the Supreme Court by a 7-1 majority. In the summer and fall of 1896, Van Devanter was afflicted with typhoid fever, from 1896 to 1900 he served in Washington, D. C. as an assistant attorney general, working in the Department of Interior. He was also a professor at The George Washington University Law School from 1897 to 1903, on February 4,1903, President Theodore Roosevelt nominated Van Devanter to a seat on the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals created by 32 Stat.791. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on February 18,1903, in 1910, William Howard Taft elevated him to the Supreme Court. Taft nominated Van Devanter on December 12,1910 to the Associate Justice seat vacated by Edward D. White, three days later, Van Devanter was confirmed by the United States Senate on December 15,1910, and received his commission the following day. Van Devanter assumed senior status on June 2,1937, one of the first Supreme Court Justices to do so, although no longer on the Court at that point, he technically remained available to hear cases until his death. By all accounts he was anti-Semitic but was more private about his prejudices than the notorious McReynolds and his opinion in United States v. Ironically, the decision has since been the basis for Pueblo self-government and protection of tribal lands. He rarely wrote on constitutional issues, however, he was widely respected as an expert on judicial procedure. Known widely as the Judges Bill, it retained jurisdiction over cases that raised questions regarding federal jurisdiction. Lastly, cases involving final decrees which brought into question the validity of a range of Federal or state treaties would come to the Court by certiorari. Four justices would be required to vote affirmatively to accept petitions, the Chief Justice, together with the three Justices, made repeated trips to Congress, and in 1925, after debating it for two years, the new Code was passed. Van Devanter retired as a Supreme Court Justice on May 18,1937 and he acknowledged that he might have retired five years earlier due to illness, if not for his concern about New Deal legislation, and that he depended upon his salary for sustenance
Willis Van Devanter
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Willis Van Devanter
Willis Van Devanter
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Van Devanter's former residence in Washington, D.C.
44.
Contract
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A contract is a voluntary arrangement between two or more parties that is enforceable by law as a binding legal agreement. Contract is a branch of the law of obligations in jurisdictions of the civil law tradition, Contract law concerns the rights and duties that arise from agreements. A contract arises when the parties agree that there is an agreement, formation of a contract generally requires an offer, acceptance, consideration, and a mutual intent to be bound. Each party to a contract must have capacity to enter the agreement, minors, intoxicated persons, and those under a mental affliction may have insufficient capacity to enter a contract. Some types of contracts may require formalities, such as a memorialization in writing, at common law, the elements of a contract are offer, acceptance, intention to create legal relations, and consideration. Not all agreements are necessarily contractual, as the parties generally must be deemed to have an intention to be legally bound, a so-called gentlemens agreement is one which is not intended to be legally enforceable, and which is binding in honour only. In order for a contract to be formed, the parties must reach mutual assent and this is typically reached through offer and an acceptance which does not vary the offers terms, which is known as the mirror image rule. An offer is a statement of the offerors willingness to be bound should certain conditions be met. If a purported acceptance does vary the terms of an offer, it is not an acceptance but a counteroffer and, therefore, the Uniform Commercial Code disposes of the mirror image rule in §2-207, although the UCC only governs transactions in goods in the USA. As a court cannot read minds, the intent of the parties is interpreted objectively from the perspective of a reasonable person and it is important to note that where an offer specifies a particular mode of acceptance, only an acceptance communicated via that method will be valid. Contracts may be bilateral or unilateral, a bilateral contract is an agreement in which each of the parties to the contract makes a promise or set of promises to each other. For example, in a contract for the sale of a home, less common are unilateral contracts in which one party makes a promise, but the other side does not promise anything. In these cases, those accepting the offer are not required to communicate their acceptance to the offeror, in a reward contract, for example, a person who has lost a dog could promise a reward if the dog is found, through publication or orally. The payment could be conditioned on the dog being returned alive. Those who learn of the reward are not required to search for the dog, but if someone finds the dog and delivers it, the High Court of Australia stated that the term unilateral contract is unscientific and misleading. In certain circumstances, a contract may be created. A contract is implied in fact if the circumstances imply that parties have reached an agreement even though they have not done so expressly, quantum meruit claims are an example. Carbolic, a firm, advertised a smoke ball marketed as a wonder drug that would, according to the instructions
Contract
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Bill of sale of a male slave and a building in Shuruppak,
Sumerian tablet, circa 2600 BC
Contract
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The Carbolic Smoke Ball offer
Contract
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A contract from the
Tang dynasty that records the purchase of a 15-year-old slave for six bolts of plain silk and five Chinese coins
Contract
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German marriage contract, 1521 between
Gottfried Werner von Zimmern (de) and Apollonia von Henneberg-Römhild
45.
United States v. Butler
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Justice Owen Roberts argued that the tax was but a means to an unconstitutional end that violated the Tenth Amendment. The main issue of the case was whether certain provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 conflicted with the Constitution, in the Act, a tax was imposed on processors of farm products, the proceeds to be paid to farmers who would reduce their area and crops. The intent of the act was to increase the prices of farm products by decreasing the quantities produced. The court also held that making the payment of a government subsidy to a farmer conditional on the reduction of his planned crops went beyond the powers of the national government, specifically, Justice Roberts said, The act invades the reserved rights of the states. It is a plan to regulate and control agricultural production. The tax, the appropriation of the raised, and the direction for their disbursement, are. They are but means to an unconstitutional end, although it struck down the Act, the Court dealt positively with taxation and the expenditure of funds to advance the general welfare as specified in Article 1 §8 of the Constitution. The Court stated that the issue “presents the great and the question in the case. ”… It results that the power of Congress to authorize expenditure of public moneys for public purposes is not limited by the direct grants of legislative power found in the Constitution. The fact that the Court struck down the Act despite an expansive interpretation of the Spending Clause reflects the turmoil in the Court at this critical time. g, south Dakota v. Dole,483 U. S.203, O’Connor dissent. In her dissent, Justice O’Connor noted that Butler was the last case in which the Supreme Court struck down an Act of Congress as beyond the authority granted by the Spending Clause. This was part of a series of cases decided by the conservative Supreme Court of the period which declared unconstitutional parts of Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal legislation. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 297 Text of United States v. Butler,297 U. S.1 is available from, Findlaw Justia
United States v. Butler
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Supreme Court of the United States
46.
Agricultural Adjustment Act
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Its purpose was to reduce crop surplus and therefore effectively raise the value of crops. The money for these subsidies was generated through a tax on companies which processed farm products. The Act created a new agency, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, the Agriculture Marketing Act, which established the Federal Farm Board in 1929, was seen as a strong precursor to this act. The law, in its entirety, can be read here, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt took office in March 1933, the United States was in the midst of the Great Depression. Farmers faced the most severe economic situation and lowest agricultural prices since the 1890s, overproduction and a shrinking international market had driven down agricultural prices. Soon after his inauguration, Roosevelt called the Hundred Days Congress into session to address the crumbling economy, from this Congress came the Agricultural Adjustment Administration to replace the Federal Farm Board. The Roosevelt Administration was tasked with decreasing agricultural surpluses, wheat, cotton, field corn, hogs, rice, tobacco, and milk and its products were designated as basic commodities in the original legislation. Subsequent amendments in 1934 and 1935 expanded the list of commodities to include rye, flax, barley, grain sorghum, cattle, peanuts, sugar beets, sugar cane. The Administration targeted these commodities for the reasons, Changes in the prices of these commodities had a strong effect on the prices of other important commodities. These commodities were running a surplus at the time. These items each required some amount of processing before they could be consumed by humans, Congress declared its intent, at the same time, to protect the consumers interest. For example, in an effort to reduce agricultural surpluses, the government paid farmers to reduce crop production, oranges were being soaked with kerosene to prevent their consumption and corn was being burned as fuel because it was so cheap. There were many people, however, as well as livestock in different places starving to death, farmers slaughtered livestock because feed prices were rising, and they could not afford to feed their own animals. Under the Agricultural Adjustment Act, plowing under of pigs was also common to prevent them reaching a reproductive age, in 1935, the income generated by farms was 50 percent higher than it was in 1932, which was partly due to farm programs such as the AAA. Tenant farming characterized the cotton and tobacco production in the post-Civil War South, as the agricultural economy plummeted in the early 1930s, all farmers were badly hurt but the tenant farmers and sharecroppers experienced the worst of it. To accomplish its goal of parity, the Act reduced crop production, the Act accomplished this by offering landowners acreage reduction contracts, by which they agreed not to grow cotton on a portion of their land. The farm wage workers who worked directly for the landowner suffered the greatest unemployment as a result of the Act, there are few people gullible enough to believe that the acreage devoted to cotton can be reduced one-third without an accompanying decrease in the laborers engaged in its production. Researchers concluded that the statistics after the Act took effect, indicate a consistent and widespread tendency for cotton croppers and, to a considerable extent, tenants to decrease in numbers between 1930 and 1935
Agricultural Adjustment Act
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A Roosevelt County New Mexico farmer and a County Agricultural Conservation Committee representative review the provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) farm program to determine how it can best be applied on that particular acreage in 1934.
Agricultural Adjustment Act
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Agricultural Adjustment Act
Agricultural Adjustment Act
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Barn on tenant's farm. Walker County, Alabama. Taken February 1937.
Agricultural Adjustment Act
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Senator Elmer Thomas is seen here on the left. He is standing with Claude M. Hurst and John Collier, members of the Senate Indian Affairs Committee, and unassociated (directly) with the "Thomas Amendment."
47.
West Coast Hotel v. Parrish
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The decision is usually regarded as having ended the Lochner era, a period in American legal history during which the Supreme Court tended to invalidate legislation aimed at regulating business. The trial court, using Adkins as precedent, ruled for the defendant, the Washington Supreme Court, taking the case on a direct appeal, reversed the trial court and found in favor of Parrish. The hotel appealed to the U. S. Supreme Court, Oregon,208 U. S.412, where the Court had found in favor of the regulation of womens working hours. Hughes CJ said the following, Muller v. Oregon was one of the few exceptions to decades of Court invalidation of economic regulation, coming shortly after President Franklin D. Roberts move was notoriously referred to as the switch in time that saved nine. Shortly after leaving the Court, Roberts reportedly burned all of his legal and judicial papers, as a result, there is no significant collection of Roberts manuscript papers, as there is for most other modern Justices. Roberts did prepare a short memorandum discussing his alleged change of stance around the time of the court-packing effort, fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 Text of West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish,300 U. S.379 is available from, Findlaw Justia
West Coast Hotel v. Parrish
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Supreme Court of the United States
48.
Court-packing
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The Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937 was a legislative initiative proposed by U. S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt to add more justices to the U. S. Supreme Court. Roosevelts purpose was to obtain favorable rulings regarding New Deal legislation that the court had ruled unconstitutional, in the Judiciary Act of 1869 Congress had established that the United States Supreme Court would consist of the Chief Justice and eight associate justices. During Roosevelts first term the Supreme Court struck down several New Deal measures as being unconstitutional, Constitution does not define the size of the Supreme Court, Roosevelt pointed out that it was within the power of the Congress to change it. The legislation was viewed by members of both parties as an attempt to stack the court, and was opposed by many Democrats, the bill came to be known as Roosevelts court-packing plan. In November 1936, Roosevelt won a sweeping reelection victory, in the months following, Roosevelt boldly proposed to reorganize the federal judiciary by adding a new justice each time a justice reached age seventy and failed to retire. The legislation was unveiled on February 5,1937, and was the subject of Roosevelts 9th Fireside chat of March 9,1937. Three weeks after the address the Supreme Court published an opinion upholding a Washington state minimum wage law in West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish. The 5–4 ruling was the result of the apparently sudden jurisprudential shift by Associate Justice Owen Roberts, since Roberts had previously ruled against most New Deal legislation, his support here was seen as a result of the political pressure the president was exerting on the court. Some interpreted his reversal as an effort to maintain the Courts judicial independence by alleviating the pressure to create a court more friendly to the New Deal. As a result of his efforts, the bill was held in committee for 165 days. The bill was further undermined by the death of its chief advocate in the U. S. Senate, Senate Majority Leader Joseph T. Robinson. Contemporary observers broadly viewed Roosevelts initiative as political maneuvering and its failure exposed the limits of Roosevelts abilities to push forward legislation through direct public appeal. The public perception of his efforts here was in stark contrast to the reception of his efforts during his first term. Roosevelt ultimately prevailed in establishing a majority on the friendly to his New Deal legislation. The 1932 election also saw a new Democratic majority sweep into both houses of Congress, giving Roosevelt legislative support for his reform platform, both Roosevelt and the 73rd Congress called for greater governmental involvement in the economy as a way to end the depression. During the presidents first term, a series of challenges to various New Deal programs were launched in federal courts. It soon became clear that the overall constitutionality of much of the New Deal legislation, especially that which extended the power of the federal government, a minor aspect of Roosevelts New Deal agenda may have itself directly precipitated the showdown between the Roosevelt administration and the Supreme Court. Shortly after Roosevelts inauguration, Congress passed the Economy Act, a provision of which cut many government salaries, Associate Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. who had retired in 1932, saw his pension halved from $20,000 to $10,000 per year
Court-packing
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The Hughes Court, 1932–1937. Front row: Justices
Brandeis and
Van Devanter,
Chief Justice Hughes, and Justices
McReynolds and
Sutherland. Back row: Justices
Roberts,
Butler,
Stone, and
Cardozo.
Court-packing
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President Franklin D. Roosevelt. His dissatisfaction over Supreme Court decisions holding
New Deal programs unconstitutional prompted him to seek out methods to change the way the court functioned.
Court-packing
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Associate Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. Holmes's loss of half his pension pay due to New Deal legislation after his 1932 retirement is believed to have dissuaded Justices Van Devanter and Sutherland from departing the bench.
Court-packing
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Associate Justice Owen J. Roberts. The balance of the Supreme Court in 1935 caused the Roosevelt administration much concern over how Roberts would adjudicate New Deal challenges.
49.
Nebbia v. New York
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Nebbia v. New York,291 U. S.502, was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States decided that New York State could regulate the price of milk for dairy farmers, dealers, and retailers. New York State dairy farmers were disproportionately harmed by the decline in prices after World War I. To tackle the problem, the New York legislature created a joint legislative committee, following the hearings, the state of New York established a Milk Control Board in 1933 that was empowered to set maximum and minimum retail prices. The board set the price of a quart of milk at 9¢, the price reflected the market price, and the purpose of the order was to prevent price cutting. Nevertheless, the public suspected that the intent was to benefit dairy dealers, instead of farmers. Tensions ran so high that violent milk strikes took place throughout the state, every public hearing of the Milk Control Board resulted in a tumultuous, popular assemblage and its every action was Statewide news. A search began for a case that would challenge the basis of the statute. Leo Nebbia, the owner of a store, sold two quarts of milk and a 5¢ loaf of bread for 18¢. He was found guilty of violating the regulations and was fined $25. He challenged the conviction, arguing the statute and order violated the Equal Protection Clause, the county court and the Court of Appeals affirmed the conviction, and the case was appealed to the Supreme Court. Justice Owen J. Roberts delivered the majority opinion and he added that occasional regulation by the state is requisite for the proper government function, especially if such regulation is used to promote general welfare. The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments do not prohibit governmental regulation for the public welfare, instead, they only direct the process by which such regulation occurs. Roberts noted also that the New York milk industry had long been the subject of public interest regulation, courts, however, have no authority to create such policy or to strike it down when it has been properly enacted by the legislature. He added, With the wisdom of the adopted, with the adequacy or practicability of the law enacted to forward it. He concluded that the majority found no basis in the Due Process Clause to strike down the provisions of the Agriculture. McReynolds dissented from the majority opinion and his dissent was joined by Justice Willis Van Devanter, Justice George Sutherland, and Justice Pierce Butler. The four became nicknamed the Four Horsemen for their rejection of New Deal regulation, mcReynolds provided a lengthy discussion of the history and application of the Due Process Clause and the legislative findings that had led to the creation of the Milk Control Board. He ultimately concluded that although regulation to prevent recognized evils in business has long been upheld as permissible legislative action
Nebbia v. New York
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Supreme Court of the United States
