1.
Niels Bohr
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Niels Henrik David Bohr was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research, although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle of complementarity, that items could be analysed in terms of contradictory properties. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohrs thinking in science and philosophy. Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, now known as the Niels Bohr Institute, Bohr mentored and collaborated with physicists including Hans Kramers, Oskar Klein, George de Hevesy, and Werner Heisenberg. He predicted the existence of a new element, which was named hafnium, after the Latin name for Copenhagen. Later, the element bohrium was named after him, during the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees from Nazism. After Denmark was occupied by the Germans, he had a meeting with Heisenberg. In September 1943, word reached Bohr that he was about to be arrested by the Germans, from there, he was flown to Britain, where he joined the British Tube Alloys nuclear weapons project, and was part of the British mission to the Manhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for cooperation on nuclear energy. He had a sister, Jenny, and a younger brother Harald. Jenny became a teacher, while Harald became a mathematician and Olympic footballer who played for the Danish national team at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. Bohr was a footballer as well, and the two brothers played several matches for the Copenhagen-based Akademisk Boldklub, with Bohr as goalkeeper. Bohr was educated at Gammelholm Latin School, starting when he was seven, in 1903, Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate at Copenhagen University. His major was physics, which he studied under Professor Christian Christiansen and he also studied astronomy and mathematics under Professor Thorvald Thiele, and philosophy under Professor Harald Høffding, a friend of his father. This involved measuring the frequency of oscillation of the radius of a water jet, Bohr conducted a series of experiments using his fathers laboratory in the university, the university itself had no physics laboratory. To complete his experiments, he had to make his own glassware and his essay, which he submitted at the last minute, won the prize. He later submitted a version of the paper to the Royal Society in London for publication in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
2.
Dewsbury
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Dewsbury is a minster town in the Metropolitan Borough of Kirklees, in West Yorkshire, England. It is to the west of Wakefield, east of Huddersfield and it lies by the River Calder and an arm of the Calder and Hebble Navigation. Historically a part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, after undergoing a period of growth in the 19th century as a mill town. More recently there has been redevelopment of derelict mills into flats, according to the 2011 census the Dewsbury urban sub-area had a population of 62,945. Dewsbury is the largest town in the Heavy Woollen District, a conurbation of small mill towns, other, less supported, theories exist as to the names origin. For example, that it means dew hill, from Old English dēaw, dew and it has been suggested that dēaw refers to the towns proximity to the water of the River Calder. Historically other origins were proposed, such as Gods fort, from Welsh Duw, antiquarians supposed the name, Dewsbury, to be derived from the original planter of the village, Dui or Dew, who … had fixed his abode and fortified his Bury. Another conjecture holds, that the name is Dewsborough, or Gods Town In Saxon times. The ecclesiastical parish of Dewsbury encompassed Huddersfield, Mirfield and Bradford, ancient legend records that in 627 Paulinus, the first Bishop of York, preached here on the banks of the River Calder. Numerous Anglian graves have been found in Dewsbury and Thornhill, Dewsbury Minster lies near the River Calder, traditionally on the site where Paulinus preached. Some of the stonework in the nave is Saxon. The tower houses Black Tom, a bell which is rung each Christmas Eve, one toll for each year since Christs birth, known as the Devils Knell, a tradition dating from the 15th century. The bell was given by Sir Thomas de Soothill, in penance for murdering a servant boy in a fit of rage, the tradition was commemorated on a Royal Mail postage stamp in 1986. Dewsbury market was established in the 14th century for local clothiers, occurrences of the plague in 1593 and 1603 closed the market and it reopened in 1741. Throughout the Middle Ages, Dewsbury retained a measure of importance in ecclesiastical terms, John Wesley visited the area five times in the mid-18th century, and the first Methodist Society was established in 1746. Centenary Chapel on Daisy Hill commemorates the centenary of this event, in 1770, a short branch of the Calder and Hebble Navigation was completed, linking Dewsbury to the canal system giving access to Manchester and Hull. By the time of the Industrial Revolution, Dewsbury was a centre for the shoddy and mungo industries which recycled woollen items by mixing them with new wool and making heavy blankets and uniforms. The town benefited economically from the canal, its location at the heart of the Heavy Woollen District, the railway arrived in 1848 when Dewsbury Wellington Road railway station on the London and North Western Railway opened, this is the only station which remains open
3.
Alton, Hampshire
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Alton is a market town and civil parish in the East Hampshire district of Hampshire, England. It is located across a valley on the source of the River Wey, according to the 2011 census, it has a population of 17,816. The town is famous for its connection with Sweet Fanny Adams, the town was recorded in the Domesday Survey of 1086 under the name Aoltone and was notable for having the most valuable market recorded therein. The Battle of Alton occurred in the town during the English Civil War, the town contains three secondary schools and its own railway station. The Alton Hoard of Iron Age coins and jewellery was found in the vicinity of the town in 1996 and is now in the British Museum. A Roman road ran from Chichester to Silchester and there is evidence of a Roman posting station at Neatham near Alton, probably called Vindomis, centuries later, an Anglo-Saxon settlement was established in the area and a large 7th century cemetery has been discovered during building excavations. The buckle was found in the grave of a warrior, and has a body, set with garnets. The River Wey has a source in the town, and the name Alton comes from an Anglo-Saxon word aewielltun meaning farmstead at the source of the river, in 1001 Danish forces invaded England during the First Battle of Alton. When they reached Alton, the forces of Wessex came together, about 81 Englishman were killed, including Ethelwerd the Kings high-steward, Leofric of Whitchurch, Leofwin the Kings high-steward, Wulfhere a bishops thane, and Godwin of Worthy, Bishop Elfsys son. Danish casualties were higher, but the Danes won the battle, Alton is listed as having the most valuable recorded market in the Domesday Book under the name Aoltone in the Odingeton Hundred — Hantescire. The Treaty of Alton was an agreement signed in 1101 between William the Conquerors eldest son Robert, Duke of Normandy and his brother Henry I of England, Henry had seized the throne while his elder brother was away on the first crusade. Robert returned to claim the throne, landing in Portsmouth, the two brothers met in Alton and agreed terms which formed the Treaty of Alton. Part of the street through Alton is called Normandy Street. The first recorded market in Alton was in 1232, although the market at Neatham first recorded in the Domesday Book may also have been in the town. Blome wrote in 1673 of a market on Saturdays, which is great for provisions. The correct date for the grant seems to be 22 November 1320, the grant was for a 9-day fair - the vigil and feast of Whitsuntide and seven days after. The two main manors in Alton - Alton Eastbrook and Alton Westbrook - had a fair each and that of Alton Eastbrook has no extant charter, and may never have had one. It was originally held on St Lawrence’s Day and so its origin was, presumably, the religious aspect would have ceased when the country was no longer Roman Catholic
4.
Batley Grammar School
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Batley Grammar School is a co-educational free school located on Carlinghow Hill in Upper Batley, West Yorkshire, England. The school was founded in 1612 by the Rev. William Lee, an annual founders day service is held in his memory at Batley Parish Church, as he requested in his will, although it is not held on the date originally specified. The school selected boys on their performance in the eleven-plus exams, following the comprehensivisation of secondary education, the school became independent and entry became restricted to boys whose parents could afford its fees. It was originally a school but introduced girls into the sixth form in 1988. More recently, the school has returned to the sector and was one of the first free schools to open in the country. Batley Grammar School is a member of the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference, a Junior and Infants school, named Priestley House is set in the grounds and is also part of the Free School. Former pupils of the school are referred to as Old Batelians
5.
Trinity College, Cambridge
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Trinity College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in England. With around 600 undergraduates,300 graduates, and over 180 fellows, by combined student numbers, it is second to Homerton College, Cambridge. Members of Trinity have won 32 Nobel Prizes out of the 91 won by members of Cambridge University, five Fields Medals in mathematics were won by members of the college and one Abel Prize was won. Other royal family members have studied there without obtaining degrees, including King Edward VII, King George VI, along with Christs, Jesus, Kings and St Johns colleges, it has also provided several of the well known members of the Apostles, an intellectual secret society. In 1848, Trinity hosted the meeting at which Cambridge undergraduates representing private schools such as Westminster drew up the first formal rules of football, Trinitys sister college in Oxford is Christ Church. Like that college, Trinity has been linked with Westminster School since the schools re-foundation in 1560, the college was founded by Henry VIII in 1546, from the merger of two existing colleges, Michaelhouse, and Kings Hall. At the time, Henry had been seizing church lands from abbeys, the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, being both religious institutions and quite rich, expected to be next in line. The King duly passed an Act of Parliament that allowed him to any college he wished. The universities used their contacts to plead with his sixth wife, the Queen persuaded her husband not to close them down, but to create a new college. The king did not want to use royal funds, so he combined two colleges and seven hostels to form Trinity. Contrary to popular belief, the lands granted by Henry VIII were not on their own sufficient to ensure Trinitys eventual rise. In its infancy Trinity had owed a great deal to its college of St Johns. Its first four Masters were educated at St Johns, and it took until around 1575 for the two colleges application numbers to draw even, a position in which they have remained since the Civil War. Bentley himself was notorious for the construction of a hugely expensive staircase in the Masters Lodge, most of the Trinitys major buildings date from the 16th and 17th centuries. Thomas Nevile, who became Master of Trinity in 1593, rebuilt and this work included the enlargement and completion of Great Court, and the construction of Neviles Court between Great Court and the river Cam. Neviles Court was completed in the late 17th century when the Wren Library, in the 20th century, Trinity College, St Johns College and Kings College were for decades the main recruiting grounds for the Cambridge Apostles, an elite, intellectual secret society. In 2011, the John Templeton Foundation awarded Trinity Colleges Master, Trinity is the richest Oxbridge college, with a landholding alone worth £800 million. Trinity is sometimes suggested to be the second, third or fourth wealthiest landowner in the UK – after the Crown Estate, the National Trust, in 2005, Trinitys annual rental income from its properties was reported to be in excess of £20 million
6.
University College London
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University College London is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the federal University of London. It is the largest postgraduate institution in the UK by enrollment and is regarded as one of the worlds leading research universities. UCL also makes the claims of being the third-oldest university in England. In 1836 UCL became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London, which was granted a charter in the same year. UCL has its campus in the Bloomsbury area of central London, with a number of institutes and teaching hospitals elsewhere in central London. UCL is organised into 11 constituent faculties, within there are over 100 departments, institutes. In 2015/16, UCL had around 38,300 students and 12,000 staff and had an income of £1.36 billion. UCL ranks highly in national and international league tables and its graduates rank among the most employable in the world, UCL academics discovered five of the naturally occurring noble gases, co-discovered hormones, invented the vacuum tube, and made several foundational advances in modern statistics. There are at least 29 Nobel Prize winners and 3 Fields medalists amongst UCLs alumni and current, UCL was founded on 11 February 1826 under the name London University, as an alternative to the Anglican universities of Oxford and Cambridge. London Universitys first Warden was Leonard Horner, who was the first scientist to head a British university and this suggests that while his ideas may have been influential, he himself was less so. In 1827, the Chair of Political Economy at London University was created, with John Ramsay McCulloch as the first incumbent, in 1828 the university became the first in England to offer English as a subject and the teaching of Classics and medicine began. In 1830, London University founded the London University School, which would later become University College School, in 1833, the university appointed Alexander Maconochie, Secretary to the Royal Geographical Society, as the first professor of geography in the UK. In 1834, University College Hospital opened as a hospital for the universitys medical school. In 1836, London University was incorporated by charter under the name University College. The Slade School of Fine Art was founded as part of University College in 1871, in 1878, the University of London gained a supplemental charter making it the first British university to be allowed to award degrees to women. The same year, UCL admitted women to the faculties of Arts and Law and of Science, although women remained barred from the faculties of Engineering and of Medicine. Armstrong College, an institution of Newcastle University, also allowed women to enter from its foundation in 1871. Women were finally admitted to medical studies during the First World War in 1917, in 1898, Sir William Ramsay discovered the elements krypton, neon and xenon whilst professor of chemistry at UCL
7.
Thermionic emission
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Thermionic emission is the thermally induced flow of charge carriers from a surface or over a potential-energy barrier. This occurs because the energy given to the carrier overcomes the work function of the material. The charge carriers can be electrons or ions, and in literature are sometimes referred to as thermions. After emission, a charge that is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the total charge emitted is initially left behind in the emitting region, the classical example of thermionic emission is the emission of electrons from a hot cathode into a vacuum in a vacuum tube. The hot cathode can be a metal filament, a metal filament. Vacuum emission from metals tends to become significant only for temperatures over 1,000 K, the term thermionic emission is now also used to refer to any thermally-excited charge emission process, even when the charge is emitted from one solid-state region into another. This process is important in the operation of a variety of electronic devices. The magnitude of the flow increases dramatically with increasing temperature. The phenomenon was reported in 1853 by Edmond Becquerel. It was rediscovered in 1873 by Frederick Guthrie in Britain, while doing work on charged objects, Guthrie discovered that a red-hot iron sphere with a negative charge would lose its charge. He also found that this did not happen if the sphere had a positive charge, other early contributors included Johann Wilhelm Hittorf, Eugen Goldstein, and Julius Elster and Hans Friedrich Geitel. Edison built several experimental lamp bulbs with a wire, metal plate, or foil inside the bulb that was separate from the filament. He connected a galvanometer, a used to measure current. If the foil was put at a negative potential relative to the filament and we now know that the filament was emitting electrons, which were attracted to a positively charged foil, but not a negatively charged one. This one-way current was called the Edison effect and he found that the current emitted by the hot filament increased rapidly with increasing voltage, and filed a patent application for a voltage-regulating device using the effect on November 15,1883. He found that sufficient current would pass through the device to operate a telegraph sounder and this was exhibited at the International Electrical Exposition in Philadelphia in September 1884. William Preece, a British scientist, took back with him several of the Edison effect bulbs and he presented a paper on them in 1885, where he referred to thermionic emission as the Edison Effect. The British physicist John Ambrose Fleming, working for the British Wireless Telegraphy Company, Fleming went on to develop the two-element vacuum tube known as the diode, which he patented on November 16,1904
8.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
9.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
10.
Hughes Medal
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The Hughes Medal is awarded by the Royal Society of London in recognition of an original discovery in the physical sciences, particularly electricity and magnetism or their applications. Named after David E. Hughes, the medal is awarded with a gift of £1000, unlike other Royal Society medals, the Hughes Medal has never been awarded to the same individual more than once. J. Whelan for their contributions to the theory of diffraction and microscopy. As of 2011, the Hughes Medal has been awarded biennially, archived from the original on 19 June 2010. Hughes archive winners 1989 -1902, archived from the original on 19 June 2010
11.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
12.
University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
13.
Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
14.
King's College London
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Kings College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom, and a founding constituent college of the federal University of London. Kings was established in 1829 by King George IV and the Duke of Wellington, in 1836, Kings became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London. It is a member of organisations such as the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the European University Association. Kings has five campuses, its main campus on the Strand in central London. In 2015/16, Kings had an income of £738.4 million, of which £193.2 million was from research grants and contracts and as of 2014/15. It has the fifth largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, and its academic activities are organised into nine faculties which are subdivided into numerous departments, centres and research divisions. Kings is home to six Medical Research Council centres and is a member of the Kings Health Partners academic health sciences centre, Francis Crick Institute. Kings College London, so named to indicate the patronage of King George IV, was founded in 1829 in response to the controversy surrounding the founding of London University in 1826. The need for such an institution was a result of the religious and social nature of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, which then educated solely the sons of wealthy Anglicans. The secular nature of London University was disapproved by The Establishment, indeed, thus, the creation of a rival institution represented a Tory response to reassert the educational values of The Establishment. Winchilsea and about 150 other contributors withdrew their support of Kings College London in response to Wellingtons support of Catholic emancipation. In a letter to Wellington he accused the Duke to have in mind insidious designs for the infringement of our liberty, the letter provoked a furious exchange of correspondence and Wellington accused Winchilsea of imputing him with disgraceful and criminal motives in setting up Kings College London. The result was a duel in Battersea Fields on 21 March 1829, Winchilsea did not fire, a plan he and his second almost certainly decided upon before the duel, Wellington took aim and fired wide to the right. Accounts differ as to whether Wellington missed on purpose, Wellington, noted for his poor aim, claimed he did, other reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill. Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology, duel Day is still celebrated on the first Thursday after 21 March every year, marked by various events throughout Kings, including reenactments. Kings opened in October 1831 with the cleric William Otter appointed as first principal, despite the attempts to make Kings Anglican-only, the initial prospectus permitted, nonconformists of all sorts to enter the college freely. William Howley, the governors and the professors, except the linguists, had to be members of the Church of England but the students did not, though attendance at chapel was compulsory. Kings was divided into a department and a junior department, also known as Kings College School
15.
J. J. Thomson
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He was elected as a fellow of the Royal Society of London and appointed to the Cavendish Professorship of Experimental Physics at the Cambridge Universitys Cavendish Laboratory in 1884. Thomson is also credited with finding the first evidence for isotopes of an element in 1913. His experiments to determine the nature of positively charged particles, with Francis William Aston, were the first use of mass spectrometry, Thomson was awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the conduction of electricity in gases. Seven of his students, including his son George Paget Thomson and his record is comparable only to that of the German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld. Joseph John Thomson was born 18 December 1856 in Cheetham Hill, Manchester, Lancashire and his mother, Emma Swindells, came from a local textile family. His father, Joseph James Thomson, ran a bookshop founded by a great-grandfather. He had a two years younger than he was, Frederick Vernon Thomson. J. J. Thomson was a devout Anglican and his early education was in small private schools where he demonstrated outstanding talent and interest in science. In 1870 he was admitted to Owens College at the young age of 14. His parents planned to enroll him as an engineer to Sharp-Stewart & Co, a locomotive manufacturer. He moved on to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1876, in 1880 he obtained his BA in mathematics. He applied for and became a Fellow of Trinity College in 1881, Thomson received his MA in 1883. Thomson was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on 12 June 1884, on 22 December 1884 Thomson was chosen to become Cavendish Professor of Physics at the University of Cambridge. The appointment caused considerable surprise, given that such as Richard Glazebrook were older. Thomson was known for his work as a mathematician, where he was recognized as an exceptional talent. In 1890, Thomson married Rose Elisabeth Paget, daughter of Sir George Edward Paget, KCB and they had one son, George Paget Thomson, and one daughter, Joan Paget Thomson. He was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1906, in recognition of the merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases. He was knighted in 1908 and appointed to the Order of Merit in 1912, in 1914 he gave the Romanes Lecture in Oxford on The atomic theory
16.
Karl Taylor Compton
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Karl Taylor Compton was a prominent American physicist and president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1930 to 1948. Karl Taylor Compton was born in Wooster, Ohio, the eldest of three brothers and one sister, Mary and he came from a remarkably accomplished family in which his brother Arthur became a prominent physicist and sister Mary a missionary. Beginning in 1897, Comptons summers were spent camping at Otsego Lake, Michigan while attending Wooster public schools in fall, in 1902, Compton skipped a grade and went into Wooster Universitys preparatory department for the last two years of high school. In 1908, he graduated from Wooster cum laude with a bachelor of philosophy degree, during 1909–1910 he was an instructor in Woosters chemistry department before entering a graduate program at Princeton University. Richardson went on to receive the Nobel Prize in some of the areas where Compton contributed, in 1912, Compton received his Ph. D. from Princeton summa cum laude. In June 1913, Compton married Rowena Raymond and they moved to Reed College in Portland, Oregon, where Compton was an instructor in Physics. In 1915, he returned to Princeton as a professor of physics. He also took a consultancy at the General Electric Corporation and he contributed to the war effort at Princeton and with the Signal Corps. In December 1917, Compton was attached to the US Embassy in Paris as an associate science attaché, after the Armistice of 1918, the end of World War I Compton returned home to Princeton, his wife and three-year-old daughter Mary Evelyn. In June 1919, Compton was made a professor. Unfortunately, Rowena died in the fall of 1919, in 1921, Compton married Margaret Hutchinson, with whom he had a daughter, Jean, and a son, Charles Arthur. In 1927, Compton was named Director of Research at the Palmer Laboratory, in 1929 he was appointed head of the department. Over one hundred papers were published in his name during his time at Princeton, in 1923, Compton was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society and in 1924 a member of the National Academy of Sciences for which he was chairman of the Section of Physics. He was named vice-president of the American Physical Society in 1925, Compton was also a fellow of the Optical Society of America, a member of the American Chemical Society, the Franklin Institute and other professional engineering societies. He took office at the beginning of the Great Depression in America, a time of economic turmoil, Compton was to strengthen basic scientific research at the Institute while becoming a spokesman for science and technology. During Comptons service as President, the organization went through a revolutionary change and he developed a new approach to education in science and engineering, the influence of which was felt far beyond MIT. Significantly, he was active in the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education and he believed in broad-based education for scientists and engineers that was responsive to the needs of the time, and that science should be an element of industrial progress. In the early 1930s, Compton joined with members of the APS to form the American Institute of Physics, while he was chairman of the AIP board during 1931–1936, the organization became a federation of several disparate societies for developing subject areas in physics
17.
Clinton Davisson
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Clinton Joseph Davisson, was an American physicist who won the 1937 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of electron diffraction in the famous Davisson-Germer experiment. Davisson shared the Nobel Prize with George Paget Thomson, who independently discovered electron diffraction at about the time as Davisson. Davisson was born in Bloomington, Illinois and he graduated from Bloomington High School in 1902, and entered the University of Chicago on scholarship. Upon the recommendation of Robert A. Millikan, in 1905 Davisson was hired by Princeton University as Instructor of Physics and he completed the requirements for his B. S. degree from Chicago in 1908, mainly by working in the summers. While teaching at Princeton, he did doctoral research with Owen Richardson. He received his Ph. D. in physics from Princeton in 1911, in the year he married Richardsons sister. Davisson was then appointed as an assistant professor at the Carnegie Institute of Technology, in 1917 he took a leave from the Carnegie Institute to do war-related research with the Engineering Department of the Western Electric Company. At the end of the war, Davisson accepted a permanent position at Western Electric after receiving assurances of his freedom there to do basic research and he had found that his teaching responsibilities at the Carnegie Institute largely precluded him from doing research. Davisson remained at Western Electric until his retirement in 1946. He then accepted a research appointment at the University of Virginia that continued until his second retirement in 1954. In the 19th Century, diffraction was well established for light, in 1927, while working for Bell Labs, Davisson and Lester Germer performed an experiment showing that electrons were diffracted at the surface of a crystal of nickel. This celebrated Davisson-Germer experiment confirmed the de Broglie hypothesis that particles of matter have a wave-like nature, in particular, their observation of diffraction allowed the first measurement of a wavelength for electrons. The measured wavelength λ agreed well with de Broglies equation λ = h / p, while doing his graduate work at Princeton, Davisson met his wife and life companion Charlotte Sara Richardson, who was visiting her brother, Professor Richardson. Richardson is the sister-in-law of Oswald Veblen, a prominent mathematician, clinton and Charlotte Davisson had four children, including the American physicist Richard Davisson. The crater Davisson on the Moon is named after him, Davisson died on February 1,1958, at the age of 76. An impact crater on the far side of the moon was named after Davisson in 1970 by the IAU, nobelprize. org Biography Bloomington native won Nobel Prize in physics - Pantagraph
18.
Alan Tower Waterman
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Alan Tower Waterman was an American physicist. Born in Cornwall-on-Hudson, New York, he grew up in Northampton and his father was a professor of physics at Smith College. Alan also became a physicist, doing his undergraduate and doctoral work at Princeton University and he joined the faculty of the University of Cincinnati, and married Vassar graduate Mary Mallon there in August 1917. He later became a professor at Yale University, and moved to North Haven, during World War II, he took leave of absence from Yale to become director of field operations for the Office of Scientific Research and Development, and the family moved to Cambridge, MA. He continued his government work and became deputy chief of the Office of Naval Research, in 1950, he was appointed by President Truman as first director of the U. S. National Science Foundation. Waterman was awarded the Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences in 1960 and he served as director until 1963, when he retired and was subsequently awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Alan and Mary had six children, Alan Jr. an atmospheric physicist who taught at Stanford University, Neil, Barbara, Anne, and Guy, writer, climber, a daughter Mary died in childhood. Possessed of a nature, Alan Waterman was known for his calm. Besides his scientific talents, he was a musician, revealing his sense of humor by walking the corridors of the National Science Foundation playing his bagpipes. He had a voice and singing together was a family ritual. An avid outdoorsman, Dr. Waterman canoed the rivers and lakes of northern Maine during extensive summer trips in the 1930s and 1940s and he was accompanied by his sons and colleagues, in particular Karl Compton, then president of MIT. Dr. Waterman was known to say that becoming a licensed Maine Guide meant possibly more to him than his NSF appointment, the crater Waterman on the Moon is named after him, as is Mount Waterman in the Hughes Range of Antarctica. Since 1975, the National Science Foundation has annually issued the Alan T. Waterman Award to a young researcher. Losing the Garden, The Story of a Marriage, National Science Foundation biography page for Waterman
19.
Physicist
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A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
20.
University of London
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The University of London is a collegiate research university located in London, England, consisting of 18 constituent colleges, nine research institutes and a number of central bodies. The university moved to a structure in 1900. The specialist colleges of the university include the London Business School, Imperial College London was formerly a member before leaving the university in 2007. City is the most recent constituent college, having joined on 1 September 2016, in post-nominals, the University of London is commonly abbreviated as Lond. or, more rarely, Londin. From the Latin Universitas Londiniensis, after its degree abbreviations, University College London was founded under the name London University in 1826 as a secular alternative to the religious universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In response to the controversy surrounding such educational establishment, Kings College London was founded and was the first to be granted a royal charter. Yet to receive a charter, UCL in 1834 renewed its application for a royal charter as a university. In response to this, opposition to exclusive rights grew among the London medical schools, the idea of a general degree awarding body for the schools was discussed in the medical press. And in evidence taken by the Select Committee on Medical Education, in 1835, the government announced the response to UCLs petition for a charter. Following the issuing of its charter on 28 November 1836, the university started drawing up regulations for degrees in March 1837. The death of William IV in June, however, resulted in a problem – the charter had been granted during our Royal will and pleasure, queen Victoria issued a second charter on 5 December 1837, reincorporating the university. The university awarded its first degrees in 1839, all to students from UCL, the university established by the charters of 1836 and 1837 was essentially an examining board with the right to award degrees in arts, laws and medicine. However, the university did not have the authority to grant degrees in theology, in medicine, the university was given the right to determine which medical schools provided sufficient medical training. Beyond the right to students for examination, there was no other connection between the affiliated colleges and the university. In 1849 the university held its first graduation ceremony at Somerset House following a petition to the senate from the graduates, about 250 students graduated at this ceremony. The London academic robes of this period were distinguished by their rich velvet facings, the list of affiliated colleges grew by 1858 to include over 50 institutions, including all other British universities. In that year, a new charter effectively abolished the affiliated colleges system by opening up the examinations to everyone whether they attended a college or not. The expanded role meant the university needed more space, particularly with the number of students at the provincial university colleges
21.
Cavendish Laboratory
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The Cavendish Laboratory is the Department of Physics at the University of Cambridge, and is part of the School of Physical Sciences. The laboratory was opened in 1874 on the New Museums Site as a laboratory for experimental physics, the laboratory moved to its present site in West Cambridge in 1974. As of 2011,29 Cavendish researchers have won Nobel Prizes, the Cavendish Laboratory was initially located on the New Museums Site, Free School Lane, in the centre of Cambridge. After perennial space problems, it moved to its present site in West Cambridge in the early 1970s. The oak door of the new Cavendish Laboratory is known for its inscription from the Book of Psalms in the Bible, The works of the Lord are great, sought out of all them that have pleasure therein. Professor James Clerk Maxwell, the developer of electromagnetic theory, was a founder of the lab, the Duke of Devonshire had given to Maxwell, as Head of the Laboratory, the manuscripts of Henry Cavendishs unpublished Electrical Works. The editing and publishing of these was Maxwells main scientific work while he was at the laboratory, Cavendishs work aroused Maxwells intense admiration and he decided to call the Laboratory the Cavendish Laboratory and thus to commemorate both the Duke and Henry Cavendish. In World War II the laboratory carried out research for the MAUD Committee, researchers included Nicholas Kemmer, Alan Nunn May, Anthony French, Samuel Curran and the French scientists including Lew Kowarski and Hans von Halban. Several transferred to Canada in 1943, the Montreal Laboratory and some later to the Chalk River Laboratories, mcMillan and Philip Abelson at Berkeley Radiation Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley. The Cavendish Laboratory has had an important influence on biology, mainly through the application of X-ray crystallography to the study of structures of biological molecules, the discovery was made on 28 February 1953, the first Watson/Crick paper appeared in Nature on 25 April 1953. The news reached readers of The New York Times the next day, the article ran in an early edition and was then pulled to make space for news deemed more important. The Cambridge University undergraduate newspaper Varsity also ran its own article on the discovery on Saturday 30 May 1953. Braggs original announcement of the discovery at a Solvay Conference on proteins in Belgium on 8 April 1953 went unreported by the British press, sydney Brenner, Jack Dunitz, Dorothy Hodgkin, Leslie Orgel, and Beryl M. All were impressed by the new DNA model, especially Brenner who subsequently worked with Crick at Cambridge in the Cavendish Laboratory, Orgel also later worked with Crick at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies. The Cavendish Professors were the Heads of the Department until the tenure of Professor Sir Brian Pippard, areas in which the Laboratory has been very influential include, - As of 2015 the laboratory is headed by Andy Parker and the Cavendish Professor of Physics is Sir Richard Friend. As of 2015 senior academic staff include, The Cavendish is home to a number of Emeritus Scientists, besides the Nobel Laureates, the Cavendish has many distinguished alumni including, Austin Memories—History of Austin and Longbridge Cavendish Article
22.
Arrhenius equation
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The Arrhenius equation is a formula for the temperature dependence of reaction rates. This equation has a vast and important application in determining rate of chemical reactions, Arrhenius provided a physical justification and interpretation for the formula. Currently, it is best seen as an empirical relationship and it can be used to model the temperature variation of diffusion coefficients, population of crystal vacancies, creep rates, and many other thermally-induced processes/reactions. The Eyring equation, developed in 1935, also expresses the relationship between rate and energy, Arrhenius equation gives the dependence of the rate constant of a chemical reaction on the absolute temperature, a pre-exponential factor and other constants of the reaction. The different units are accounted for in using either the gas constant, R, or the Boltzmann constant, kB, the units of the pre-exponential factor A are identical to those of the rate constant and will vary depending on the order of the reaction. If the reaction is first order it has the units, s−1 and it can be seen that either increasing the temperature or decreasing the activation energy will result in an increase in rate of reaction. Given the small temperature range kinetic studies occur in, it is reasonable to approximate the activation energy as being independent of the temperature. So, when a reaction has a constant that obeys Arrhenius equation. This procedure has become so common in chemical kinetics that practitioners have taken to using it to define the activation energy for a reaction. That is the energy is defined to be times the slope of a plot of ln vs. E a ≡ − R P The modified Arrhenius equation makes explicit the temperature dependence of the pre-exponential factor, the modified equation is usually of the form k = A T n e − E a / The original Arrhenius expression above corresponds to n =0. Fitted rate constants typically lie in the range −1<n<1, theoretical analyses yield various predictions for n. However, if evidence is available, from theory and/or from experiment. Another common modification is the exponential form, k = A exp where β is a dimensionless number of order 1. Arrhenius argued that for reactants to transform into products, they must first acquire an amount of energy. At an absolute temperature T, the fraction of molecules that have an energy greater than Ea can be calculated from statistical mechanics. The concept of energy explains the exponential nature of the relationship. One example comes from the theory of chemical reactions, developed by Max Trautz
23.
Brookwood Cemetery
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Brookwood Cemetery, also known as the London Necropolis, is a burial ground in Brookwood, Surrey, England. It is the largest cemetery in the United Kingdom and one of the largest in Europe, the cemetery is listed a Grade I site in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens. The cemetery is said to have been landscaped by architect William Tite, in 1854, Brookwood was the largest cemetery in the world. Brookwood originally was accessible by rail from a special station – the London Necropolis railway station – next to Waterloo station in Central London, the original London Necropolis station was relocated in 1902 but its successor was demolished after suffering bomb damage during World War II. Two stations were in the cemetery itself, North for non-conformists and their platforms still exist along the path called Railway Avenue. For visitors wishing to use the South Western Main Line, Brookwood station has provided direct access since June 1864. A commemorative very short piece of track with signpost and plaque which purposefully gives way to a grass field recollects the old final main stage of the journey of the deceased. The LNC offered three classes of funerals, A first class funeral allowed its buyer to select the site of their choice anywhere in the cemetery. The LNC charged extra for burials in some designated special sites in the cemetery, at the time of opening prices began at £2 10s for a basic 9-by-4-foot with no special coffin specifications. It was expected by the LNC that those using first class graves would erect a permanent memorial of some kind in due course following the funeral, Second class funerals cost £1 and allowed some control over the burial location. The right to erect a permanent memorial cost an additional 10 shillings, third class funerals were reserved for pauper funerals, those buried at parish expense in the section of the cemetery designated for that parish. Brookwood was one of the few cemeteries to permit burials on Sundays, the LNC provided dedicated sections of the cemetery for these groups, on the basis that those who had lived or worked together in life could remain together after death. A large number of these plots were established, ranging from Chelsea Pensioners and the Ancient Order of Foresters to the Corps of Commissionaires. The Nonconformist cemetery also includes a Parsee burial ground established in 1862, dedicated sections in the Anglican cemetery were also reserved for burials from those parishes which had made burial arrangements with the LNC. The first burial was of the twins of a Mr and Mrs Hore of Ewer Street. The Hore twins, along with the burials on the first day, were pauper funerals. The first burial at Brookwood with a permanent memorial was that of Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Goldfinch, buried on 25 November 1854, the 26th person to be buried in the cemetery. The first permanent memorial erected in the Nonconformist section of cemetery was that of Charles Milligan Hogg, son of botanist Robert Hogg, buried on 12 December 1854
24.
Photoelectric effect
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The photoelectric effect or photo ionization is the emission of electrons or other free carriers when light is shone onto a material. Electrons emitted in this manner can be called photo electrons, the phenomenon is commonly studied in electronic physics, as well as in fields of chemistry, such as quantum chemistry or electrochemistry. According to classical theory, this effect can be attributed to the transfer of energy from the light to an electron. From this perspective, an alteration in the intensity of light would induce changes in the energy of the electrons emitted from the metal. Furthermore, according to theory, a sufficiently dim light would be expected to show a time lag between the initial shining of its light and the subsequent emission of an electron. However, the results did not correlate with either of the two predictions made by classical theory. Instead, electrons are dislodged only by the impingement of photons when those photons reach or exceed a threshold frequency, below that threshold, no electrons are emitted from the metal regardless of the light intensity or the length of time of exposure to the light. This shed light on Max Plancks previous discovery of the Planck relation linking energy, the factor h is known as the Planck constant. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered that illuminated with ultraviolet light create electric sparks more easily. In 1900, while studying black-body radiation, the German physicist Max Planck suggested that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released in packets of energy. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper advancing the hypothesis that energy is carried in discrete quantized packets to explain experimental data from the photoelectric effect. This model contributed to the development of quantum mechanics, in 1914, Robert Millikans experiment supported Einsteins model of the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect requires photons with energies approaching zero to over 1 MeV for core electrons in elements with an atomic number. Emission of conduction electrons from typical metals usually requires a few electron-volts, study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept of wave–particle duality. Other phenomena where light affects the movement of electric charges include the effect, the photovoltaic effect. It is also usual to have the surface in a vacuum, since gases impede the flow of photoelectrons. When the photoelectron is emitted into a rather than into a vacuum, the term internal photoemission is often used. The photons of a light beam have an energy proportional to the frequency of the light
25.
Gyromagnetic ratio
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In physics, the gyromagnetic ratio of a particle or system is the ratio of its magnetic moment to its angular momentum, and it is often denoted by the symbol γ, gamma. Its SI unit is the radian per second per tesla or, equivalently, the term gyromagnetic ratio is often used as a synonym for a different but closely related quantity, the g-factor. The g-factor, unlike the gyromagnetic ratio, is dimensionless, for more on the g-factor, see below, or see the article g-factor. For this reason, values of γ/, in units of hertz per tesla, are often quoted instead of γ. The derivation of this relation is as follows, First we must prove that the torque resulting from subjecting a magnetic moment m ¯ to a magnetic field B ¯ is T ¯ = m ¯ × B ¯. By classical mechanics the torque on this needle is T ¯ = l ¯ × B ¯ ⋅ q m = q m ⋅ l ¯ × B ¯. But as previously stated q m ⋅ l ¯ = I π r 2 = m ¯, the model of the spinning electron we use in the derivation has an evident analogy with a gyroscope. For any rotating body the rate of change of the angular momentum J ¯ equals the applied torque T ¯, d J ¯ d t = T ¯, note as an example the precession of a gyroscope. Replace the gravity with a flux density B. D J ¯ d t represents the velocity of the pike of the arrow J ¯ along a circle whose radius is J ⋅ sin ϕ where ϕ is the angle between J ¯ and the vertical. Consequently, f = γ2 π B q. e. d, the angular precession frequency has an important physical meaning, It is the angular cyclotron frequency. The resonance frequency of an ionized plasma being under the influence of a static magnetic field. Consider a charged body rotating about an axis of symmetry, according to the laws of classical physics, it has both a magnetic dipole moment and an angular momentum due to its rotation. It can be shown that as long as its charge and mass are distributed identically, its ratio is γ = q 2 m where q is its charge. The derivation of this relation is as follows, It suffices to demonstrate this for a narrow circular ring within the body. Suppose the ring has radius r, area A = πr2, mass m, charge q, and angular momentum L = mvr. Then the magnitude of the dipole moment is μ = I A = q v 2 π r × π r 2 = q 2 m × m v r = q 2 m L. An isolated electron has a momentum and a magnetic moment resulting from its spin
26.
X-ray
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X-radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz, X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. Spelling of X-ray in the English language includes the variants x-ray, xray, X-rays with high photon energies are called hard X-rays, while those with lower energy are called soft X-rays. Due to their ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects, e. g. in medical radiography. The term X-ray is metonymically used to refer to an image produced using this method. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms they are useful for determining crystal structures by X-ray crystallography. By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air, the length of 600 eV X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer. There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and gamma rays, one common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source, X-rays are emitted by electrons, while gamma rays are emitted by the atomic nucleus. This definition has problems, other processes also can generate these high-energy photons. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10−11 m and this criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to precedent, based on measurement technique. Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for radiotherapy, in the ranges of 6–20 MeV. X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds and this makes it a type of ionizing radiation, and therefore harmful to living tissue. A very high radiation dose over a period of time causes radiation sickness. In medical imaging this increased risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy. It is also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy, hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much absorbed or scattered. For this reason, X-rays are widely used to image the inside of visually opaque objects, the most often seen applications are in medical radiography and airport security scanners, but similar techniques are also important in industry and research
27.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
28.
Hendrik Lorentz
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Hendrik Antoon Lorentz was a Dutch physicist who shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics with Pieter Zeeman for the discovery and theoretical explanation of the Zeeman effect. He also derived the equations which formed the basis of the special relativity theory of Albert Einstein. For this he received honours and distinctions during his life. Hendrik Lorentz was born in Arnhem, Gelderland, the son of Gerrit Frederik Lorentz, a well-off nurseryman, in 1862, after his mothers death, his father married Luberta Hupkes. Despite being raised as a Protestant, he was a freethinker in religious matters, from 1866 to 1869 he attended the Hogere Burger School in Arnhem, a new type of public high school recently established by Johan Rudolph Thorbecke. His results in school were exemplary, not only did he excel in the sciences and mathematics, but also in English, French. In 1870 he passed the exams in languages which were then required for admission to University. After earning a degree, he returned to Arnhem in 1871 to teach night school classes in mathematics. On 17 November 1877, only 24 years of age, Hendrik Antoon Lorentz was appointed to the established chair in theoretical physics at the University of Leiden. The position had initially offered to Johan van der Waals. On 25 January 1878 Lorentz delivered his lecture on De moleculaire theoriën in de natuurkunde. In 1881 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts, during the first twenty years in Leiden, Lorentz was primarily interested in the theory of electromagnetism to explain the relationship of electricity, magnetism, and light. After that, he extended his research to a wider area while still focusing on theoretical physics. Lorentz made significant contributions to fields ranging from hydrodynamics to general relativity and his most important contributions were in the area of electromagnetism, the electron theory, and relativity. Lorentz theorized that atoms might consist of charged particles and suggested that the oscillations of charged particles were the source of light. When a colleague and former student of Lorentzs, Pieter Zeeman, discovered the Zeeman effect in 1896, the experimental and theoretical work was honored with the Nobel prize in physics in 1902. Lorentz name is now associated with the Lorentz-Lorenz formula, the Lorentz force, the Lorentzian distribution, in 1892 and 1895 Lorentz worked on describing electromagnetic phenomena in reference frames that move relative to the luminiferous aether. He discovered that the transition from one to another reference frame could be simplified by using a new variable which he called local time
29.
Pieter Zeeman
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Pieter Zeeman was a Dutch physicist who shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics with Hendrik Lorentz for his discovery of the Zeeman effect. Pieter Zeeman was born in Zonnemaire, a town on the island of Schouwen-Duiveland, Netherlands, to Catharinus Forandinus Zeeman, a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church. He became interested in physics at an early age, in 1883 the Aurora borealis happened to be visible in the Netherlands. Zeeman, then a student at the school in Zierikzee, made a drawing and description of the phenomenon and submitted it to Nature. The editor praised the careful observations of Professor Zeeman from his observatory in Zonnemaire, after finishing high school in 1883 he went to Delft for supplementary education in classical languages, then a requirement for admission to University. He stayed at the home of Dr J. W. Lely, co-principal of the gymnasium and brother of Cornelis Lely, while in Delft, he first met Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who was to become his thesis adviser. After Zeeman passed the exams in 1885, he studied physics at the University of Leiden under Kamerlingh Onnes. In 1890, even finishing his thesis, he became Lorentzs assistant. This allowed him to participate in a programme on the Kerr effect. In 1893 he submitted his thesis on the Kerr effect. After obtaining his doctorate he went for half a year to Friedrich Kohlrauschs institute in Strasbourg, in 1895, after returning from Strasbourg, Zeeman became Privatdozent in mathematics and physics in Leiden. The same year he married Johanna Elisabeth Lebret, they had three daughters and one son and he was fired for his efforts, but he was later vindicated, he won the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of what has now become known as the Zeeman effect. As an extension of his thesis research, he began investigating the effect of magnetic fields on a light source and he discovered that a spectral line is split into several components in the presence of a magnetic field. The next Monday, Lorentz called Zeeman into his office and presented him with an explanation of his observations, the importance of Zeemans discovery soon became apparent. It confirmed Lorentzs prediction about the polarization of light emitted in the presence of a magnetic field and this conclusion was reached well before Thomsons discovery of the electron. The Zeeman effect thus became an important tool for elucidating the structure of the atom, because of his discovery, Zeeman was offered a position as lecturer in Amsterdam in 1897. In 1900 this was followed by his promotion to professor of physics at the University of Amsterdam, in 1902, together with his former mentor Lorentz, he received the Nobel Prize for Physics for the discovery of the Zeeman effect. Five years later, in 1908, he succeeded Van der Waals as full professor and Director of the Physics Institute in Amsterdam, a new laboratory built in Amsterdam in 1923 was renamed the Zeeman Laboratory in 1940
30.
Henri Becquerel
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Antoine Henri Becquerel was a French physicist, Nobel laureate, and the first person to discover evidence of radioactivity. For work in this field he, along with Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie, the SI unit for radioactivity, the becquerel, is named after him. Roentgen discovered X-rays on November 8,1895, the press reported this on January 5,1896, shortly before Becquerel did his famous experiment. Thus radioactivity was discovered the year but within a year of the discovery of X-rays. Becquerel was born in Paris into a family which produced four generations of scientists, Becquerels grandfather, father. He studied engineering at the École Polytechnique and the École des Ponts et Chaussées, in 1890 he married Louise Désirée Lorieux. In 1892, he became the third in his family to occupy the chair at the Muséum National dHistoire Naturelle. In 1894, he became chief engineer in the Department of Bridges, Becquerels earliest works centered on the subject of his doctoral thesis, the plane polarization of light, with the phenomenon of phosphorescence and absorption of light by crystals. Becquerels discovery of radioactivity is a famous example of serendipity. Becquerel had long interested in phosphorescence, the emission of light of one color following a bodys exposure to light of another color. His first experiments appeared to show this, one places on the sheet of paper, on the outside, a slab of the phosphorescent substance, and one exposes the whole to the sun for several hours. When one then develops the photographic plate, one recognizes that the silhouette of the phosphorescent substance appears in black on the negative. If one places between the phosphorescent substance and the paper a piece of money or a metal screen pierced with a cut-out design, one must conclude from these experiments that the phosphorescent substance in question emits rays which pass through the opaque paper and reduce silver salts. But further experiments led him to doubt and then abandon this hypothesis, since the sun did not come out in the following days, I developed the photographic plates on the 1st of March, expecting to find the images very weak. Instead the silhouettes appeared with great intensity, however, the present experiments, without being contrary to this hypothesis, do not warrant this conclusion. I hope that the experiments which I am pursuing at the moment will be able to bring some clarification to this new class of phenomena. In 1903, Becquerel shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre, by 1861, Niepce de Saint-Victor realized that uranium salts produce a radiation that is invisible to our eyes. Niepce de Saint-Victor knew Edmond Becquerel, Henri Becquerels father, in 1868, Edmond Becquerel published a book, La lumière, ses causes et ses effets
31.
Pierre Curie
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Pierre Curie was a French physicist, a pioneer in crystallography, magnetism, piezoelectricity and radioactivity. Born in Paris on 15 May 1859, Pierre was the son of Eugène Curie and he was educated by his father, a doctor, and in his early teens showed a strong aptitude for mathematics and geometry. When he was 16, he earned his math degree, by the age of 18 he had completed the equivalent of a higher degree, but did not proceed immediately to a doctorate due to lack of money. Instead he worked as a laboratory instructor, in 1880, Pierre and his older brother Jacques demonstrated that an electric potential was generated when crystals were compressed, i. e. piezoelectricity. To provide accurate measurements needed for their work, Pierre created a highly sensitive instrument called the Curie Scale and he used weights, microscopic meter readers, and pneumatic dampeners to create the scale. Also, to aid their work, they invented the Piezoelectric Quartz Electrometer, shortly afterwards, in 1881, they demonstrated the reverse effect, that crystals could be made to deform when subject to an electric field. Almost all digital electronic circuits now rely on this in the form of crystal oscillators, Pierre Curie was introduced to Maria Skłodowska by their friend, physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski. Pierre took Maria into his laboratory as his student and his admiration for her grew when he realized that she would not inhibit his research. He began to regard her as his muse and she refused his initial proposal, but finally agreed to marry him on 26 July 1895. It would be a thing, a thing I dare not hope, if we could spend our life near each other hypnotized by our dreams, your patriotic dream, our humanitarian dream. Pierre Curie to Marie Skłodowska Prior to his famous studies on magnetism. Variations on this equipment were used by future workers in that area. Pierre Curie studied ferromagnetism, paramagnetism, and diamagnetism for his doctoral thesis, the material constant in Curies law is known as the Curie constant. He also discovered that ferromagnetic substances exhibited a critical temperature transition and this is now known as the Curie temperature. The Curie temperature is used to plate tectonics, treat hypothermia, measure caffeine. Pierre formulated what is now known as the Curie Dissymmetry Principle, for example, a random mixture of sand in zero gravity has no dissymmetry. Introduce a gravitational field, and there is a dissymmetry because of the direction of the field, then the sand grains can self-sort with the density increasing with depth. But this new arrangement, with the arrangement of sand grains
32.
Marie Curie
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Marie Skłodowska Curie, born Maria Salomea Skłodowska, was a Polish and naturalized-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was also the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris and she was born in Warsaw, in what was then the Kingdom of Poland, part of the Russian Empire. She studied at Warsaws clandestine Floating University and began her scientific training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed her older sister Bronisława to study in Paris and she shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with her husband Pierre Curie and with physicist Henri Becquerel. She won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and her achievements included the development of the theory of radioactivity, techniques for isolating radioactive isotopes, and the discovery of two elements, polonium and radium. Under her direction, the worlds first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms and she founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and in Warsaw, which remain major centres of medical research today. During World War I, she developed mobile radiography units to provide X-ray services to field hospitals, while a French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Curie never lost her sense of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland and she named the first chemical element that she discovered—polonium, which she isolated in 1898—after her native country. Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in the Russian partition of Poland, on 7 November 1867, the fifth and youngest child of well-known teachers Bronisława, née Boguska, the elder siblings of Maria were Zofia, Józef, Bronisława and Helena. On both the paternal and maternal sides, the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Polands independence. This condemned the subsequent generation, including Maria, her sisters and her brother. Marias paternal grandfather, Józef Skłodowski, had been a teacher in Lublin, where he taught the young Bolesław Prus. Her father, Władysław Skłodowski, taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to pursue, after Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Polish schools, he brought much of the laboratory equipment home, and instructed his children in its use. Marias mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls and she died of tuberculosis in May 1878, when Maria was ten years old. Less than three years earlier, Marias oldest sibling, Zofia, had died of typhus contracted from a boarder, Marias father was an atheist, her mother a devout Catholic. The deaths of Marias mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism and become agnostic. When she was ten years old, Maria began attending the school of J. Sikorska, next she attended a gymnasium for girls. After a collapse, possibly due to depression, she spent the year in the countryside with relatives of her father, and the next year with her father in Warsaw
33.
John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh
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John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh OM PC PRS was a physicist who, with William Ramsay, discovered argon, an achievement for which he earned the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1904. He also discovered the now called Rayleigh scattering, which can be used to explain why the sky is blue. Rayleighs textbook, The Theory of Sound, is referred to by acoustic engineers today. John William Strutt, of Terling Place Essex, suffered from frailty and he attended Harrow School, before going on to the University of Cambridge in 1861 where he studied mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge. He obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1865, and a Master of Arts in 1868 and he was subsequently elected to a Fellowship of Trinity. He held the post until his marriage to Evelyn Balfour, daughter of James Maitland Balfour and he had three sons with her. In 1873, on the death of his father, John Strutt, 2nd Baron Rayleigh and he was the second Cavendish Professor of Physics at the University of Cambridge, from 1879 to 1884. He first described dynamic soaring by seabirds in 1883, in the British journal Nature, from 1887 to 1905 he was Professor of Natural Philosophy at the Royal Institution. Around the year 1900 Lord Rayleigh developed the theory of human sound localisation using two binaural cues, interaural phase difference and interaural level difference. The theory posits that we use two primary cues for sound lateralisation, using the difference in the phases of sinusoidal components of the sound, in 1919, Rayleigh served as President of the Society for Psychical Research. The rayl unit of acoustic impedance is named after him, as an advocate that simplicity and theory be part of the scientific method, Lord Rayleigh argued for the principle of similitude. Lord Rayleigh was elected Fellow of the Royal Society on 12 June 1873, from time to time Lord Rayleigh participated in the House of Lords, however, he spoke up only if politics attempted to become involved in science. He died on 30 June 1919, in Witham, Essex and he was succeeded, as the 4th Lord Rayleigh, by his son Robert John Strutt, another well-known physicist. Lord Rayleigh was buried in the graveyard of All Saints Church in Terling in Essex, though he did not write about the relationship of science and religion, he retained a personal interest in spiritual matters. The Secretary to the Press suggested with many apologies that the reader might suppose that I was the Lord, still, he kept his wish and the quotation was printed in the five-volume collection of scientific papers. What is more, I think that Christ and indeed other spiritually gifted men see further and truer than I do, Lord Rayleigh was the president of the SPR in 1919. He gave an address the year of his death but did not come to any definite conclusions. Craters on Mars and the Moon are named in his honour as well as a type of surface wave known as a Rayleigh wave, the asteroid 22740 Rayleigh was named in his honour on 1 June 2007
34.
Philipp Lenard
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Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard was a German physicist and the winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1905 for his research on cathode rays and the discovery of many of their properties. Notably, he had labeled Albert Einsteins contributions to science as constituting Jewish physics, Philipp Lenard was born in Pressburg, on 7 June 1862. The Lenard family had come from Tyrol in the 17th century. His father, Philipp von Lenardis, was a wine-merchant in Pressburg, the young Lenard studied at the Pozsonyi Királyi Katolikus Főgymnasium and as he writes it in his autobiography, this made a big impression on him. In 1880 he studied physics and chemistry in Vienna and in Budapest, in 1882 Lenard left Budapest and returned to Pressburg, but in 1883 moved to Heidelberg after his tender for an assistants position in the University of Budapest was refused. In Heidelberg he studied under the illustrious Robert Bunsen, interrupted by one semester in Berlin with Hermann von Helmholtz, in 1887 he worked again in Budapest under Loránd Eötvös as a demonstrator. After posts at Aachen, Bonn, Breslau, Heidelberg, and Kiel, in 1905 Lenard became a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and in 1907 of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. His early work included studies of phosphorescence and luminescence and the conductivity of flames, as a physicist, Lenards major contributions were in the study of cathode rays, which he began in 1888. Prior to his work, cathode rays were produced in primitive, partially evacuated tubes that had metallic electrodes in them. Cathode rays were difficult to study using this arrangement, because they were inside sealed glass tubes, difficult to access, having made a window for the rays, he could pass them out into the laboratory, or, alternatively, into another chamber that was completely evacuated. These windows have come to be known as Lenard windows and he was able to conveniently detect the rays and measure their intensity by means of paper sheets coated with phosphorescent materials. Lenard observed that the absorption of the rays was, to first order and this appeared to contradict the idea that they were some sort of electromagnetic radiation. Thomsons work, which arrived at the understanding that cathode rays were streams of negatively charged energetic particles. He called them quanta of electricity or for short quanta, after Helmholtz, thomson proposed the name corpuscles, but eventually electrons became the everyday term. He proposed that every atom consists of empty space and electrically neutral corpuscules called dynamids, each consisting of an electron and an equal positive charge. As a result of his Crookes tube investigations, he showed that the produced by irradiating metals in a vacuum with ultraviolet light were similar in many respects to cathode rays. His most important observations were that the energy of the rays was independent of the light intensity and these latter observations were explained by Albert Einstein as a quantum effect. This theory predicted that the plot of the cathode ray energy versus the frequency would be a line with a slope equal to Plancks constant
35.
Albert A. Michelson
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Albert Abraham Michelson was an American physicist known for his work on the measurement of the speed of light and especially for the Michelson–Morley experiment. In 1907 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics and he became the first American to receive the Nobel Prize in sciences. Michelson was born in Strzelno, Province of Posen in Prussia into a Jewish family and he moved to the US with his parents in 1855, at the age of two. He grew up in the towns of Murphys Camp, California and Virginia City, Nevada. His family was Jewish by birth but non-religious, and Michelson himself was a lifelong agnostic and he spent his high school years in San Francisco in the home of his aunt, Henriette Levy, who was the mother of author Harriet Lane Levy. President Ulysses S. Grant awarded Michelson a special appointment to the U. S. Naval Academy in 1869, during his four years as a midshipman at the Academy, Michelson excelled in optics, heat, climatology and drawing. After graduating in 1873 and two years at sea, he returned to the Naval Academy in 1875 to become an instructor in physics, in 1879, he was posted to the Nautical Almanac Office, Washington, to work with Simon Newcomb. In the following year he obtained leave of absence to continue his studies in Europe and he visited the Universities of Berlin and Heidelberg, and the Collège de France and École Polytechnique in Paris. In 1877, he married Margaret Hemingway, daughter of a wealthy New York stockbroker and lawyer and they had two sons and a daughter. Michelson was fascinated with the sciences, and the problem of measuring the speed of light in particular, while at Annapolis, he conducted his first experiments of the speed of light, as part of a class demonstration in 1877. After two years of studies in Europe, he resigned from the Navy in 1881, in 1883 he accepted a position as professor of physics at the Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland, Ohio and concentrated on developing an improved interferometer. In 1887 he and Edward Morley carried out the famous Michelson–Morley experiment which failed to detect evidence of the existence of the luminiferous ether and he later moved on to use astronomical interferometers in the measurement of stellar diameters and in measuring the separations of binary stars. In 1899, he married Edna Stanton and they raised one son and three daughters. He also won the Copley Medal in 1907, the Henry Draper Medal in 1916, a crater on the Moon is named after him. Michelson died in Pasadena, California at the age of 78, the University of Chicago Residence Halls remembered Michelson and his achievements by dedicating Michelson House in his honor. Case Western Reserve has dedicated a Michelson House to him, clark University named a theatre after him. Michelson Laboratory at Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake in Ridgecrest, there is a display in the publicly accessible area of the Lab which includes facsimiles of Michelsons Nobel Prize medal, the prize document, and examples of his diffraction gratings. Michelson published his result of 299,910 ±50 km/s in 1879 before joining Newcomb in Washington DC to assist with his measurements there, thus began a long professional collaboration and friendship between the two
36.
Gabriel Lippmann
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Gabriel Lippmann was born in Bonnevoie, Luxembourg, on 16 August 1845. At the time, Bonnevoie was part of the commune of Hollerich which is given as his place of birth. His father, Isaïe, a French Jew born in Ennery near Metz, in 1848, the family moved to Paris where Lippmann was initially tutored by his mother, Miriam Rose, before attending the Lycée Napoléon. He was said to have been a rather inattentive but thoughtful pupil with a special interest in mathematics, Lippmann then returned to Paris in 1875, where he continued to study until 1878, when he became professor of physics at the Sorbonne. Lippmann made several important contributions to various branches of physics over the years, in a paper delivered to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow on 17 January 1883, John G. The lower end is drawn into a point, until the diameter of the capillary is.005 of a millimetre. The tube is filled with mercury, and the point is immersed in dilute sulphuric acid. A platinum wire is put into connection with the mercury in each tube, such an instrument is very sensitive, and Lippmann states that it is possible to determine a difference of potential so small as that of one 10, 080th of a Daniell. It is thus a very delicate means of observing and of measuring minute electromotive forces, Lippmanns PhD thesis, presented to the Sorbonne on 24 July 1875, was on electrocapillarity. In 1881, Lippmann predicted the converse piezoelectric effect, above all, Lippmann is remembered as the inventor of a method for reproducing colours by photography, based on the interference phenomenon, which earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1908. In 1886, Lippmanns interest turned to a method of fixing the colours of the spectrum on a photographic plate. By April 1892, he was able to report that he had succeeded in producing colour images of a glass window, a group of flags, a bowl of oranges topped by a red poppy. He presented his theory of photography using the interference method in two papers to the Academy, one in 1894, the other in 1906. The interference phenomenon in optics occurs as a result of the propagation of light. In the case of ordinary incoherent light, the waves are distinct only within a microscopically thin volume of space next to the reflecting surface. Lippmann made use of this phenomenon by projecting an image onto a photographic plate capable of recording detail smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. The light passed through the glass sheet into a very thin. After development, the result was a structure of laminae, distinct parallel layers composed of metallic silver grains
37.
Guglielmo Marconi
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He is often credited as the inventor of radio, and he shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Karl Ferdinand Braun in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy. Marconi was an entrepreneur, businessman, and founder of The Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company in the United Kingdom in 1897 and he succeeded in making a commercial success of radio by innovating and building on the work of previous experimenters and physicists. In 1929, the King of Italy ennobled Marconi as a Marchese, Marconi was born into the Italian nobility as Guglielmo Giovanni Maria Marconi in Bologna on 25 April 1874, the second son of Giuseppe Marconi and his Irish/Scots wife Annie Jameson. Between the ages of two and six, Marconi and his elder brother Alfonso were brought up by his mother in the English town of Bedford, Marconi received further education in Florence at the Istituto Cavallero and, later, in Livorno. Marconi did not do well in school, according to Robert McHenry and he was baptized as a Catholic but had been brought up as a member of the Anglican Church, being married into it. Marconi was confirmed in the Catholic faith and became a member of the Church before his marriage to Maria Christina in 1927. During his early years, Marconi had an interest in science and electricity, the transmission of telegraph messages without connecting wires as used by the electric telegraph. There was a deal of interest in radio waves in the physics community. Righis article renewed Marconis interest in developing a wireless telegraphy based on radio waves. In the summer of 1894, he built a storm alarm made up of a battery, a coherer, and an electric bell, soon after he was able to make a bell ring on the other side of the room by pushing a telegraphic button on a bench. One night in December 1894, Guglielmo woke his mother and invited her into his secret workshop and showed her the experiment that he had created. The next day, he showed his work to his father. In the summer of 1895, Marconi moved his experimentation outdoors, with these improvements the system was capable of transmitting signals up to 2 miles and over hills. The monopole antenna reduced the frequency of the waves compared to the dipole antennas used by Hertz, by this point, he concluded that a device could become capable of spanning greater distances, with additional funding and research, and would prove valuable both commercially and militarily. Marconis experimental apparatus proved to be the first engineering-complete, commercially successful radio transmission system, Marconi wrote to the Ministry of Post and Telegraphs, then under the direction of the honorable Pietro Lacava, explaining his wireless telegraph machine and asking for funding. He never received a response to his letter which was dismissed by the Minister who wrote to the Longara on the document. In 1896, Marconi spoke with his family friend Carlo Gardini, Honorary Consul at the United States Consulate in Bologna, Gardini wrote a letter of introduction to the Ambassador of Italy in London, Annibale Ferrero, explaining who Marconi was and about these extraordinary discoveries. In his response, Ambassador Ferrero advised them not to reveal the results until after they had obtained the copyrights
38.
Karl Ferdinand Braun
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Karl Ferdinand Braun was a German inventor, physicist and Nobel laureate in physics. Braun contributed significantly to the development of radio and television technology, Braun was born in Fulda, Germany, and educated at the University of Marburg and received a Ph. D. from the University of Berlin in 1872. In 1874 he discovered that a point-contact semiconductor rectifies alternating current and he became director of the Physical Institute and professor of physics at the University of Strassburg in 1895. In 1897 he built the first cathode-ray tube and cathode ray tube oscilloscope, CRT became the cornerstone in developing fully electronic television. In the early 21-st century the CRT technology started to be replaced by flat screen technologies on television sets, the CRT is still called the Braun tube in German-speaking countries and in Japan. During the development of radio, he worked on wireless telegraphy. In 1897 Braun joined the line of wireless pioneers, Wireless telegraphy claimed Dr. Brauns full attention in 1898, and for many years after that he applied himself almost exclusively to the task of solving its problems. Dr. Braun had written extensively on subjects and was well known through his many contributions to the Electrician. In 1899, he would apply for the patents, Electro telegraphy by means of condensers and induction coils, around 1898, he invented a crystal diode rectifier or cats whisker diode. Pioneers working on wireless devices eventually came to a limit of distance they could cover, connecting the antenna directly to the spark gap produced only a heavily damped pulse train. There were only a few cycles before oscillations ceased, Brauns circuit afforded a much longer sustained oscillation because the energy encountered less losses swinging between coil and Leyden Jars. And by means of inductive antenna coupling the radiator was matched to the generator. The resultant stronger and less bandwidth consuming signals bridged a much longer distance, Braun invented the phased array antenna in 1905. He described in his Nobel Prize lecture how he carefully arranged three antennas to transmit a directional signal and this invention led to the development of radar, smart antennas, and MIMO. Brauns British patent on tuning was used by Marconi in many of his tuning patents, Marconi would later admit to Braun himself that he had borrowed portions of Brauns work. In 1909 Braun shared the Nobel Prize for physics with Marconi for contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy, the prize awarded to Braun in 1909 depicts this design. Braun experimented at first at the University of Strasbourg, not before long he bridged a distance of 42 km to the city of Mutzig. In spring 1899 Braun, accompanied by his colleagues Cantor and Zenneck, on 24 September 1900 radio telegraphy signals were exchanged regularly with the island of Heligoland over a distance of 62 km
39.
Johannes Diderik van der Waals
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Johannes Diderik van der Waals was a Dutch theoretical physicist and thermodynamicist famous for his work on an equation of state for gases and liquids. His name is associated with the van der Waals equation of state that describes the behavior of gases. His name is associated with van der Waals forces, with van der Waals molecules. As James Clerk Maxwell said about Van der Waals, there can be no doubt that the name of Van der Waals will soon be among the foremost in molecular science. In his 1873 thesis, van der Waals noted the non-ideality of real gases, spearheaded by Ernst Mach and Wilhelm Ostwald, a strong philosophical current that denied the existence of molecules arose towards the end of the 19th century. The molecular existence was considered unproven and the molecular hypothesis unnecessary, at the time van der Waals thesis was written, the molecular structure of fluids had not been accepted by most physicists, and liquid and vapor were often considered as chemically distinct. But Van der Waalss work affirmed the reality of molecules and allowed an assessment of their size, by comparing his equation of state with experimental data, Van der Waals was able to obtain estimates for the actual size of molecules and the strength of their mutual attraction. The effect of Van der Waalss work on physics in the 20th century was direct. By introducing parameters characterizing molecular size and attraction in constructing his equation of state, with the help of the van der Waalss equation of state, the critical-point parameters of gases could be accurately predicted from thermodynamic measurements made at much higher temperatures. Nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and helium subsequently succumbed to liquefaction, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes was significantly influenced by the pioneer work of van der Waals. In 1908, Onnes became the winner of the race to liquid helium and because of this. A largely self-taught man in mathematics and physics, van der Waals originally worked as a school teacher and he became the first physics professor of the University of Amsterdam when in 1877 the old Athenaeum was upgraded to Municipal University. Van der Waals won the 1910 Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the equation of state for gases, Johannes Diderik van der Waals was born on 23 November 1837 in Leiden in the Netherlands. He was the eldest of ten born to Jacobus van der Waals. His father was a carpenter in Leiden, as was usual for working-class children in the 19th century, he did not go to the kind of secondary school that would have given him the right to enter university. Instead he went to a school of “advanced primary education”, which he finished at the age of fifteen and he then became a teachers apprentice in an elementary school. Between 1856 and 1861 he followed courses and gained the qualifications to become a primary school teacher. However, the University of Leiden had a provision that enabled students to take up to four courses a year
40.
Wilhelm Wien
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He also formulated an expression for the black-body radiation which is correct in the photon-gas limit. His arguments were based on the notion of adiabatic invariance, and were instrumental for the formulation of quantum mechanics, Wien received the 1911 Nobel Prize for his work on heat radiation. He was a cousin of Max Wien, inventor of the Wien bridge, Wien was born at Gaffken near Fischhausen, Province of Prussia as the son of landowner Carl Wien. In 1866, his family moved to Drachstein near Rastenburg, in 1879, Wien went to school in Rastenburg and from 1880-1882 he attended the city school of Heidelberg. In 1882 he attended the University of Göttingen and the University of Berlin, from 1896 to 1899, Wien lectured at RWTH Aachen University. In 1900 he went to the University of Würzburg and became successor of Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, in 1896 Wien empirically determined a distribution law of blackbody radiation, later named after him, Wiens law. However, Wiens law was valid at high frequencies. Planck corrected the theory and proposed what is now called Plancks law, in 1900, he assumed that the entire mass of matter is of electromagnetic origin and proposed the formula m = E / c 2 for the relation between electromagnetic mass and electromagnetic energy. While studying streams of ionized gas, Wien, in 1898, Wien, with this work, laid the foundation of mass spectrometry. J. J. Thomson refined Wiens apparatus and conducted experiments in 1913 then, after work by Ernest Rutherford in 1919. During April 1913, Wien was a lecturer at Columbia University, in 1911, Wien was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his discoveries regarding the laws governing the radiation of heat. Wiens distribution law History of special relativity Mass–energy equivalence ——, ueber die Fragen, welche die translatorische Bewegung des Lichtäthers betreffen. Über die Möglichkeit einer elektromagnetischen Begründung der Mechanik, Über die Differentialgleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper. Über die Differentialgleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper, erwiderung auf die Kritik des Hrn. Aus dem Leben und Wirken eines Physikers, rüchardt, E. Zur Entdeckung der Kanalstrahlen vor fünfzig Jahren. Rüchardt, E. Zur Erinnerung an Wilhelm Wien bei der 25, Wilhelm Wien OConnor, John J. Robertson, Edmund F. Wilhelm Wien, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews
41.
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
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Heike Kamerlingh Onnes was a Dutch physicist and Nobel laureate. He exploited the Hampson-Linde cycle to investigate how materials behave when cooled to nearly absolute zero and his production of extreme cryogenic temperatures led to his discovery of superconductivity in 1911, for certain materials, electrical resistance abruptly vanishes at very low temperatures. Kamerlingh Onnes was born in Groningen, Netherlands and his father, Harm Kamerlingh Onnes, was a brickworks owner. His mother was Anna Gerdina Coers of Arnhem, in 1870, Kamerlingh Onnes attended the University of Groningen. He studied under Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff at the University of Heidelberg from 1871 to 1873, again at Groningen, he obtained his masters in 1878 and a doctorate in 1879. His thesis was Nieuwe bewijzen voor de aswenteling der aarde, from 1878 to 1882 he was assistant to Johannes Bosscha, the director of the Delft Polytechnic, for whom he substituted as lecturer in 1881 and 1882. He was married to Maria Adriana Wilhelmina Elisabeth Bijleveld and had one child and his brother Menso Kamerlingh Onnes was a fairly well known painter, while his sister Jenny married another famous painter, Floris Verster. From 1882 to 1923 Kamerlingh Onnes served as professor of physics at the University of Leiden. In 1904 he founded a very large cryogenics laboratory and invited other researchers to the location, the laboratory is known now as Kamerlingh Onnes Laboratory. Only one year after his appointment as professor he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts, on 10 July 1908, he was the first to liquefy helium, using several precooling stages and the Hampson-Linde cycle based on the Joule-Thomson effect. This way he lowered the temperature to the point of helium. By reducing the pressure of the liquid helium he achieved a temperature near 1.5 K and these were the coldest temperatures achieved on earth at the time. The equipment employed is at the Boerhaave Museum in Leiden, in 1911 Kamerlingh Onnes measured the electrical conductivity of pure metals at very low temperatures. Others, including Kamerlingh Onnes, felt that an electrical resistance would steadily decrease. On 8 April 1911, Kamerlingh Onnes found that at 4.2 K the resistance in a solid mercury wire immersed in liquid helium suddenly vanished and he immediately realized the significance of the discovery. He reported that Mercury has passed into a new state, which on account of its electrical properties may be called the superconductive state. He published more articles about the phenomenon, initially referring to it as supraconductivity and, some of the instruments he devised for his experiments can be seen at the Boerhaave Museum in Leiden. The apparatus he used to first liquefy helium is on display in the lobby of the department at Leiden University
