1.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
2.
Governor of Alta California
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This is a list of the Governors of early California, 1769–1850, before its admission as the 31st U. S. state. Founded by Gaspar de Portolá at San Diego and Monterey, the vast country was a sparsely-settled Spanish province for 53 years, a year after Mexicos independence from Spain, Alta California became a federal territory of Mexico. As time went on, Alta Californians began to resent Mexicos neglect and incompetent, beginning with the Tennessean-led revolt of 1824, California resisted Mexican rule, culminating in the revolution of 1836. Two years later, California was admitted as a state by the government in faraway Mexico City. The revolution in November 1836 found success when the Diputación of California declared independence, california-born Juan Alvarado was elected governor, who then gathered support for independence from the whole country, from Sonoma to Los Angeles. Mexico retaliated by propping up Carlos Carillo as puppet-governor in Los Angeles and inciting a brief and that conflict ended in 1838, when the general government of Mexico accepted California as a sovereign state and recognized Alvarado as the real governor. The territorial Diputación became the new states Asambléa, in 1846, the Bear Flag Revolt in Sonoma declared California an independent republic—the Bear Flag Republic. The government was separated permanently from Mexico, less than a month later, the independent republic came under American protection. Like Texas, the Republic of California never was demoted to a U. S. territory but was admitted directly as the 31st U. S. state on September 9,1850, peter Burnett, the last governor of the republic, became its first governor after admission. For governors of the state after admission in September 1850, see List of Governors of California, Gaspar de Portolá founded the first Spanish settlements in Alta California at San Diego, and at Monterey, the first capital. Californias first revolt against Mexico took place the year as Mexicos first constitution,1824. In 1836, California declared Independence from Mexico and fashioned its own flag, after 1837, the governorship was disputed between popularly elected Alvarado, in the capital, and Mexican puppet Carlos Carrillo, in Los Angeles. This ended when Mexico conceded statehood to California and recognized Alvarado as its legal governor, military governors were appointed during this time, until Burnett. On September 9,1850, California was admitted into the U. S, List of Governors of California List of Texas Governors and Presidents List of Spanish governors of New Mexico Irvine, Leigh H. Vol. I, Chapter III. A History of The New California, Its Resources And People, New York, The Lewis Publishing Company
3.
Manuel Victoria
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Manuel Victoria was governor of the Mexican-ruled territory of Alta California from January 1831 to December 6,1831. He was appointed governor on March 8,1830 by Lucas Alamán, the revolt, called Battle of Cahuenga Pass, against his governorship lead to his abbreviated twelve-month tenure, and subsequent exile. The Battle left one man dead on either side, although the rebels against governor retreated to the pueblo, they were victorious in defeat, the wounded governor resigned and returned to Mexico. He was not popular with the Californios, santiago Argüello was lieutenant of the San Diego Company, and commandant from 1830 to 1835. From 1831 to 1835, Argüello was captain of the company and took part, with his brother-in-law Agustín V. Zamorano, Jose Maria Avila of the Avila family of California also helped lead the revolt. He and fifty other Los Angeles leaders were imprisoned by Alcalde Vicente Sanchez for plotting against Victoria, an army of 150 men raised in San Diego by Jose Antonio Carrillo and Pio Pico marched into the pueblo and released all prisoners. Victoria led a force from Monterey to stop the insurrection in Los Angeles, the two armies clashed at the Battle of Cahuenga Pass and Jose Maria Avila was killed. Andrés Ybarra of the Rancho Las Encinitas took part in the revolt, José López with the Rancho San Isidro Ajajolojol also join the revolt. Governor Manuel Victoria was severely wounded fighting rebellious locals at the Battle of Cahuenga Pass, joseph John Chapman was called on to dress his wounds, which he apparently did well enough that Victoria survived. That same year, Chapman was naturalized as a Mexican citizen, after Victoria rescinded the order and wanted Juan Bautista Alvarado and José Castro arrested. The pair fled and were hidden by their old friend Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, pío Pico first briefly replaced Manuel Victoria as governor. Then Agustín V. Zamorano in the north, and José María de Echeandía in the south, Governor José Figueroa arrived from Mexico in 1833, resolving the north-south political struggle. Secularization and Mexican land grants resumed with Governor Figueroa, List of pre-statehood governors of California List of Ranchos of California Rancho Tularcitos legal advisor to Governor Manuel Victoria
4.
Manuel Micheltorena
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José Manuel Micheltorena was a brigadier general of the Mexican Army, adjutant-general of the same, governor, commandant-general and inspector of the department of Alta California, then within Mexico. Micheltorena was the last non-Californian Mexican governor before Californian native son Pío Pico took office, Micheltorena received this appointment by the President of Mexico, Antonio López de Santa Anna and served from 30 December 1842, until his ouster in 1845. Micheltorena was instrumental in the privatisation of California land by rancho land grants, with his loyalties firmly seated in Mexico City, he faced criticism, opposition, and eventually war from the Californios in Alta California. Micheltorena lost to Juan Bautista Alvarado and the Californios in the 1845 Battle of Providencia, a History Of The New California - Its Resources And People. New York, The Lewis Publishing Company
5.
John D. Sloat
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John Drake Sloat was a commodore in the United States Navy who, in 1846, claimed California for the United States. Sloat was brought up by his maternal grandparents, Sloat then commanded the schooner Grampus during which he fought the Action of 2 March 1825 against the pirate ship of Roberto Cofresí. He later served on the ships Franklin and Washington, and from 1828 commanded the sloop St. Louis with the rank of master commandant and he was promoted to captain in 1837, and from 1840 to 1844 was in charge of the Portsmouth Navy Yard. He was a Military Governor of California for only twenty-two days and he retired with the rank of Captain in December 1861, and was promoted to Rear Admiral on the retired list in July 1866. Sloat was a Freemason, and belonged to St. Nicholas lodge No.321 in New York City and he died in New Brighton, New York, and was buried in Brooklyns Green-Wood Cemetery. Two destroyers have been named USS Sloat in his honor as well as a World War II Liberty ship, a major street, Sloat Boulevard, and Commodore Sloat elementary school, both in San Francisco, are named after him. Local streets in Monterey, California, Sacramento, California, there is a large monument erected in his honor on the Presidio of Monterey U. S. Army post. An elementary school in Sacramento is also named for him and his home town in New York was also named Sloatsburg, after his grandfather Stephen and his family. Castleman,2016, State University of New York Press Proclamation to the Inhabitants of California and this article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. The entry can be found here
6.
Californio
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The Californio era was from the first Spanish presence established by the Portolá expedition in 1769 until the regions cession to the United States of America in 1848. Non-Spanish-speaking immigrants who 1) became naturalized Mexican citizens, 2) married Californios, such residents, by these actions, became eligible to own land and receive rancho grants from the Mexican government. Most such grants occurred after mission secularization in the 1830s, an even looser definition may include descendants of Californios, especially those who married other Californio descendants. The much larger population of non-Spanish-speaking indigenous peoples of California who lived in the prior to. Many Californios, however, were the California-born children of non-Spanish speakers who married Spanish speakers, such spouses usually also converted to the Catholic faith and, after Mexico became independent of Spain in 1821, often became naturalized Mexican citizens. The military, religious and civil components of pre-1848 Californio society were embodied in the presidios, missions. After secularization, the Mexican authorities divided most of the lands into new ranchos. The Spanish colonial and later Mexican national governments encouraged settlers from the northern and western provinces of Mexico, People from other parts of Latin America did settle in California. However, only a few official colonization efforts were ever undertaken—notably the second expedition of Juan Bautista de Anza, children of those few early settlers and retired soldiers became the first Californios. Sporadic colonization efforts continued under Mexican rule, including the Hijar-Padres group of 1834, One genealogist estimated that, by 2004, between 300,000 and 500,000 Californians were descendants of Californios. Alta California was nominally controlled by a national-government appointed governor, the governors of California were at first appointed by the Viceroy, and after 1821 by the approximate 40 Mexican Presidents from 1821 to 1846. The costs of the minimum Alta California government were paid by means of a roughly 40–100% import tariff collected at the entry port of Monterey. The other center of Spanish power in Alta California was the Franciscan friars who, as heads of the 21 missions, none of the Franciscan friars were Californios, however, and their influence rapidly waned after the secularization of the missions in the 1830s. Governors had little support from far-away Mexico to deal with Alta Californians. Mexico-born governor Manuel Victoria was forced to flee in 1831, after losing a fight against an uprising at the Battle of Cahuenga Pass. As Californios matured to adulthood and increasingly assumed positions of power in the Alta California government, several times, Californio leaders attempted to break away from Mexico, most notably Juan Bautista Alvarado in 1836. Southern regional leaders, led by Pio Pico, made attempts to relocate the capital from Monterey to the more populated Los Angeles. Alvarado recruited a company of Tennessean riflemen, many of them former trappers who had settled in the Monterey Bay area, the company was led by another American, Isaac Graham, the Americans refused to fight against fellow Americans
7.
Alta California
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Alta California, founded in 1769 by Gaspar de Portolà, was a polity of New Spain and after the Mexican War of Independence in 1822, a territory of Mexico. The region included all of the states of California, Nevada, and Utah. Large areas east of the Sierra Nevada and San Gabriel Mountains were claimed to be part of Alta California, to the southeast, beyond the deserts and the Colorado River, lay the Spanish settlements in Arizona. The areas formerly comprising Alta California were ceded to the United States in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican–American War in 1848, two years later, California joined the union as the 31st state. Other parts of Alta California became all or part of the later U. S. states of Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming. The Spanish explored the area of Alta California by sea beginning in the 16th century. During the following two centuries there were plans to settle the area, none of which were effectively carried out. Ultimately, New Spain did not have the resources nor population to settle such a far northern outpost. To ascertain the Russian threat a number of Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest were launched, the Spanish Crown funded the construction and subsidized the operation of the missions, with the goal that the relocation, conversion and enforced labor of Native people would bolster Spanish rule. The first Alta California mission and presidio were established by the Franciscan friar Junípero Serra, the following year,1770, the second mission and presidio were founded in Monterey. In 1773 a boundary between the Baja California missions and the Franciscan missions of Alta California was set by Francisco Palóu, the missionary effort coincided with the construction of presidios and pueblos, which were to be manned and populated by Hispanic people. The first pueblo founded was San José in 1777, followed by Los Ángeles in 1781, by law, mission land and property were to pass to the indigenous population after a period of about ten years, when the natives would become Spanish subjects. In the interim period, the Franciscans were to act as mission administrators who held the land in trust for the Native residents, the transfer of property never occurred under the Franciscans. As the number of Spanish settlers grew in Alta California, the boundaries, conflicts between the Crown and the Church and between Natives and settlers arose. State and ecclesiastical bureaucrats debated over authority of the missions and they advocated that the Natives owned property and had the right to defend it. Governor Diego de Borica is credited with defining Alta and Baja Californias official borders, Mexico won independence in 1822, and Alta California became a territory of Mexico. The Spanish and later Mexican governments rewarded retired soldados de cuera with large grants, known as ranchos, for the raising of cattle. Hides and tallow from the livestock were the primary exports of California until the mid-19th century, the construction, ranching and domestic work on these vast estates was primarily done by Native Americans, who had learned to speak Spanish and ride horses
8.
New Spain
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New Spain was a colonial territory of the Spanish Empire, in the New World north of the Isthmus of Panama. It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521, after 1535 the colony was governed by the Viceroy of New Spain, an appointed minister of the King of Spain, who ruled as monarch over the colony. The capital of New Spain was Mexico City and it developed highly regional divisions, which reflect the impact of climate, topography, the presence or absence of dense indigenous populations, and the presence or absence of mineral resources. The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social, political, silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain, but vastly enriched Spain, and transformed the global economy. New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade, although New Spain was a dependency of Spain, it was a kingdom not a colony, subject to the presiding monarch on the Iberian Peninsula. Every privilege and position, economic political, or religious came from him and it was on this basis that the conquest, occupation, and government of the New World was achieved. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was established in 1535 in the Kingdom of New Spain and it was the first New World viceroyalty and one of only two in the Spanish empire until the 18th century Bourbon Reforms. The Spanish Empire comprised the territories in the north overseas Septentrion, from North America, to the west of the continent, New Spain also included the Spanish East Indies. To the east of the continent, it included the Spanish West Indies and this was not occupied by many Spanish settlers and were considered more marginal to Spanish interests than the most densely populated and lucrative areas of central Mexico. To shore up its claims in North America starting in the late 18th century, Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest explored and claimed the coast of what is now British Columbia and Alaska. The indigenous societies of Mesoamerica brought under Spanish control were of unprecedented complexity, the societies could provide the conquistadors, especially Hernán Cortés, a base from which the conquerors could become autonomous, or even independent, of the Crown. As a result, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, since the time of the Catholic Monarchs, central Iberia was governed through councils appointed by the monarch with particular jurisdictions. Thus, the creation of the Council of the Indies became another, the crown had set up the Casa de Contratación in 1503 to regulate contacts between Spain and its overseas possessions. A key function was to gather information about navigation to make trips less risky and they were accompanied by maps of the area discussed, many of which were drawn by indigenous artists. The Francisco Hernández Expedition, the first scientific expedition to the New World, was sent to gather information medicinal plants, an earlier Audiencia had been established in Santo Domingo in 1526 to deal with the Caribbean settlements. That Audiencia, housed in the Casa Reales in Santo Domingo, was charged with encouraging further exploration, management by the Audiencia, which was expected to make executive decisions as a body, proved unwieldy. Therefore, in 1535, King Charles V named Don Antonio de Mendoza as the first Viceroy of New Spain. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532 opened up the vast territories of South America to further conquests, the Crown established an independent Viceroyalty of Peru there in 1540
9.
Los Angeles Pobladores
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The Pobladores of Los Angeles refers to the 44 original settlers and 4 soldiers who founded the city of Los Angeles, California in 1781. Finding the individuals to actually do the work of building and living in the city proved to be a daunting task. Neve finally located the new and willing dwellers in Sonora and Sinaloa, but gathering the pobladores was a little more difficult. The original party of the new townsfolk consisted of families, that is 11 men,11 women. El Pueblo de La Reina de los Ángeles, is the original, official version of the name of the town founded by the Pobladores. The earliest Hispanic settlers of all of California, not just Los Angeles, were almost exclusively from the Mexican states of Sinaloa and Sonora. The author and historian, Dr. Antonio Ríos-Bustamante, has written that the settlers of Los Angeles were racially mixed persons of Indian, African. This mixed racial composition was typical of both the settlers of Alta California and of the majority of the population of the northwest coast provinces of Mexico from which they were recruited. Other settlers from Mexico, Central and South America, Asia, Europe, of the 44 original pobladores who founded Los Angeles, only two were white, Of the other 42,26 had some degree of African ancestry and 16 were Indians or mestizos. — William M. Mason,1975 Alta California, as the province was known then, the descendents of these early settlers eventually developed their own culture and sense of place and became the Californios. Some became owners of landed estates, granted to them by the Crown. Some historians and people in general have emphasized a difference between Spaniard and a Mexican in terms of race, for example, colonial Mexicans are persons of mixed blood. The implication is, of course, that Spaniards are persons of unmixed blood or racially pure types and this is a gross oversimplification and ignores the fact that the population of the Iberian Peninsula was anything but ethnically homogeneous. As Magnus Mörner has observed, the seven centuries prior to the discovery of the New World in Spain witnessed extraordinary acculturation, furthermore, at one time in the history of Mexico there were more African slaves held in Mexico than in the colonial United States north of the border. Moreover, Mestizos born in wedlock, at least during the century, were accepted as Criollos. In short, the definition of Mexican often confuses race with nationality in the modern period and with caste in the colonial period. In addition, by definition of Mexican, neither an Indian, nor a Criollo, nor a Black would be Mexican because they are, by social definition at least. Most of the colonists were of mixed racial backgrounds, and the process of continued in California
10.
Mulatto
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Mulatto is a term used to refer to persons born of one white parent and one black parent or to persons born of a mulatto parent or parents. In English, the term is generally confined to historical contexts. English speakers of mixed white and black ancestry seldom choose to identify themselves as mulatto. Some residents of Latin America, Spain America, the Caribbean, in Latin America, most mulattoes have descended from multi-ethnic relationships dating to the slavery period, rather than from recent ethnic mixing. This is especially true in Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Haiti, Cape Verde, Puerto Rico and Venezuela. The etymology of the term is believed to derive from the Spanish and Portuguese mulato, which comes from mula, meaning mule, the hybrid offspring of a horse. Some dictionaries and scholarly works trace the origins to the Arabic term muwallad. Muwallad literally means born, begotten, produced, generated, brought up, with the implication of being born and raised among Arabs, Muwallad is derived from the root word WaLaD, and colloquial Arabic pronunciation can vary greatly. Walad means, descendant, offspring, scion, child, son, boy, young animal, in al-Andalus, Muwallad referred to the offspring of non-Arab/Muslim people who adopted the Islamic religion and manners. Notable examples of this include the famous Muslim scholar Ibn Hazm. Thus, in context, the term Muwalad has a meaning close to the adopted. According to the source, the term does not denote being of mixed-race but rather being of foreign-blood. In English, printed usage of mulatto dates to at least the 16th century and this earliest usage regarded black and white as discrete species, with the mulatto constituting a third separate species. According to Julio Izquierdo Labrado, the 19th-century linguist Leopoldo Eguilaz y Yanguas, as well as some Arabic sources muwallad is the origin of mulato. The Real Academia Española casts doubt on the muwallad theory, Scholars such as Werner Sollors cast doubt on the mule etymology for mulatto. In the 18th and 19th centuries, racialists such as Edward Long and they projected this belief back onto the etymology of the word mulatto. Sollers points out that this etymology is anachronistic, The Mulatto sterility hypothesis that has much to do with the rejection of the term by some writers is only half as old as the word Mulatto. Of São Tomé and Príncipes 193,413 inhabitants, the largest segment is classified as mestiço. or mixed race, 71% of the population of Cape Verde is also classified as such
11.
Multiracial
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Multiracial is defined as made up of or relating to people of many races. Many terms exist for people of multiracial backgrounds. While some of the used in the past are considered insulting and offensive. Individuals of multiracial backgrounds make up a significant portion of the population in parts of the world. In North America, studies have found that the population is continuing to grow. Because of a decline in racism, multiracial people no longer feel the need to hide their heritage, in many countries of Latin America and the Caribbean, mixed-race people make up the majority of the population. While defining race is controversial, race remains a commonly used term for categorization, insofar as race is defined differently in different cultures, perceptions of multiraciality will naturally be subjective. Some percentage of people who look black will possess genetic markers indicating the majority of their recent ancestors were European. The revised OMB standards identify a minimum of five categories, White, Black or African American, American Indian and Alaska Native, Asian. Perhaps the most significant change for Census 2000 was that respondents were given the option to one or more races on the questionnaire to indicate their racial identity. Census 2000 race data are shown for people who reported a race either alone or in combination with one or more other races, in the English-speaking world, many terms for people of various multiracial backgrounds exist, some of which are pejorative or are no longer used. Mulato, zambo and mestizo are used in Spanish, mulato, caboclo, cafuzo, ainoko and mestiço in Portuguese and mulâtre and these terms are also in certain contexts used in the English-speaking world. In Canada, the Métis are an ethnic group of mixed European and First Nation descent. Half-breed is a term that referred to people of partial Native American ancestry, it is now considered pejorative. Mestee, once used, is now used mostly for members of historically mixed-race groups, such as Louisiana Creoles, Melungeons, Redbones. In South Africa, and much of English-speaking southern Africa, the term Coloured was used to describe a mixed-race person, while the term is socially accepted, it is becoming an outdated due to its association with the apartheid era. Charts and diagrams intended to explain the classifications were common, the well-known Casta paintings in Mexico and, to some extent, Peru, were illustrations of the different classifications. Most Brazilians of all groups are to some extent mixed-race according to genetic research
12.
Mestizo
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The term was used as an ethnic/racial category in the casta system that was in use during the Spanish Empires control of their New World colonies. Mestizos are usually considered to be mixed Spaniards by the crown of Spain, the term mestizaje - taking as its root mestizo or mixed - is the Spanish word for miscegenation, the general process of mixing ancestries. To avoid confusion with the usage of the term mestizo. In colonial Venezuela, pardo was more commonly used instead of mestizo, pardo means being mixed without specifying which mixture, it was used to describe anyone born in the Americas whose ancestry was a mixture of European, Amerindian, and Black African. In colonial Brazil most of the population was mestiço in the original Iberian definition of the word. In the Philippines, which was a colony of Spain, the term came to refer to a Filipino with any foreign ancestry especially whites. In Canada, the Métis people is a community composed of those who possess combined European, in Saint Barthélemy, the term mestizo refers to people of mixed European and East Asian ancestry. The Spanish word mestizo is from Latin mixticius, meaning mixed and its usage has been documented as early as 1275, to refer to the offspring of an Egyptian and a Jew. This term was first documented in English in 1582 and it is related to the particular racial identity of historical non-white Amerindian-descended Hispanic and Latino American communities in an American context. In English-speaking Canada, Canadian Métis, as a loanword from French, refers to persons of mixed French, in the United States, Métis Americans and Mestizo Americans are two distinct racial and ethno-racial identities, as reflected in the use of French and Spanish loanwords, respectively. The latter was listed as a mestizo de sangley in birth records of the 19th century, with sangley as a reference to the Hokkiense word for business. Mestizo, mestiço, métis, mestís, Mischling, meticcio, mestiezen, mestee, in the Spanish colonial period, the Spanish developed an extremely vast complex system of racial hierarchy, which was used for social control and which also determined a persons standing in society. There were three categories of race during the initial period of colonization of the Americas by the Spanish, White Spaniard, Amerindian. During the Spanish colonial era, a myriad of terms were created to differentiate these racial mixtures, by the end of the colonial period in 1821, over one hundred sub-categories of possible variations of mixture existed, but official church and civil records were maintained with few categories. Church baptismal and marriage registers and civil records used the terms español, castizo, mestizo, mulato, and indio. As time went on, a system of hierarchy, the sistema de castas or the sociedad de castas developed where society was divided based on race, wealth. Mestizo – a person of mixed White European and Amerindian ancestry, in theory, and as depicted in eighteenth-century Mexican casta paintings, español status could also be attained by people of mixed origin who consistently had intermarried with Europeans. Such cases might include the offspring of a parent and one Peninsular or criollo parent
13.
Juan Bautista de Anza
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Juan Bautista de Anza Bezerra Nieto was a New-Spanish explorer of Basque descent, and Governor of New Mexico for the Spanish Empire. Juan Bautista de Anza was born in Fronteras, Sonora, New Spain in 1736 and he was the son of Juan Bautista de Anza I. In 1752 he enlisted in the army at the Presidio of Fronteras and he advanced rapidly and was a captain by 1760. His wife was the daughter of Spanish mine owner Francisco Pérez Serrano and his military duties mainly consisted of forays against hostile Native Americans, such as the Apache, during the course of which he explored much of what is now Arizona. The Spanish began colonizing Alta California with the Portolá expedition of 1769-1770, the two-pronged Portolá effort involved both a long sea voyage against prevailing winds and the California Current, and a difficult land route from Baja California. Colonies were established at San Diego and Monterey, with a presidio, a more direct land route and further colonization were desired, especially at present-day San Francisco, which Portolá saw but was not able to colonize. By the time of Juan Bautista de Anzas expedition, three missions had been established, including Mission San Antonio de Padua in the Salinas Valley. In 1772, Anza proposed an expedition to Alta California to the Viceroy of New Spain, Anza heard of a California Native American called Sebastian Tarabal who had fled from Mission San Gabriel to Sonora, and took him as guide. The expedition took a route along the Rio Altar, then paralleled the modern Mexico/California border. This was in the domain of the Yuma tribe, with which he established good relations, Anza reached Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, near the California coast, on March 22,1774, and Monterey, California, Alta Californias capital, on April 19. He returned to Tubac by late May,1774 and this expedition was closely watched by Viceroy and King, and on October 2,1774, Anza was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and ordered to lead a group of colonists to Alta California. The expedition got under way on October 23,1775, and arrived at Mission San Gabriel Arcángel in January,1776, today this route is marked as the Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail. The expedition continued on to Monterey with the colonists, in Anzas diary on March 25,1776, he states that he arrived at the arroyo of San Joseph Cupertino, which is useful only for travelers. Here we halted for the night, having come eight leagues in seven, from this place we have seen at our right the estuary which runs from the port of San Francisco. Pressing on, Anza located the sites for the Presidio of San Francisco and Mission San Francisco de Asis in present-day San Francisco and he did not establish the settlement, it was established later by José Joaquín Moraga. While returning to Monterey, he located the sites for Mission Santa Clara de Asis and the town of San José de Guadalupe. On August 24,1777, the Viceroy of New Spain appointed Anza as the Governor of the Province of Nuevo México, Governor Anza led a punitive expedition against the Comanche group of Native Americans, who had been repeatedly raiding Taos during 1779. With his Ute and Apache Native American allies, and around 800 Spanish soldiers, Anza went north through the San Luis Valley, entering the Great Plains at what is now Manitou Springs, circling El Capitan, he surprised a small force of the Comanche near present-day Colorado Springs
14.
Tubac, Arizona
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Tubac is a census-designated place in Santa Cruz County, Arizona, United States. The population was 1,191 at the 2010 census, the place name Tubac is an English borrowing from a Hispanicized form of the Oodham name, which translates into English as rotten. The original Oodham name is written Cuwak, when first taken into Spanish speech, it was spelled Tubaca. Finally over time the last a was dropped, Tubac is situated on the Santa Cruz River. Tubac was the original Spanish colonial garrison in Arizona and it was depopulated during the Oodham Uprising in the 18th century. During the 19th century, the area was repopulated by miners, farmers and ranchers, Tubac is located at 31°37′32″N 111°3′7″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 10.8 square miles. Tubacs most famous Spanish resident was Juan Bautista de Anza, while stationed at Tubac, de Anza built the chapel of Santa Gertrudis, the foundations of which lie beneath todays St. Anns Church. Apaches attacked the town repeatedly in the 1840s, forcing the Sonoran Mexicans to abandon both Tumacacori and Tubac, Tubac was the scene of a four-day siege in 1861, between Tubacs male population, Confederate militia and Apache warriors. In the 1930s - 1960s Tubac became an art colony, painter Dale Nichols opened an art school in the small desert village in 1948 and restored some of Tubacs historic buildings. Students included watercolorist Al Romo and sculptor Bob Brisley, in 1961, the Santa Cruz Valley Art Association was formed with 80 members and the group founded the Tubac Festival of the Arts in 1964. Other significant artists in the Village included Sophie and Harwood Steiger, Hal Empie, the remains of the old Spanish presidio are preserved by Tubac Presidio State Historic Park. The park also features a museum, an underground archeology display. As of the census of 2010, there were 1,191 people residing in Tubac. The racial makeup of Tubac was 76. 67% non-Hispanic White,0. 59% Native American,0. 42% Black or African American,0. 59% Asian,6. 47% from other races,20. 65% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. In Tubac 1. 5% of the population was age 0-4,4. 7% from 5 to 17,50. 97% from 18 to 64, the population of Tubac is 52. 39% female and 47. 61% male. As of the census of 2000, there were 949 people,481 households, the population density was 115.9 people per square mile. There were 569 housing units at a density of 69.5 per square mile
15.
John Bidwell
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John Bidwell was known throughout California and across the nation as an important pioneer, farmer, soldier, statesman, politician, prohibitionist and philanthropist. He is famous for leading one of the first emigrant parties, known as the Bartleson–Bidwell Party, along the California Trail and he also traveled to Washington DC to ask Abraham Lincoln to sign documents to incorporate California as a state of the United States. Bidwell was born in Chautauqua County, New York, the Bidwell family was originally from England and came to America in the colonial era. The Bidwell family moved to Erie, Pennsylvania in 1829, and then to Ashtabula County, at age 17, he attended and shortly thereafter became Principal of Kingsville Academy. In 1841 Bidwell became one of the first emigrants on the California Trail, John Sutter employed Bidwell as his business manager shortly after Bidwells arrival in California. Shortly after the James W. Marshalls discovery at Sutters Mill, Bidwell also discovered gold on the Feather River establishing a claim at Bidwell Bar in advance of the California Gold Rush. Bidwell obtained the rank of major fighting in the Mexican–American War. He served in the California Senate in 1849, supervised the census of California in 1850 and he was a delegate to the 1860 national convention of the Democratic Party. He was appointed general of the California Militia in 1863. He was a delegate to the convention of the Republican Party in 1864 and was a Republican member of Congress from 1865 to 1867. In 1865, General Bidwell backed a petition from settlers at Red Bluff, the fort was built amid escalating fighting with the Snake Indians of eastern Oregon and southern Idaho. It was a base for operations in the Snake War that lasted until 1868, although traffic dwindled on the Red Bluff route once the Central Pacific Railroad extended into Nevada in 1868, the Army staffed Fort Bidwell to quell various uprisings and disturbances until 1890. A Paiute reservation and small community maintain the name Fort Bidwell and his wife, Annie Kennedy Bidwell, was the daughter of Joseph C. G. Kennedy, a socially prominent, high ranking Washington official in the United States Census Bureau who was active in the Whig party. She was deeply religious, and committed to a number of moral and social causes, Annie was very active in the suffrage and prohibition movements. The Bidwells were married April 16,1868 in Washington, D. C. with then President Andrew Johnson, upon arrival in Chico, the Bidwells used their mansion extensively for entertainment of friends. Some of the guests who visited Bidwell Mansion were President Rutherford B, hayes, General William T. Sherman, Susan B. Anthony, Frances Willard, Governor Leland Stanford, John Muir, Joseph Dalton Hooker, in 1875 Bidwell ran for Governor of California on the Anti-Monopoly Party ticket. As a strong advocate of the movement, he presided over the Prohibition Party state convention in 1888 and was the Prohibition candidate for governor in 1880
16.
Abel Stearns
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Abel Stearns was a trader who came to the Pueblo de Los Angeles, Alta California in 1829 and became a major landowner, cattle rancher and one of the areas wealthiest citizens. Stearns was born in Lunenburg, Massachusetts, the son of Elizabeth and Levi Stearns and his parents were both from families that came from England in the 1600s. Stearns went to Mexico in about 1826, where he became a naturalized citizen, in 1829, Stearns emigrated to Monterey, California, then settled in the Pueblo de los Ángeles, present day Los Angeles, California. He obtained a government concession to build a warehouse at San Pedro, later, he established a stagecoach route connecting San Pedro Bay with the Los Angeles pueblo. In 1831, he built a flour mill on North Spring Street. Soon, Stearns became one of the most prominent and influential citizens of the pueblo, in 1842 Stearns bought his first rancho, the 28, 000-acre Rancho Los Alamitos between Los Angeles and the harbor. However, there was a drought between 1862 and 1864 which was said to have resulted in the death of 50,000 cattle on Stearns land alone, Stearns mortgaged the rancho to Michael Reese, who then purchased it at a sheriffs sale. Reeses estate was sold to John W. Bixby and Isaias W. Hellman. In 1842 Stearns made the first shipment to the U. S. Mint of California gold on record, on July 8,1843, his package of 1,843 ounces of placer gold valued at $19 an ounce was deposited in the Philadelphia Mint by Alfred Robinson. Following the Mexican-American War, Stearns represented Los Angeles to the US military government of California, Stearns was hit hard by the drought of 1863-64, causing the loss of thousands of cattle. By 1868 Stearns had suffered financial reverses that he mortgaged all his ranch assets in what were then Los Angeles. To obtain the operating capital, he formed a real estate sales partnership, with Alfred Robinson and four San Francisco investors, Samuel Brannan, E. F. Northam. Polhemus, and Edward Martin, that known as the Robinson Trust in 1868. He turned over 177,796 acres to the Trust, including all, the era of the large cattle ranchos was on the way out. In its place came agriculture, as ranchos were broken up and generally sold in 40-acre farms, the Robinson Trust acted as sales agents for the subdivisions. In order to gain maximum coverage for their campaign, they linked themselves to the California Immigrant Union, despite considerable friction between Stearns and the other members of the trust, the Robinson Trust nevertheless succeeded. By 1870 Stearns was out from under the debts incurred by the drought of the 1860s and was on his way to accumulating yet another fortune, Stearns was nicknamed Cara de Caballo because of his long-jawed countenance. In 1841, he married Arcadia Bandini of the wealthy Bandini family and they lived and entertained at their Los Angeles home, the historic Don Abel Stearns House
17.
William Wolfskill
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William Wolfskill was a pioneer, cowboy, agronomist in Los Angeles, California beginning in the 1830s. He had earned money for land in a decade as a fur trapper near Santa Fe, New Mexico and this allowed him to own land in California. One of the wealthiest men for his time, he expanded his holdings, running sheep and cultivating oranges, lemons and he is credited with establishing the states citrus industry and developing the Valencia orange. It became the most popular juice orange in the United States and was the origin of the name of Valencia, California. With his brother John Reid Wolfskill, in 1842 William bought a parcel in the Sacramento Valley, they called this Rancho Rio de los Putos. The brothers later divided this land, near what is now Winters, California, three other Wolfskill brothers migrated to California, working first with John in the north. Wolfskill moved to New Mexico in 1821, while the region was a province of Mexico called Santa Fe de Nuevo México and he spent ten years fur trapping in the New Mexico area, as the fur trade was highly lucrative. In 1828 he became a naturalized Mexican citizen, Wolfskill left Taos, New Mexico, in September 1830 with a party of mountain men that included George C. When they arrived in Southern California in early 1831, Wolfskill, Wolfskill eventually returned to Southern California while Yount decided to go north, and the two parted company. Yount settled in the Napa Valley, as a naturalized citizen of Mexico, Wolfskill was allowed to own land and acquired a parcel where downtown Los Angeles now stands. He began to cultivate grapevines for wine and he eventually planted 32,000 vines on a 48-acre vineyard. Initially, he planted vines, which had been introduced by the Spanish missionaries. He expanded his plantings to include other varietals later, with his brother John Reid Wolfskill, who came to California later, he bought a large parcel in the Sacramento Valley, which John called Ranch del Rio de los Putos after a nearby creek. It was later known as the Wolfskill Ranch, the brothers later divided this land, near what is now Winters, California in the Sacramento Valley, where John Wolfskill established orchards and vineyards. Three younger Wolfskill brothers, Milton, Mathus, and Satchal, also migrated to that region, by his death in 1866, William Wolfskill was producing 50,000 gallons of wine a year. He was, by far, the greatest producer of grapes in California during the Mexican era. He has been ranked by historians as one of the three most important men in the history of California viticulture, wolfskills neighbor, friend and business rival in the tiny pueblo of Los Angeles, was the French immigrant Jean-Louis Vignes. For his time, Wolfskill was one of the wealthiest men in Southern California and he owned large tracts of land throughout the region, which he used for everything from sheep grazing to orange groves
18.
Lemuel Carpenter
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Lemuel Carpenter was one of the first Anglo-American settlers of what is now the Los Angeles, California metropolitan area. Lemuel Carpenter was born c.1808 in Kentucky and he migrated to Missouri about 1828, where he served in Searcys Company of Missouri Militia in 1829. Carpenter was in southern California by January 1833, arriving in the company of trappers Cyrus Alexander, William Chard, Joseph Paulding, and Albert Toomes. Early California settler John Bidwell includes him in this recollection of people he knew in the Pueblo de Los Angeles and he was among the first of the Americans to plant a vineyard for the making of wine. His original settlement was known as Carpenters Farm from 1837 until it was destroyed by a flood in 1867 and he was active in revolutionary activities, sided with the Americans in the Mexican War, tried gold mining, and in general prospered in his new home. A popular travel guide notes, Rancho Santa Gertrudes…was sold to Lemuel Carpenter, a Kentuckian, the Carpenters happy and prosperous under Mexican rule. Rancho Santa Gertrudes was owned by Lemuel Carpenter until 1859, in 1859 the rancho was sold at sheriffs auction to John G. Downey and James P. McFarland. Samuel, actually Lemuel but misspelled by the recorder, Carpenter was recorded as the possessor as late as 1862. Lemuels father is believed to be Jonathan Carpenter and grandson of Matthew Carpenter, in the 1850 census, Lemuel Carpenter is listed as age 42, with a real estate value of $8,000 dollars, a farmer. His wife, Maria, is listed as age 22 — she was his second wife and his children, all born in California, are listed as, Susana Carpenter, age 11. Carpenters prosperity took a downturn when a $5,000 loan from John G. Downey taken out in 1852 ballooned into a $104,000 debt by 1859. Unable to repay the debt, he killed himself. The diary of Lemuel Carpenters daughter Mary Refugio Carpenter includes this entry written on January 2,1861, I have been thinking so much of my father tonight
19.
David W. Alexander
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David W. Alexander was an early California politician and pioneer in Los Angeles County, California. He was on the Board of Supervisors in 1853 and 1854, David W. Alexander was born on June 22,1812 in Ireland. He moved to the United States with one of his brothers in 1832 and he resided in Philadelphia for three or four years, and from there he went to Rocheport, Missouri. Some say he spent much of his youth in Mexico and he operated a trading company to Santa Fe, New Mexico in 1837. In 1841 Alexander, he arrived in California, with the Rowland-Workman Party and lived for time on Rancho El Rincon, in San Bernardino County. He then went to the port of San Pedro, where he and John Temple carried on a trading business and they also handled the salting and trading of hides, which were practically the only form of money in the county. Temple and Alexander created a sensation, by bringing in a four-wheel vehicle into the pueblo in January,1849. Except for a cart belonging to mission priests it was the first carriage seen in southern California. The importation was a rockaway, costing $1000, along with two American horses, all coming from New England around the Horn on the customary windjammer and he then formed the Alexander and Mellus Company, a mercantile business in Los Angeles, with Francis Mellus. During this time he formed a partnership with Phineas Banning in San Pedro, until 1855. He also became involved in Southern California real estate, in 1851, landowner Vicente de la Osa sold Rancho Providencia to Alexander and Mellus Company. In 1867, he sold Rancho Providencia to David Burbank, the Rancho Tujunga, Rancho Cahuenga and Rancho Providencia were patented to Alexander by the United States courts in 1872. During the Mexican War of 1846-47, he favored the Americans and was made a prisoner by the Californios at the Rancho Santa Ana del Chino of Isaac Williams, when hostilities ceased, he became regidore from January 2 to June 29,1850, in the ayumiento. He was the first President of the Los Angeles Common Council and he traveled to Europe in 1852. He was elected a member of the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors in 1853 and 1854, as a supervisor he led the movement to lay the first road over the San Fernando Mountains. He was then elected Sheriff of Los Angeles county for the terms of 1855–1856 and he married Adelaida Johnson Mellus of Guaymas, Mexico, widow of his former partner, Francis Mellus, on November 7,1864. Their children were Martha, Elizabeth, Ynez, Joseph W. and he died in Wilmington on April 29,1886
20.
Juan Bandini
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Juan Bandini was an early settler of what would become San Diego, California. Juan Bandini was born 1800 in Lima, Peru to José Bandini and his father came to California in 1819 and 1821 and participated in the Mexican War of Independence. After the revolution his fathers family moved to San Diego, arriving in San Diego September 1,1834 on the brig Natalie, Bandini married Marie de los Dolores Estudillo on November 20,1822. 1808, daughter of Captain José María Estudillo and they had three daughters, Arcadia, Ysidora, and Josefa, and two sons, Juanito and one who died in childhood. Bandinis second wife was Refugia Argüello, daughter of Santiago Argüello and they had three sons, Juan de la Cruz, Alfredo, and Arturo, and two daughters, Dolores and Victoria. Bandini built a large U-shaped house, Casa de Bandini, in 1829, initially it had 12 rooms and was one-story. Bandini was forced to sell his house in 1859 due to financial losses, part of the building was converted into a store. His house was converted to the Cosmopolitan Hotel in 1869, with a second story. The house still stands in Old Town San Diego, at the east corner of the town square, originally the house and hotel were not stuccoed—that was added in modern times to make it look Spanish Colonial. Bandini served various public offices such as member of the assembly, sub-comisario of revenues, Juan Bandini was granted and occupied Rancho Tecate in 1836. However he was driven to abandon it by raids to plunder the ranchos around San Diego by bands fugitive neophytes, rancho employees. This is now the town of Tecate, in 1838, the Mexican government granted him Rancho Jurupa in modern day San Bernardino County and Riverside County. During the Mexican-American War, Bandini supported the Americans, with Santiago Arguello he issued an appeal to not resist the Americans. After the war, Bandini was increasingly critical of the U. S. government, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with Mexico, in 1848, had guaranteed the land grants would be recognized. During March 29–September 27,1848 he was Juez de Paz of San Diego Pueblo, in 1850 he opened a store in San Diego and built the Gilla House hotel. Soon after he moved to Mexico then in 1855 to Los Angeles where he died in 1859, Bandini was dressed elegantly and always gracious, and cut a refined presence wherever he went. He was known as a public speaker, fluent writer, excellent dancer, fair musician. His home was the center of San Diego
21.
Acre
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The acre is a unit of land area used in the imperial and US customary systems. It is defined as the area of 1 chain by 1 furlong, lucia, St. Helena, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Turks and Caicos, the United Kingdom, the United States and the US Virgin Islands. The international symbol of the acre is ac, the most commonly used acre today is the international acre. In the United States both the international acre and the US survey acre are in use, but differ by two parts per million, see below. The most common use of the acre is to measure tracts of land, one international acre is defined as exactly 4,046.8564224 square metres. An acre was defined in the Middle Ages, being the amount of land that could be ploughed in one day with a yoke of oxen. One acre equals 0.0015625 square miles,4,840 square yards,43,560 square feet or about 4,047 square metres. While all modern variants of the acre contain 4,840 square yards, there are definitions of a yard. A square enclosing one acre is approximately 69.57 yards, as a unit of measure, an acre has no prescribed shape, any area of 43,560 square feet is an acre. In the international yard and pound agreement of 1959 the United States, consequently, the international acre is exactly 4,046.8564224 square metres. The US survey acre is about 4,046.872609874252 square metres, its value is based on an inch defined by 1 metre =39.37 inches exactly. Surveyors in the United States use both international and survey feet, and consequently, both varieties of acre. Since the difference between the US survey acre and international acre is only about a quarter of the size of an A4 sheet of paper, areas are seldom measured with sufficient accuracy for the different definitions to be detectable. In India, residential plots are measured in cents or decimal, in Sri Lanka the division of an acre into 160 perches or 4 roods is common. To be more exact, one acre is 90.75 percent of a 100 yards long by 53.33 yards wide American football field, the full field, including the end zones, covers approximately 1.32 acres. For residents of countries, the acre might be envisaged as approximately half of a 105 metres long by 68 metres wide association football pitch. It may also be remembered as 44,000 square feet, in English it was historically spelled aker. The acre was approximately the amount of land tillable by a yoke of oxen in one day and this explains one definition as the area of a rectangle with sides of length one chain and one furlong
22.
Hectare
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The hectare is an SI accepted metric system unit of area equal to 100 ares and primarily used in the measurement of land as a metric replacement for the imperial acre. An acre is about 0.405 hectare and one hectare contains about 2.47 acres, in 1795, when the metric system was introduced, the are was defined as 100 square metres and the hectare was thus 100 ares or 1⁄100 km2. When the metric system was further rationalised in 1960, resulting in the International System of Units, the are was not included as a recognised unit. The hectare, however, remains as a non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI units, the metric system of measurement was first given a legal basis in 1795 by the French Revolutionary government. At the first meeting of the CGPM in 1889 when a new standard metre, manufactured by Johnson Matthey & Co of London was adopted, in 1960, when the metric system was updated as the International System of Units, the are did not receive international recognition. The units that were catalogued replicated the recommendations of the CGPM, many farmers, especially older ones, still use the acre for everyday calculations, and convert to hectares only for official paperwork. Farm fields can have long histories which are resistant to change, with names such as the six acre field stretching back hundreds of years. The names centiare, deciare, decare and hectare are derived by adding the standard metric prefixes to the base unit of area. The centiare is a synonym for one square metre, the deciare is ten square metres. The are is a unit of area, equal to 100 square metres and it was defined by older forms of the metric system, but is now outside of the modern International System of Units. It is commonly used to measure real estate, in particular in Indonesia, India, and in French-, Portuguese-, Slovakian-, Serbian-, Czech-, Polish-, Dutch-, in Russia and other former Soviet Union states, the are is called sotka. It is used to describe the size of suburban dacha or allotment garden plots or small city parks where the hectare would be too large, the decare is derived from deka, the prefix for 10 and are, and is equal to 10 ares or 1000 square metres. It is used in Norway and in the former Ottoman areas of the Middle East, the hectare, although not strictly a unit of SI, is the only named unit of area that is accepted for use within the SI. The United Kingdom, United States, Burma, and to some extent Canada instead use the acre, others, such as South Africa, published conversion factors which were to be used particularly when preparing consolidation diagrams by compilation. In many countries, metrication redefined or clarified existing measures in terms of metric units, non-SI units accepted for use with the International System of Units
23.
Whittier, California
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Whittier is a city in Southern California located within Los Angeles County, California. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city had a population of 85,331, reflecting an increase of 1,631 from the 83,680 counted in the 2000 Census, like nearby Montebello, the city constitutes part of the Gateway Cities. Whittier was incorporated in February 1898 and became a city in 1955. The city is named for the poet John Greenleaf Whittier and is home to Whittier College, Whittiers roots can be traced to Spanish soldier Manuel Nieto. In 1784, Nieto received a Spanish land grant of 300,000 acres, Rancho Los Nietos, as a reward for his military service, the area of Nietos land grant was reduced in 1790 as the result of a dispute with Mission San Gabriel. Nieto built a rancho for his family near Whittier, and purchased cattle and horses for his ranch, when Nieto died in 1804, his children inherited their fathers property. At the time of the Mexican-American War, much of the land that would become Whittier was owned by Pio Pico, a rancher, Pio Pico built a hacienda here on the San Gabriel River, known today as Pio Pico State Historic Park. Gerkens would later become the first chief of police of the Los Angeles Police Department, gerkens land was owned by several others before a group of Quakers purchased it and expanded it to 1,259 acres, with the intent of founding a Quaker community. The area soon became known as a thriving citrus ranching region, later, walnut trees were also planted, and Whittier became the largest walnut grower in the United States. In addition to walnuts and citrus, Whittier was also a producer of pampas grass. For many years, the means of transport from this area to Los Angeles was on foot, or via horse and wagon over rough dirt roads, impeding settlement, development. Thus in 1887 enterprising and aggressive businessmen contracted with the Southern Pacific Railroad to build the first railroad spur to Whittier, by 1906,650 carloads of oranges and 250 carloads of lemons were shipped annually by rail. In 1904, the Pacific Electric opened the line known as Big Red Cars from Los Angeles to Whittier. In the first two decades, over a million passengers a year rode to and from Los Angeles on the Whittier line, groves of walnuts were planted in 1887 and eventually Whittier was known as the primary walnut growing town in the United States. After World War II Whittier grew rapidly and the sub-dividing of orange groves began, in 1955 the new Civic Center complex was completed and the City Council met in new chambers for the first time on March 8,1955. The city continued to grow as the City annexed portions of Whittier Boulevard, the 1961 annexation added over 28,000 people to the population, bringing the total to about 67,000. In the founding days of Whittier, when it was an isolated town, Jonathan Bailey and his wife. They followed the Quaker religious faith and practice, and held meetings on their porch
24.
Pio Pico State Historic Park
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Located in Whittier, California, at 6003 Pioneer Blvd. Near Whittier Blvd. and Interstate 605, it is California Historical Landmark No,127, listed as Casa de Governor Pío Pico. Just west of the park is the San Gabriel River, across the river is the city that bears his name - Pico Rivera. The park consists of the adobe and about three acres of surrounding land, starting in 1848, after the Mexican-American War, Pío Pico began acquiring the 10, 000-acre Rancho Paso de Bartolo, and built a home in 1853. The home was damaged by the flooding of 1867, which set the San Gabriel River to its present course, the structure was completely redone into its current form, adding American-style elements into the traditional Californio design. In 1892, Pio Pico was evicted from the property by Bernard Cohn, when taking what he thought was a loan from Cohn in 1883, Pico, who could not read or write English, had conveyed the deed for the property, and courts ruled with Cohn. Pico died a two years later at his daughters home. By 1898 the City of Whittier began buying up parts of the property to construct a water pumping facility, in 1907, local Whittier citizens, led by Harriet Williams Russell Strong, were able to have the site made a historic monument. Strong, who had known Pico since 1867, purchased the property and had it restored in 1909, the property was conveyed to the State of California in 1917 and designated one of its first State Historic Parks in 1927. The State of California did further renovations in 1944, the Adobe was seriously damaged in the 1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake, forcing closure. While funds were being raised for restoration, the damage was caused by the 1994 Northridge earthquake. Finally, in 1996 a Los Angeles County proposition earmarked US$2.5 million for the parks restoration, restoration of the structure began in 2000 and the historic landscape in 2002, with the park re-opened on 20 September 2003. At the re-opening ceremonies, the Battle of Rio San Gabriel, Pio Pico State Historic Park was one of the 48 California state parks proposed for closure in January 2008 by Californias Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger as part of a deficit reduction program. None of the closures occurred then, however, the park was again targeted along with some seventy state parks for closure in 2011 by Governor Jerry Brown. The Friends of Pio Pico and the City of Whittier together raised $80,000 to keep the park from closing, Pio Pico State Historic Park official website. About the Pio Pico State Historic Park, California State Parks
25.
Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton
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Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton is the major West Coast base of the United States Marine Corps. The base was established in 1942 to train U. S, Marines for service in World War II. By October 1944, Camp Pendleton was declared a permanent installation and by 1946 and it was named after Major General Joseph Henry Pendleton, who had long advocated setting up a training base for the Marine Corps on the west coast. Today it is the home to myriad Operating Force units including the I Marine Expeditionary Force, in 1769, a Spanish expedition led by Captain Gaspar de Portolá explored northward from Loreto, Baja California Sur, seeking to reach Monterey Bay, something never before done overland by Europeans. On July 20 of that year, the arrived in the area now known as Camp Pendleton. The expedition went on to military outposts and Franciscan missions at San Diego. During the next 30 years,21 missions were established, the most productive one being Mission San Luis Rey, at that time, San Luis Rey Mission had control over the Santa Margarita area. After 1821, following the Mexican War of Independence from Spain, the retired soldiers were joined as rancheros by prominent businessmen, officials and military leaders. They and their children, the Californios, became the landed gentry of Alta California, in 1841, two brothers, Pio Pico and Andrés Pico, became the first private owners of Rancho Santa Margarita. More land was added to the grant, giving it the name of Rancho Santa Margarita y Las Flores. The design of the cattle brand is seen in the bases logo today. In 1863, an Englishman named John Forster paid off Picos gambling debts in return for the deed to the ranch. During his tenure as owner of the ranch, he expanded the house, which was first built in 1827. It was purchased by wealthy cattleman James Clair Flood and managed by Irishman Richard ONeill, under the guidance of ONeills son, Jerome, the ranch began to net a profit of nearly half a million dollars annually, and the house was modernized and furnished to its present form. In the early 1940s, both the Army and the Marine Corps were looking for land for a training base. It was named for Major General Joseph Henry Pendleton who had advocated the establishment of a West Coast training base. Construction began in April but the base was considered a temporary facility so it was built to standards of wood frame construction. After five months of building activity, the 9th Marine Regiment
26.
Pico House
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The Pico House is a historic building in Los Angeles, California, dating from its days as a small town in Southern California. Located on 430 North Main Street, it sits across the old Los Angeles Plaza from Olvera Street, pío Pico, a successful businessman who was the last Mexican Governor of Alta California, ordered construction of a luxury hotel in the growing town. The architect was Ezra F. Kysor, who designed the Cathedral of Saint Vibiana. The resulting Italianate three story, 33-room hotel, dubbed Pico House was the most extravagant and lavish hotel in Southern California and it had a total of nearly 80 rooms, large windows, a small interior court, and a grand staircase. In the days of the hotels primacy the courtyard featured a fountain, the structure forms three sides of a trapezoid whose open end immediately abuts the adjacent Merced Theatre, thus forming the courtyard. The back of the hotel faces Sanchez Street, where the gate used by supply wagons. Its time in the spotlight did not last very long, by 1876, the Southern Pacific Railroad had linked the city with the rest of the country and more residents and businessman began pouring in. Pio Pico himself started having troubles, and lost the hotel to the San Francisco Savings. In 1882, the hotel was so crowded with guests that Manager Dunham secured 30 rooms on the side of the street. The business center of the city began to move south and, by 1900, after decades as a shabby lodging house, it finally passed into the hands of the State of California in 1953, and it now belongs to the El Pueblo de Los Angeles State Historic Monument. Parts of this building were renovated in 1981 and 1992, the ground floor is occasionally used for exhibits and other events. The Pico House is listed as a California Historical Landmark and a National Historic Landmark as a part of the Los Angeles Plaza Historic District, the rear of Pico House was used in the TV show The Mentalist. It is used as the headquarters of the fictional California Bureau of Investigation and is seen during the show. On January 7,2011, the building was featured on Travel Channels Ghost Adventures, with Kane Hodder, notes California Historic Landmarks, California Office of Historic Preservation, Accessed October 26,2006. Pico House, USC Dept. of Geography, Accessed November 11,2010
27.
Olvera Street
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Olvera Street is a historical district in downtown Los Angeles, and a part of El Pueblo de Los Angeles Historic Monument. It was officially founded in 1781 in Los Angeles, and was renamed to Olvera Street in 1877, the tree-shaded, pedestrian mall marketplace with craft shops, restaurants and roving troubadours is a popular tourist destination. The street has been described as a Top Five in the Great Streets of America journal, Los Angeles was founded in 1781 by Spanish pobladores, on a site southeast of todays Olvera Street near the Los Angeles River. They consisted of 11 families —44 men, women, and they had come from nearby Mission San Gabriel Arcángel to establish a secular pueblo on the banks of the Porciúncula River at the Indian village of Yang-na. The new town was named El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora Reina de los Ángeles, priests from San Gabriel established an asistencia, the Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles Asistencia, to tend to their religious needs. The pueblo eventually built its own church, known today as the Old Plaza Church. Unpredictable flooding forced the settlers to abandon the site and move to higher ground in the early 1800s. Spanish colonial rule lasted until Mexican independence in 1821 and this period saw Los Angeless first streets and adobe buildings. After the Mexican War, the Plaza remained the center of town, in the 1880s, the little town grew rapidly due to the influx of settlers from Southern States. These joined the Spaniards and earlier English-speaking settlers who had become voting citizens before 1846, as the town expanded, the original area of settlement came to be neglected, and served as a neighborhood for new immigrants, especially Mexicans and Sicilians. It included a Chinese community, which relocated to the present nearby Chinatown to make way for the construction of Union Station. During the 1920s, the pace of Mexican immigration increased rapidly, California was the primary destination, with Los Angeles being a common choice. Sterlings efforts to rescue the area began in 1926, when she learned of a plan to demolish the Avila Adobe, chandler was intrigued by the idea of packaging the Plaza area as replica of the citys past. He helped by providing extensive publicity and supporting the development plan in The Times, however, by 1928, due to a lack of financial support for implementing her ideas, the project appeared to be doomed. In late November, Sterling discovered a Los Angeles City Health Department Notice of Condemnation posted in front of the Avila Adobe, in response, she posted her own hand-painted sign condemning the shortsightedness of city bureaucrats in failing to preserve an important historic site. Her act helped attract public interest in preserving the old adobe. The Los Angeles City Council finally reversed its order of condemnation. Support for restoring the adobe rushed in from throughout the city, building materials came from several local companies, including Blue Diamond Cement and the Simmons Brick Company, one of the largest employers of Mexicans in the Los Angeles area
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Juan Bautista Alvarado
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Juan Bautista Valentín Alvarado y Vallejo was a Californio and Governor of Alta California from 1836 to 1842. He was governor during the Revolution of 1836, when the territorial Diputación declared free and sovereign independence from Mexico and forced the Mexican commander, Alvarado also oversaw Californias brief rejoining with Mexico as a state. Alvarado was born in Monterey, Alta California, to Jose Francisco Alvarado and his grandfather Juan Bautista Alvarado accompanied Gaspar de Portolà as an enlisted man in the Spanish Army in 1769. His father died a few months after his birth and his mother remarried three years later, leaving Juan Bautista in the care of his grandparents, the Vallejo family and he and Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo grew up together in the Vallejo household. They were both taught by William Edward Petty Hartnell, an English merchant living in Monterey, in 1827 the eighteen-year-old Alvarado was hired as secretary to the territorial legislature. In 1829 he was arrested along with Vallejo and another friend, José Castro. In 1831 he built a house in Monterey for his mistress, Juliana Francisca Ramona y Castillo, over the years, the pair had a total of at least two illegitimate daughters whom he recognized and perhaps several more he did not recognize, but he never married their mother. During this period Alvarado began drinking heavily, one of his daughters claimed that Raymunda had refused to marry Alvarado because of his excessive drinking. Alvarado supported secularization of the Spanish missions in California and he was appointed by José María de Echeandía to oversee the turn over of Mission San Miguel, even though Echeandía was no longer governor. The new governor Manuel Victoria rescinded the order and sought to have Alvarado, the pair fled and were hidden by their old friend Vallejo, who had become adjutant at the Presidio of San Francisco. However, Victoria was unpopular and Echeandía overthrew his rule and replaced him with Pío de Jesús Pico} near the end of 1831, secularization of the missions resumed in 1833. In 1834 Alvarado was elected to the legislature as a delegate, Governor José Figueroa granted Rancho El Sur, the vast wilderness south of Monterey, to Alvarado on October 30,1834. After Figueroas death in September 1835, Nicolás Gutiérrez was appointed as governor in January 1836. He was replaced by Mariano Chico in April, but Chico was very unpopular, thinking a revolt was coming, Chico went to Mexico to gather troops, but was reprimanded for leaving his post. Gutierrez, the commandant, re-assumed the governorship, but he too was unpopular. The Americans wanted California independence, but Alvarado instead preferred staying a part of Mexico, Alvarados rebellion adopted a new flag - a single red star on a white background. The flag never became a flag of Alta California, and was not used after Alvarado made peace with the central government. Alvarado, at age 27, was appointed governor
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Baja California
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Baja California, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Baja California, is a state in Mexico. It is the northernmost and westernmost of the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico, before becoming a state in 1952, the area was known as the North Territory of Baja California. It has an area of 70,113 km2, or 3. 57% of the mass of Mexico and comprises the northern half of the Baja California Peninsula, north of the 28th parallel. The mainland portion of the state is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the east by Sonora, the U. S. State of Arizona, and the Gulf of California and its northern limit is the U. S. state of California. The state has an population of 3,165,776 much more than the sparsely populated Baja California Sur to the south. Over 75% of the lives in the capital city, Mexicali, in Ensenada. Other important cities include San Felipe, Rosarito and Tecate, additionally, there is a large immigrant population from the United States due to its proximity to San Diego and the cheaper cost of living compared to San Diego. There is also a significant population from Central America, many immigrants moved to Baja California for a better quality of life and the number of higher paying jobs in comparison to the rest of Mexico and Latin America. Baja California is the twelfth largest state by area in Mexico and its geography ranges from beaches to forests and deserts. The backbone of the state is the Sierra de Baja California, where the Picacho del Diablo and this mountain range effectively divides the weather patterns in the state. In the northwest, the weather is semi-dry and mediterranean, in the narrow center, the weather changes to be more humid due to altitude. It is in area where a few valleys can be found, such as the Valle de Guadalupe. To the east of the range, the Sonoran Desert dominates the landscape. In the south, the weather becomes drier and gives way to the Vizcaino Desert, the state is also home to numerous islands off both of its shores. In fact, the westernmost point in Mexico, the Guadalupe Island, is part of Baja California, the Coronado, Todos Santos and Cedros Islands are also on the Pacific Shore. On the Gulf of California, the biggest island is the Angel de la Guarda, separated from the peninsula by the deep, the first people came to the peninsula at least 11,000 years ago. At that time two main groups are thought to have been present on the peninsula. In the south were the Cochimí, in the north were several groups belonging to the Yuman language family, including the Kiliwa, Paipai, Kumeyaay, Cocopa, and Quechan
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Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
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With the defeat of its army and the fall of its capital, Mexico entered into negotiations to end the war. The treaty called for the U. S. to pay $15 million to Mexico, Mexicans in those annexed areas had the choice of relocating to within Mexicos new boundaries or receiving American citizenship with full civil rights. Over 90% chose to become U. S. citizens, the U. S. Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty by a vote of 38–14. The opponents of this treaty were led by the Whigs, who had opposed the war and rejected Manifest destiny in general, and rejected this expansion in particular. The peace talks were negotiated by Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the US State Department, Nicholas Trist negotiated with a special commission representing the collapsed government led by Don José Bernardo Couto, Don Miguel de Atristain, and Don Luis Gonzaga Cuevas of Mexico. Instead, Article V of the treaty simply described the new U. S. –Mexico border. Comparing the boundary in the Adams–Onís Treaty to the Guadalupe Hidalgo boundary, Mexico conceded about 55% of its pre-war, pre-Texas territorial claims, articles VIII and IX ensured safety of existing property rights of Mexican citizens living in the transferred territories. Despite assurances to the contrary, the property rights of Mexican citizens were not honored by the U. S. in accordance with modifications to. The U. S. also agreed to assume $3.25 million in debts that Mexico owed to United States citizens, the residents had one year to choose whether they wanted American or Mexican citizenship, Over 90% chose American citizenship, which included full voting rights. The others returned to Mexico, or in cases in New Mexico were allowed to remain in place as Mexican citizens. Article XII engaged the United States to pay, In consideration of the acquired,15 million dollars. Article XI of the treaty was important to Mexico. S, would return captives of the Indians to Mexico. Mexicans believed that the United States had encouraged and assisted the Comanche and Apache raids that had devastated northern Mexico in the years before the war and this article promised relief to them Article XI, however, proved unenforceable. Destructive Indian raids continued despite a heavy U. S. presence near the Mexican border, Mexico filed 366 claims with the U. S. government for damages done by Comanche and Apache raids between 1848 and 1853. In 1853, in the Treaty of Mesilla concluding the Gadsden Purchase, the remainder of New Mexico and Arizona were peacefully purchased under the Gadsden Purchase, which was carried out in 1853. In this purchase the United States paid an additional $10 million, however, the American Civil War delayed construction of such a route, and it was not until 1881 that the Southern Pacific Railroad finally was completed, fulfilling the purpose of the acquisition. Mexico had claimed the area in question since winning its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence. About 80,000 Mexicans lived in the areas of California, New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas during the period of 1845 to 1850, and far fewer in Nevada, in southern and western Colorado, and in Utah
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Growth hormone
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Growth hormone, also known as somatotropin, is a peptide hormone that stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and cell regeneration in humans and other animals. It is thus important in human development and it is a type of mitogen which is specific only to certain kinds of cells. Growth hormone is a 191-amino acid, single-chain polypeptide that is synthesized, stored, GH is a stress hormone that raises the concentration of glucose and free fatty acids. It also stimulates production of IGF-1, a recombinant form of hGH called somatropin is used as a prescription drug to treat childrens growth disorders and adult growth hormone deficiency. In the United States, it is available legally from pharmacies. In recent years in the United States, some doctors have started to prescribe growth hormone in GH-deficient older patients to increase vitality, while legal, the efficacy and safety of this use for HGH has not been tested in a clinical trial. At this time, HGH is still considered a very complex hormone, in its role as an anabolic agent, HGH has been used by competitors in sports since at least 1982, and has been banned by the IOC and NCAA. Blood tests conducted by WADA at the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens, use of the drug for performance enhancement is not currently approved by the FDA. GH has been studied for use in raising livestock more efficiently in industrial agriculture, in the United States, the only FDA-approved use of GH for livestock is the use of a cow-specific form of GH called bovine somatotropin for increasing milk production in dairy cows. Retailers are permitted to label containers of milk as produced with or without bovine somatotropin, the names somatotropin or somatotropic hormone refer to the growth hormone produced naturally in animals and extracted from carcasses. Hormone extracted from human cadavers is abbreviated hGH, the main growth hormone produced by recombinant DNA technology has the approved generic name somatropin and the brand name Humatrope, and is properly abbreviated rhGH in the scientific literature. Since its introduction in 1992 Humatrope has been a banned sports doping agent, genes for human growth hormone, known as growth hormone 1 and growth hormone 2, are localized in the q22-24 region of chromosome 17 and are closely related to human chorionic somatomammotropin genes. GH, human chorionic somatomammotropin, and prolactin belong to a group of hormones with growth-promoting. The major isoform of the growth hormone is a protein of 191 amino acids. The structure includes four helices necessary for interaction with the GH receptor. It appears that, in structure, GH is evolutionarily homologous to prolactin, despite marked structural similarities between growth hormone from different species, only human and Old World monkey growth hormones have significant effects on the human growth hormone receptor. Several molecular isoforms of GH exist in the gland and are released to blood. This variant has not been identified, but it has suggested to coincide with a 22 kDa glycosylated variant of 23 kDa identified in the pituitary gland
16th Governor of Alta California
26th Governor of Alta California
Los Angeles Common Councilman
. PMID 18597174. Open Access; http://www.springerlink.com/content/u7645787h2435373/fulltext.pdf
