1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Gurdon Saltonstall Hubbard
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Gurdon Saltonstall Hubbard was an American fur trader, insurance underwriter and land speculator. Hubbard first arrived in Chicago on October 1,1818 as a voyageur and he went on to build Chicagos first stockyard and help foment a land boom for Chicago in the East. Hubbard was born in Windsor, Vermont, to Elizur Hubbard, when his father, a lawyer, lost his money around 1812 in speculative ventures, he took the family north and settled in Montreal. In 1818, Hubbard was indentured to John Jacob Astors American Fur Company for five years at $120 per year, Hubbard first arrived in Chicago in 1818 as a member of a brigade led by Antoine Deschamps. Hubbard carried an introduction to John Kinzie, a trader in Chicago, whose son, although Hubbard eventually became a major booster of Chicago and one of its leading citizens, he wouldnt make his permanent home in the city until 1834. On several trips throughout Illinois, he became the son of Chief Waba of the Kickapoo and married Watseka. After he walked for 75 miles in a night to warn the town of Danville of an impending raid by Indians, he earned the nickname Pa-pa-ma-ta-be. When a local Indian tribe questioned his ability to perform this feat, Hubbards challenger lost by several miles and was unable to move the next day. Upon settling in Chicago in 1834, Hubbard purchased a cabin near Lake Michigan from Billy Caldwell, in the 1830s, Hubbard served in the Illinois General Assembly. While there, he advocated ending the Illinois and Michigan Canal at the Chicago River instead of the Calumet River. In Chicago, Hubbard became a figure in the fur trade. In support of business, he built the first warehouse, known as Hubbards Folly, in Chicago on the south bank of the Chicago River. Building his fortune in meats and furs allowed Hubbard to enter into the insurance business, following the Great Chicago Fire in 1871, he was nearly bankrupted by the insurance payments he had to make, but he was able to survive the setback. Hubbard was the owner of the Lady Elgin, a steamship which was rammed by a schooner, although Hubbard accepted insurance money for the loss, he never abandoned ownership of the ship, which was discovered in 1989. 1860 also saw Hubbard elected alderman of Chicagos 7th Ward, in the late 1860s, Hubbard began work on his autobiography and had produced an 800-page manuscript which was destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire. Following the fire, he set to work to reproduce the manuscript, Hubbard recovered from his financial setbacks following the Great Chicago Fire, but his health began to deteriorate. In 1883, he became ill and in 1884, he had his eye removed. The following year, his eye was removed
3.
Buffalo, New York
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Buffalo is a city in western New York state and the county seat of Erie County, on the eastern shores of Lake Erie at the head of the Niagara River. As of 2014, Buffalo is New York states 2nd-most populous city after New York City, the metropolitan area has a population of 1.13 million. After an economic downturn in the half of the 20th century, Buffalos economy has transitioned to sectors that include financial services, technology, biomedical engineering. Residents of Buffalo are called Buffalonians, the citys nicknames include The Queen City, The Nickel City and The City of Good Neighbors. The city of Buffalo received its name from a creek called Buffalo Creek. British military engineer Captain John Montresor made reference to Buffalo Creek in his journal of 1764, there are several theories regarding how Buffalo Creek received its name. In 1804, as principal agent opening the area for the Holland Land Company, Joseph Ellicott, designed a radial street and grid system that branches out from downtown like bicycle spokes similar to the street system he used in the nations capital. Although Ellicott named the settlement New Amsterdam, the name did not catch on, during the War of 1812, on December 30,1813, Buffalo was burned by British forces. The George Coit House 1818 and Samuel Schenck House 1823 are currently the oldest houses within the limits of the City of Buffalo, on October 26,1825, the Erie Canal was completed with Buffalo a port-of-call for settlers heading westward. At the time, the population was about 2,400, the Erie Canal brought about a surge in population and commerce, which led Buffalo to incorporate as a city in 1832. In 1845, construction began on the Macedonia Baptist Church, an important meeting place for the abolitionist movement, Buffalo was a terminus point of the Underground Railroad with many fugitive slaves crossing the Niagara River to Fort Erie, Ontario in search of freedom. During the 1840s, Buffalos port continued to develop, both passenger and commercial traffic expanded with some 93,000 passengers heading west from the port of Buffalo. Grain and commercial goods shipments led to repeated expansion of the harbor, in 1843, the worlds first steam-powered grain elevator was constructed by local merchant Joseph Dart and engineer Robert Dunbar. Darts Elevator enabled faster unloading of lake freighters along with the transshipment of grain in bulk from barges, canal boats, by 1850, the citys population was 81,000. At the dawn of the 20th century, local mills were among the first to benefit from hydroelectric power generated by the Niagara River, the city got the nickname City of Light at this time due to the widespread electric lighting. It was also part of the revolution, hosting the brass era car builders Pierce Arrow. President William McKinley was shot and mortally wounded by an anarchist at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo on September 6,1901, McKinley died in the city eight days later and Theodore Roosevelt was sworn in at the Wilcox Mansion as the 26th President of the United States. The Great Depression of 1929–39 saw severe unemployment, especially working class men
4.
Paddle steamer
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A paddle steamer is a steamship or riverboat powered by a steam engine that drives paddle wheels to propel the craft through the water. In antiquity, paddle wheelers followed the development of poles, oars and sails, modern paddle wheelers may be powered by diesel engines. The paddle wheel is a steel framework wheel. The outer edge of the wheel is fitted with numerous, regularly-spaced paddle blades, the bottom quarter or so of the wheel travels underwater. An engine rotates the wheel in the water to produce thrust. More advanced paddle wheel designs feature feathering methods that keep each paddle blade closer to vertical while in the water to increase efficiency, the upper part of a paddle wheel is normally enclosed in a paddlebox to minimise splashing. There are two ways to mount paddle wheels on a ship, either a single wheel on the rear, known as a sternwheeler, or a paddle wheel on each side. Both sternwheelers and sidewheelers were used as riverboats in the United States, some still operate for tourists, for example on the Mississippi River. Sidewheelers are used as riverboats and as coastal craft and this extra maneuverability makes sidewheelers popular on the narrower, winding rivers of the Murray-Darling system in Australia, where a number still operate. European sidewheelers, such as the PS Waverley, connect the wheels with solid drive shafts that limit maneuverability, some were built with paddle clutches that disengage one or both paddles so they can turn independently. However, wisdom gained from experience with sidewheelers deemed that they be operated with clutches out. Crews noticed that as ships approached the dock, passengers moved to the side of the ready to disembark. The shift in weight, added to independent movements of the paddles, could lead to imbalance, in a simple paddle wheel, where the paddles are fixed around the periphery, power is lost due to churning of the water as the paddles enter and leave the water surface. Ideally, the paddles should remain vertical while under water and this ideal can be approximated by use of levers and linkages connected to a fixed eccentric. The eccentric is fixed slightly forward of the wheel centre. It is coupled to each paddle via a rod and lever, the geometry is designed such that the paddles are kept almost vertical for the short duration that they are in the water. One of the drawings of the Anonymous Author of the Hussite Wars shows a boat with a pair of paddle-wheels at each end turned by men operating compound cranks. In 1704, the French physicist Denis Papin constructed the first ship powered by his steam engine and this made him the first to construct a steam-powered boat
5.
Steamship
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A steamship, often referred to as a steamer, is a vessel, typically ocean-faring and seaworthy, that is propelled by one or more steam engines that typically drive propellers or paddlewheels. The first steamships came into usage during the early 1800s, however. Steamships usually use the designations of PS for paddle steamer or SS for screw steamer. As paddle steamers became less common, SS is assumed by many to stand for steam ship, Ships powered by internal combustion engines use a prefix such as MV for motor vessel, so it is not correct to use SS for most modern vessels. The steamship was preceded by smaller vessels designed for insular transportation, once the technology of steam was mastered at this level, steam engines were mounted on larger, and eventually, ocean-going vessels. Becoming reliable, and propelled by screw rather than paddlewheels, the changed the design of ships for faster. Paddlewheels as the main motive source became standard on these early vessels and it was an effective means of propulsion under ideal conditions but otherwise had serious drawbacks. Within a few decades of the development of the river and canal steamboat, the first sea-going steamboat was Richard Wrights first steamboat Experiment, an ex-French lugger, she steamed from Leeds to Yarmouth in July 1813. She carried passengers and freight to Paris in 1822 at an speed of 8 knots. The American ship SS Savannah first crossed the Atlantic Ocean, another claimant is the Canadian ship SS Royal William in 1833. The SS Archimedes, built in Britain in 1839 by Francis Pettit Smith, was the worlds first steamship to be driven by a screw propeller. It had considerable influence on development, encouraging the adoption of screw propulsion by the Royal Navy. The key innovation that made ocean-going steamers viable was the change from the paddle-wheel to the screw-propeller as the mechanism of propulsion and these steamships quickly became more popular, because the propellers efficiency was consistent regardless of the depth at which it operated. Being smaller in size and mass and being submerged, it was also far less prone to damage. The development of screw propulsion relied on the technological innovations. Steam engines had to be designed with the power delivered at the bottom of the machinery, a paddle steamers engines drive a shaft that is positioned above the waterline, with the cylinders positioned below the shaft. SS Great Britain used chain drive to power from a paddlers engine to the propeller shaft - the result of a late design change to propeller propulsion. An effective stern tube and associated bearings were required, the stern tube contains the propeller shaft where it passes through the hull structure
6.
Lake Michigan
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Lake Michigan is one of the five Great Lakes of North America and the only one located entirely within the United States. The other four Great Lakes are shared by the U. S. and it is the second-largest of the Great Lakes by volume and the third-largest by surface area, after Lake Superior and Lake Huron. Lake Michigan is shared, from west to east, by the U. S. states of Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, ports along its shores include Chicago, Milwaukee, Green Bay, Wisconsin, Gary, Indiana, and Benton Harbor, Michigan. The word Michigan originally referred to the lake itself, and is believed to come from the Ojibwa word mishigami meaning great water, some of the earliest human inhabitants of the Lake Michigan region were the Hopewell Indians. Their culture declined after 800 AD, and for the few hundred years. The French explorer Jean Nicolet is believed to have been the first European to reach Lake Michigan, in the earliest European maps of the region, the name of Lake Illinois has been found in addition to that of Michigan, named for the Illinois Confederation of tribes. Lake Michigan is joined via the narrow, open-water Straits of Mackinac with Lake Huron, the Straits of Mackinac were an important Native American and fur trade route. The eastern end of the Straits was controlled by Fort Mackinac on Mackinac Island, French coureurs des bois and voyageurs established small ports and trading communities, such as Green Bay, on the lake during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. In the 19th century, Lake Michigan played a role in the development of Chicago. The first person to reach the bottom of Lake Michigan was J. Val Klump. Klump reached the bottom via submersible as part of a 1985 research expedition, in 2007, a row of stones paralleling an ancient shoreline was discovered by Mark Holley, professor of underwater archeology at Northwestern Michigan College. This formation lies 40 feet below the surface of the lake, One of the stones is said to have a carving resembling a mastodon. So far the formation has not been authenticated, Lake Michigan is the only one of the Great Lakes wholly within the borders of the United States, the others are shared with Canada. It lies in the known as the American Midwest. Lake Michigan has an area of 22,404 sq. mi, making it the largest lake entirely within one country by surface area. It is the half of Lake Michigan–Huron, which is the largest body of fresh water in the world. It is 307 miles long by 118 miles wide with a shoreline 1,640 miles long, the lakes average depth is 46 fathoms 3 feet, while its greatest depth is 153 fathoms 5 feet. It contains a volume of 1,180 cubic miles of water, Green Bay in the northwest is its largest bay
7.
Highwood, Illinois
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Highwood is a city in Moraine Township, Lake County, Illinois, United States located between Chicago and Kenosha. The city is located just south of the Fort Sheridan Forest Preserve. Highwood is located at 42°12′19″N 87°48′44″W, one of the highest points between Chicago and Milwaukee, according to the 2010 census, Highwood has a total area of 0.71 square miles, all land. Originally, the land was owned by the Potawatomi until the 1833 when it was ceded to the United Stated through the Treaty of Chicago, the first non-native American settled in the town in 1846. Thomas Curley suggested the name High Woods because the land was the highest ground between Chicago and Milwaukee and was covered with trees, in 1886 civil and labor unrest in Chicago eventually led to the Haymarket Riot. Chicago businessmen felt that having a presence near the city would help alleviate tensions within the city. This land would come to host members of the Sixth Infantry Regiment, on February 27,1888 Camp Highwood was officially named Fort Sheridan in honor of General Philip Sheridan for his ability to maintain order after the Chicago Fire of 1871. Highwood provided several business and employment opportunities and following the fire, many of those who lost their home, Highwood can also give credit to much of their economic success to the Chicago and Milwaukee Electric Railway. However with increased transportation it also caused a rise in gambling dens. This eventually provoked federal authorities to enact the Highwood Quadrangle which prohibited the sale of liquor within 1 1/8th miles of the army base, however,8 years later in 1894 the name was changed back to Highwood due to resident frustration and confusion with postal misrouting. The National Prohibition of Liquor at the time also attracted boot-leggers who smuggled large scales of liquor into the city, the fight to prevent Highwood from being known as a whisky den largely brought the community together. During the Great Depression many residents came together to support the town and each other, following the start of World War II Fort Sheridan was used as an active training ground. By the end of the war Highwood had experienced another wave of immigration, since then Highwoods business have continued to flourish and the city has become the destination for North Shore dining and nightlife. The city frequently hosts festivals for residents known as Celebrate Highwood which is hosted by the city chambers, Highwood operates an aldermanic-city form of government. City Council meetings occur every first and third Tuesday of the month 6, Council meetings are also available for public view online via Youtube. The main highway to Highwood is US-41, which connects Chicago to Milwaukee, commuter rail is available at two different Metra stations locations within the city. The city is also approximately 25 miles from OHare International Airport and 29 miles from Midway International Airport, Highwood residents are served by the Township High School District 113 and the North Shore School District 112. Oak Terrace school, which is a part of the North Shore School District 112 school district services provides grades K - 5th, highland Park High School serves as secondary education to the residents of Highwood however, it is a part of the Township High School District 113
8.
Schooner
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A schooner /ˈskuːnər/ is a type of sailing vessel with fore-and-aft sails on two or more masts, the foremast being shorter than the main and no taller than the mizzen if there is one. While the schooner was originally gaff-rigged, modern schooners typically carry a Bermuda rig, such vessels were first used by the Dutch in the 16th or 17th century. They were further developed in North America from the early 18th century, the most common type, with two masts, were popular in trades requiring speed and windward ability, such as slaving, privateering, blockade running, and offshore fishing. In the Chesapeake Bay area several distinctive schooner types evolved, including the Baltimore clipper, bugeye, schooners were also popular among pirates in the West Indies during the Golden Age of Piracy, for their speed and agility. They could also sail in shallow waters, and while being smaller than other ships of the time period. Schooners first evolved in the late 17th century from a variety of small two-masted gaff-rigged vessels used in the coast, most were working craft but some pleasure yachts with schooner rigs were built for wealthy merchants and Dutch nobility. Following the arrival of the Dutch monarch William of Orange on the British throne and this vessel, captured in a detailed Admiralty model, is the earliest fully documented schooner. Royal Transport was quickly noted for its speed and ease of handling, North American shipbuilders quickly developed a variety of schooner forms for trading, fishing and privateering. According to the language scholar Walter William Skeat, the term comes from scoon. The Dutch word schoone means nice, good looking, robinson replied, A schooner let her be. The launch is variously described as being in 1713 or 1745, naval architects such as Howard Chapelle have dismissed this invention story as a childish fable, but some language scholars feel that the legend may support a Gloucester origin of the word. Other sources state the etymology as unknown and uncertain, the first detailed definition of a schooner, describing the vessel as two-masted vessel with fore and aft gaff-rigged sails appeared in 1769 in William Falconers, Universal Dictionary of the Marine. Although a schooner may have up to four masts, the schooner has only two, with the foremast shorter than the mainmast. There may be a bowsprit to help balance the rig, the principal issue with a schooner sail plan is how to fill the space between the two masts most effectively. Traditional schooners were rigged, and the trapezoid shape of the foresail occupied the inter-mast space to good effect, with a useful sail area. A Bermuda rigged schooner typically has four sails, a mainsail, a main staysail abaft the foremast, plus a forestaysail. An advantage of the schooner is that it is easily handled and reefed by a small crew. The main staysail will not overlap the mainsail, and so little to prepare the wind for the mainsail
9.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
10.
James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin
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James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin and 12th Earl of Kincardine KT GCB KSI PC was a British colonial administrator and diplomat. He served as Governor of Jamaica, Governor General of the Province of Canada, in 1857, he was appointed High Commissioner and Plenipotentiary in China and the Far East to assist in the process of opening up China and Japan to Western trade. Subsequently, he submitted the Qing Dynasty to the treaty of the Convention of Peking, adding Kowloon Peninsula to the British crown colony of Hong Kong. Lord Elgin was the son of the 7th Earl of Elgin and 11th Earl of Kincardine and he shared his birthday 20 July with his father. He had seven brothers and sisters and four half-sisters and one half-brother from his fathers first marriage, Lord Elgins father was reportedly impoverished by the purchase of the Elgin Marbles. His father had acquired them at great expense, but sold them to the British government for much less, James Bruce was educated at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford, graduated with a first in Classics in 1832. While at Oxford, he became friends with William Ewart Gladstone and he was elected at the 1841 general election as a Member of Parliament for Southampton, but the election was declared void on petition. He did not stand in the resulting by-election, James Bruce became Governor of Jamaica in 1842, and in 1847 was appointed Governor General of Canada. Under Lord Elgin, the first real attempts began at establishing responsible government in Canada, Lord Elgin became the first Governor General to distance himself from the affairs of the legislature. Since then, the Governor-General has had a symbolic role with regards to the political affairs of the country. As Governor-General, he wrestled with the costs of receiving high levels of immigration in the Canadas, in 1849 the Baldwin-Lafontaine government passed the Rebellion Losses Bill, compensating French Canadians for losses suffered during the Rebellions of 1837. Lord Elgin granted royal assent to the bill despite heated Tory opposition, the decision sparked the Burning of the Parliament Buildings in Montreal by an English-speaking mob. Instead of calling in the military, he withdrew his family to their country residence, the French-speaking minority in the Canadian legislature also unsuccessfully tried to have him removed from his post. In 1849, the Stony Monday Riot took place in Bytown on Monday 17 September, tories and Reformists clashed over the planned visit of Lord Elgin, one man was killed and many sustained injuries. Two days later, the two factions, armed with cannon, muskets and pistols faced off on the Sappers Bridge. Although the conflict was defused in time by the military, a support for the Crowns representative. In 1854, Lord Elgin negotiated the Reciprocity Treaty with the United States in an attempt to stimulate the Canadian economy, later that year, he granted royal assent to the law that abolished the seigneurial system in Quebec, and then resigned as Governor-General. In 1857, Lord Elgin was appointed High Commissioner and Plenipotentiary in China, during the Second Opium War, he led the bombardment of Canton and oversaw the end of the war by signing the Treaty of Tientsin on 26 June 1858
11.
Great Lakes
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Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth, containing 21% of the worlds surface fresh water by volume. The total surface is 94,250 square miles, and the volume is 5,439 cubic miles. Due to their sea-like characteristics the five Great Lakes have also long been referred to as inland seas, Lake Superior is the second largest lake in the world by area, and Lake Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely within one country. The southern half of the Great Lakes is bordered by the Great Lakes Megalopolis, the lakes have been a major highway for transportation, migration and trade, and they are home to a large number of aquatic species. Many invasive species have been introduced due to trade, and some threaten the regions biodiversity, though the five lakes reside in separate basins, they form a single, naturally interconnected body of fresh water, within the Great Lakes Basin. The lakes form a chain connecting the interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. From the interior to the outlet at the Saint Lawrence River, water flows from Superior to Huron and Michigan, southward to Erie, the lakes drain a large watershed via many rivers, and are studded with approximately 35,000 islands. There are also several smaller lakes, often called inland lakes. The surface area of the five primary lakes combined is roughly equal to the size of the United Kingdom, while the area of the entire basin is about the size of the UK. Lake Michigan is the one of the Great Lakes that is located entirely within the United States. The lakes are divided among the jurisdictions of the Canadian province of Ontario and the U. S. states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. Both Ontario and Michigan include in their boundaries portions of four of the lakes, Ontario does not border Lake Michigan, New York and Wisconsins jurisdictions extend into two lakes, and the remaining states into one of the lakes. This designation, however, is not universal and those living on the shore of Lake Superior often refer to all the other lakes as the lower lakes, because they are farther south. This corresponds to thinking of Lakes Erie and Ontario as down south, vessels sailing north on Lake Michigan are considered upbound even though they are sailing toward its effluent current. The Chicago River and Calumet River systems connect the Great Lakes Basin to the Mississippi River System through man-made alterations, the St. Marys River, including the Soo Locks, connects Lake Superior to Lake Huron. The Straits of Mackinac connect Lake Michigan to Lake Huron, the St. Clair River connects Lake Huron to Lake St. Clair. The Detroit River connects Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie, the Niagara River, including Niagara Falls, connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. The Welland Canal, bypassing the Falls, connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, the Saint Lawrence River connects Lake Ontario to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which connects to the Atlantic Ocean
12.
Steamboat
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A steamboat is a boat that is propelled primarily by steam power, typically driving propellers or paddlewheels. Steamboats sometimes use the prefix designation SS, S. S. or S/S or PS, the term steamboat is used to refer to smaller, insular, steam-powered boats working on lakes and rivers, particularly riverboats. As using steam became more reliable, steam power became applied to larger, Early attempts at powering a boat by steam were made by the French inventor Denis Papin and the English inventor Thomas Newcomen. Papin invented the steam digester and experimented with closed cylinders and pistons pushed in by atmospheric pressure, Papin proposed applying this steam pump to the operation of a paddlewheel boat and tried to market his idea in Britain. He was unable to convert the piston motion into rotary motion. Newcomens design did solve the first problem, but remained shackled to the inherent limitations of the engines of the time, a steamboat was described and patented by English physician John Allen in 1729. In 1736, Jonathan Hulls was granted a patent in England for a Newcomen engine-powered steamboat, William Henry of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, having learned of Watts engine on a visit to England, made his own engine. In 1763 he put it in a boat, the boat sank, and while Henry made an improved model, he did not appear to have much success, though he may have inspired others. At its first demonstration on 15 July 1783, Pyroscaphe travelled upstream on the river Saône for some fifteen minutes before the engine failed, presumably this was easily repaired as the boat is said to have made several such journeys. Following this, De Jouffroy attempted to get the government interested in his work, De Jouffroy did not have the funds for this, and, following the events of the French revolution, work on the project was discontinued after he left the country. Similar boats were made in 1785 by John Fitch in Philadelphia and William Symington in Dumfries and this boat could typically make 7 to 8 miles per hour and traveled more than 2,000 miles during its short length of service. The Fitch steamboat was not a success, as this travel route was adequately covered by relatively good wagon roads. The following year, a boat made 30-mile excursions, and in 1790. Miller sent King Gustav III of Sweden an actual version,100 feet long. Miller then engaged engineer William Symington to build his patent steam engine drove a stern-mounted paddle wheel in a boat in 1785. The boat was successfully tried out on Dalswinton Loch in 1788 and was followed by a steamboat the next year. The boat was built by Alexander Hart at Grangemouth to Symingtons design with a cylinder engine. Trials on the River Carron in June 1801 were successful and included towing sloops from the river Forth up the Carron and thence along the Forth, in 1801, Symington patented a horizontal steam engine directly linked to a crank
13.
Collingwood, Ontario
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Collingwood is a town in Simcoe County, Ontario, Canada. It is situated on Nottawasaga Bay at the point of Georgian Bay. The land in the area was inhabited by the Iroquoian Petun nation. They were driven from the region by the Iroquois in 1650, european settlers and freed Black slaves arrived in the area in the 1840s, bringing with them their religion and culture. The area originally had several other associated with it, including Hurontario, Nottawa. In 1855, the Ontario, Simcoe & Huron railway came into Collingwood, shipping produced a need for ship repairs, so it was not long before an organized ship building business was created. On May 24,1883, the Collingwood Shipyards, formerly known as Collingwood Dry Dock Shipbuilding, on September 12,1901, the Huronic was launched in Collingwood, the first steel-hulled ship launched in Canada. The shipyards produced Lakers and during World War II contributed to the production of Corvettes for the Royal Canadian Navy, Shipbuilding was one of the principal industries in the town, employing as much as 10% of the total labour force. Overseas competition and overcapacity in shipbuilding in Canada led to the demise of shipbuilding in Collingwood in September 1986, the creation of government incentive programs and a fully serviced industrial park made it possible for Collingwood to attract eleven new manufacturing firms to the town by 1971. Eight additional manufacturing companies had located in the town by 1983, today, Collingwoods industrial base, which includes Collingwood Ethanol L. P. Pilkington Glass of Canada, Goodall Rubber Company - Canada ULC, and VOAC Inc, Collingwood is also home to the distillery where Canadian Mist Whisky is produced. In June 2007, Collingwood Ethanol began production in the former Nacan facility, the company expected to produce 50 million litres of ethanol annually to satisfy regulatory requirements on ethanol content in gasoline mandated by the provincial and federal governments. Collingwood Ethanol also produces byproducts of the manufacturing process, including an organic corn gluten fertilizer. Before Collingwood Ethanol started production, however, Nacan also created a strong odour and this made many locals wonder why a housing development would be built across the road from an industrial part of town. In December 2012, Amaizeingly Green, filed for receivership of the plant, due to the higher cost of corn, the plant has not been in operation for some time. Blue Mountain itself is noted for skiing, and also for its Scenic Caves, the town is also a short distance from the popular Wasaga Beach Provincial Park, an attractive destination that received the title of Biosphere Reserve in 2004. Local media include the Collingwood Enterprise-Bulletin and Collingwood-Wasaga Connection community newspapers, the Barrie-based regional television station CKVR-TV maintains a bureau in Collingwood, and the Owen Sound-based Bayshore Broadcasting radio group also has an office in Collingwood. Collingwood is also known for its annual week-end Elvis Presley festival, the current mayor is Sandra Cooper
14.
Lake Superior
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Lake Superior is the largest of the Great Lakes of North America. The lake is shared by the Canadian province of Ontario to the north, the US state of Minnesota to the west and it is generally considered the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area. It is the worlds third-largest freshwater lake by volume and the largest by volume in North America, the Ojibwe call the lake gichi-gami, meaning be a great sea. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote the name as Gitche Gumee in The Song of Hiawatha, as did Gordon Lightfoot in his song, according to other sources the actual Ojibwe name is Ojibwe Gichigami or Anishinaabe Gichigami. The 1878 dictionary by Father Frederic Baraga, the first one written for the Ojibway language, the first French explorers approaching the great inland sea by way of the Ottawa River and Lake Huron during the 17th century referred to their discovery as le lac supérieur. Properly translated, the expression means Upper Lake, that is, the lake was also called Lac Tracy by 17th century Jesuit missionaries. Lake Superior empties into Lake Huron via the St. Marys River, Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world in area, and the third largest in volume, behind Lake Baikal in Siberia and Lake Tanganyika in East Africa. Lake Superior has an area of 31,700 square miles. It has a length of 350 statute miles and maximum breadth of 160 statute miles. Its average depth is 80.5 fathoms with a depth of 222.17 fathoms. Lake Superior contains 2,900 cubic miles of water, there is enough water in Lake Superior to cover the entire land mass of North and South America to a depth of 30 centimetres. The shoreline of the lake stretches 2,726 miles, while the temperature of the surface of Lake Superior varies seasonally, the temperature below 110 fathoms is an almost constant 39 °F. This variation in temperature makes the lake seasonally stratigraphic, twice per year, however, the water column reaches a uniform temperature of 39 °F from top to bottom, and the lake waters thoroughly mix. This feature makes the lake dimictic, because of its volume, Lake Superior has a retention time of 191 years. Annual storms on Lake Superior regularly feature wave heights of over 20 feet, waves well over 30 feet have been recorded. The lake is fed by over 200 rivers, the largest include the Nipigon River, the St. Louis River, the Pigeon River, the Pic River, the White River, the Michipicoten River, the Bois Brule River and the Kaministiquia River. Lake Superior drains into Lake Huron via the St. Marys River, there are rapids at the rivers upper end where the river bed has a relatively steep gradient. The Soo Locks were built to enable ships to bypass the rapids, the lakes average surface elevation is 600 feet above sea level
15.
Manitowoc, Wisconsin
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Manitowoc /ˈmænᵻtəwɔːk/ is a city in and the county seat of Manitowoc County, Wisconsin, United States. The city is located on Lake Michigan at the mouth of the Manitowoc River, according to the 2010 census, Manitowoc had a population of 33,736, with over 50,000 residents in the surrounding communities. The citys sister city is Kamogawa, Japan, purported to mean dwelling of the great spirit, Manitowoc derived its name from either the Anishinaabe language word manidoowaak, meaning spirit-spawn, or manidoowaak, meaning spirit-wood. In 1838, an act of the Territorial Legislature separated Manitowoc County from Brown County, in 1820, Matthew Stanley and his wife were the first to settle in the area. In 1835, President Andrew Jackson authorized land sales for the region, early immigrant groups included Germans, Norwegians, British, Irish, and Canadians. The first school in Manitowoc was held in the Jones warehouse, the first religious organization in the county, St. James Episcopal Church, first met in 1841. Manitowoc was chartered as a village on March 6,1851, in addition, landing craft, tankers and submarines became the local contributions to U. S. efforts in World War II. On September 5,1962, a 20-pound piece of the seven-ton Sputnik 4 crashed on North 8th Street, Sputnik 4 was a USSR satellite, part of the Sputnik program and a test-flight of the Vostok spacecraft that would be used for the first human spaceflight. It was launched on May 15,1960, a bug in the guidance system had pointed the capsule in the wrong direction, so instead of dropping into the atmosphere the satellite moved into a higher orbit. It re-entered the atmosphere on or about September 5,1962, a cast was made from the original piece before the Soviets claimed it, and the cast was displayed at the Rahr West Art Museum. A customer in an art gallery jokingly suggested that the city should hold a festival to celebrate the crash. The city held the first Sputnikfest in 2008, which was organized by the head of both museums. Manitowoc is home to the Wisconsin Maritime Museum, and is one endpoint of the route of the SS Badger. Since the late 1990s, several new shopping centers have opened in the city, mostly on the southwest side of the city along Interstate 43, the bulk of the redevelopment in the city has been undertaken by the public/private partnership the Manitowoc County Economic Development Corporation. President Obama visited Manitowoc on January 26,2011, the day after his first State of the Union speech and he spoke to workers at Orion Energy, a manufacturer of solar technology, and praised Manitowoc for reinventing itself after the departure of Mirro Aluminum Company in 2003. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 17.99 square miles. The city is located at 44°5′47″N 87°40′30″W, on Lake Michigan at the mouth of the Manitowoc River, the nearest other cities are Green Bay,40 miles away, Sheboygan 28 miles away, Appleton 47 miles away, and Milwaukee 80 miles away. Together with Two Rivers and the towns, the Manitowoc micropolitan area was, according to the 2000 census
16.
Copper Harbor, Michigan
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Copper Harbor is a small unincorporated community in northeastern Keweenaw County in the U. S. state of Michigan. It is within Grant Township on the Keweenaw Peninsula which juts out from the Upper Peninsula of Michigan into Lake Superior, the towns name alludes to the former use of its harbor as a port for shipping copper mined from local deposits during the mid-19th century. The Pittsburgh and Boston Mining Company, formed by John Hays of Cleveland, Ohio and it was a small development at first, but its mine was modern for its time, and the company struck it rich in 1845. A few years later, the Central and other mines opened, by 1870, the copper resources had been largely worked out. Mining activity no longer exists, and the harbor is mostly used for recreational purposes such as snowmobiling. The Copper Harbor Lighthouse is situated at the opening of the harbor, nearby is Fort Wilkins Historic State Park, a restored 1844 frontier army base originally built to protect the port in the early years of the copper mining boom. The town is the terminus of US41 and the eastern terminus of M-26. Both approaches to Copper Harbor, the shore-hugging M-26 from Eagle Harbor, also, one can follow Manganese Road from the towns center to Manganese Falls and the Estivant Pines, among the oldest and tallest remaining strands of virgin white pines in Michigan. Copper Harbor is at 47°28′08″N 87°53′18″W, this puts it further north than anywhere in the state of Maine, the ZIP code is 49918 and the FIPS place code is 18100. Copper Harbor has a continental climate
17.
Au Sable Light
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Au Sable Light is an active lighthouse in the Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore west of Grand Marais, Michigan off H-58. Until 1910, this aid to navigation was called Big Sable Light, the Au Sable Light Station was built in 1874 on Au Sable Point, a well known hazard on Lake Superiors shipwreck coast. The Au Sable Point reef is a ridge of sandstone that in places is only 6 feet below the surface. The Au Sable Point reef was known as a trap that ensnared many ships. The reef extends nearly a mile out as a ridge of sandstone a few feet below the surface, the shallow water caught many a vessel following the shore. Turbulence was common when the lake was pushed in by violent storms out of the north, thick fogs resulted form the mix of frigid lake air and warmth from the sand dunes. As early as 1622, French explorers called the region most dangerous when there is any storms, additionally, the location was chosen to eliminate a dark spot in the 80 miles stretch between Granite Island Light and Whitefish Point Light. The lighthouse tower and attached keepers quarters were designed by Colonel Orlando Metcalfe Poe, in this capacity he designed eight Poe style lighthouses and oversaw construction of several. The tower is a brick conical tower with a black lantern. A red brick house stands next to the lighthouse. It originally had a third-order Fresnel lens, which is now on display at the light station, the lighthouse was automated in 1958 and is currently equipped with a 12-inch solar-powered light. A wooden boathouse was added in 1875, the fog signal building was added in 1897, the quarters were converted to a duplex in 1909. There is also a second brick Keepers house, a storage shed. Most of these buildings are extant, only one outhouse remains standing. A visitor center is on the floor and an apartment for volunteer caretakers on the upper floor. However, it is an external 300 mm lens that is operative, the steam whistle and airhorn have been removed. Nevertheless, the boarded lantern area is an impressive sight, the lighthouse tower is open to the public in summer. The complex was maintained by the National Park Service, and the light continues to be operated by the United States Coast Guard
18.
Marquette, Michigan
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Marquette is a city in the U. S. state of Michigan and the county seat of Marquette County. The population was 21,355 at the 2010 census, making it the most populated city of the Upper Peninsula, Marquette is a major port on Lake Superior, known primarily for shipping iron ore, and is the home of Northern Michigan University. In 2012, Marquette was listed among the 10 best places to retire in the U. S. by CBS MoneyWatch, the land around Marquette was known to French missionaries of the early 17th century and the trappers of the early 19th century. Development of the area did not begin, however, until 1844, in 1845, Jackson Mining Company, the first organized mining company in the region, was formed. The village of Marquette began on September 14,1849, with the formation of a second iron concern, the village was at first called New Worcester, with Harlow as the first postmaster. On August 21,1850, the name was changed to honor Jacques Marquette, a second post office, named Carp River, was opened on October 13,1851 by Peter White, who had gone there with Graveraet at age 18. Harlow closed his post office in August 1852, the Marquette Iron Company failed, while its successor, the Cleveland Iron Mining Company, flourished and had the village platted in 1854. The plat was recorded by Peter White, whites office was renamed as Marquette in April 1856, and the village was incorporated in 1859. It was incorporated as a city in 1871, during the 1850s, Marquette was linked by rail to numerous mines and became the leading shipping center of the Upper Peninsula. The first ore pocket dock, designed by a town leader. By 1862, the city had a population of over 1,600, in the late 19th century, during the height of iron mining, Marquette became nationally known as a summer haven. Visitors brought in by Great Lakes passenger steamships filled the citys hotels, the base closed in September 1995, and is now the countys Sawyer International Airport. Marquette continues to be a port for hematite ores and, today, enriched iron ore pellets, from nearby mines. About 7.9 million gross tons of pelletized iron ore passed through Marquettes Presque Isle Harbor in 2005, the Roman Catholic Bishop Frederic Baraga is buried at St. Peters Cathedral, which is the center for the Diocese of Marquette. In addition to the Marquette #1 Post Office there is the Northern Michigan University Bookstore Contract Station #384. The first day of issue of a card showing Bishop Frederic Baraga took place in Marquette on June 29,1984. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 19.45 square miles. The city includes several islands in Lake Superior
19.
Crossbeam
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In architecture and in structural engineering, a joist is one of a series of horizontal members supporting a ceiling or floor. Joists are supported by foundations, wall framing, or beams, joists are often laid out in repetitive patterns, much like the ribs of a human body. The intent of the use of type of framing is to span over an open space below the members. When incorporated into a framing system, the joists also serve to provide stiffness to the subfloor sheathing, allowing it to function as a horizontal diaphragm. Joists are often doubled or tripled, placed side by side, joists are either made of wood, engineered wood, or steel, each of which have unique characteristics. Typically, wood joists have the section of a plank with the longer faces positioned vertically. However, engineered wood joists may have a cross resembling the Roman capital letter I. Steel joists can take on shapes, resembling the Roman capital letters C, I, L and S. For historical reference, look into the use of wood joists in old-style timber framing, the invention of the circular saw for use in modern sawmills has made it possible to fabricate wood joists as dimensional lumber. Joists must exhibit the strength to support the load over a long period of time. In more developed countries such as the United States, the fabrication and installation of all framing members including joists must meet building code standards. Considering the cross section of a typical joist, the depth of the joist is critical in establishing a safe. The wider the spacing between the joists, the deeper the joist will need to be to stress and deflection under load. Lateral support called dwang, blocking, or strutting increases its stability, many steel joist manufacturers supply load tables in order to allow designers to select the proper joist sizes for their projects. Standard dimensional lumber joists have their limitations due to the limits of what farmed lumber can provide, the term binding joist is sometimes used to describe beams at floor level running perpendicular to the ridge of a gable roof and joined to the intermediate posts. Joists which land on a binding joist are called bridging joists, a large beam in the ceiling of a room carrying joists is a summer beam. A ceiling joist may be installed flush with the bottom of the beam or sometimes below the beam, joists left exposed and visible from below are called naked flooring or articulated and were typically planed smooth and sometimes chamfered or beaded. Joists may also be tenoned in during the raising with a tenon or a tusk tenon
20.
Crankpin
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In a reciprocating engine, the crankpins, also known as crank journals are the journals of the big end bearings, at the ends of the connecting rods opposite to the pistons. If the engine has a crankshaft, then the crankpins are the journals of the bearings of the crankshaft. In a beam engine, the single crankpin is mounted on the flywheel, In a steam locomotive, big end bearings are commonly bushings or plain bearings, but less commonly may be roller bearings. In a multi-cylinder engine, a crankpin can serve one or many cylinders, for example, In a straight or flat engine, in a V engine, each crankpin usually serves two cylinders, one in each cylinder bank. In a radial engine, each serves a entire row of cylinders. There are three common configurations of big end bearing, If a crankpin serves only one cylinder, then the big end is a simple design. This design is the cheapest to produce, and is used in, If a crankpin serves more than one cylinder, then the corresponding cylinders may have an offset, to simplify the design of the big end bearing. This design is used in, Most V engines, If more than one cylinder is served by a single crankpin but there is no offset, then some or all of the connecting rods must be forked at the big end. Any extra weight added to the big end itself also carries a penalty of adding vibration, as the number of cylinders grows, the effect of the offset on balance becomes less important, and forked connecting rods become less common. They are mainly used in, Single-row radial engines, some V-twin engines, notably including motorcycle engines. Connecting rod Crankshaft Crankshaft deep rolling
21.
Point Iroquois Light
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Point Iroquois Light is a lighthouse on a Chippewa County bluff in the U. S. state of Michigan. Point Iroquois and its mark the division line between Whitefish Bay and the western end of the St. Marys River, the connection between Lake Superior and other Great Lakes. Point Iroquois includes a geographic area than the light station site. It was named for the Iroquois warriors massacred there by the Ojibwe in 1662, native Algonkians called the point Nadouenigoning, composed of the words Nadone and Akron. In 1620, French explorers Étienne Brûlé and Grenoble became the first recorded white men to the area, from that time, Point Iroquois became a familiar landmark for French explorers, fur traders and missionaries who followed. Marie was the first white settlement in what known as Michigan. In 1853 Congress, which had approved the construction of the first Soo Locks on the St. Marys River, appropriated $5,000 for the construction of what would be the first lighthouse at Point Iroquois. In 1855-1856 the United States Lighthouse Board implemented this appropriation and built a wood and rubble stone lighthouse at the Point, the first Point Iroquois light was a 45-foot-tall rubble stone tower with a wooden lantern deck, outfitted with a flashing white fourth order Fresnel lens. Being built on the Points highest ground, this first light had a 63-foot focal plane, a dwelling for a full-time lightkeeper was included as part of the complex. The St. Martin Reef Light is a twin of this first light station, furthermore, following the American Civil War, the United States Lighthouse Board had entered a lighthouse building boom on the Great Lakes. In 1870, after the first lighthouse and keepers quarters building were torn down, the second and current Point Iroquois Light was constructed, this time at an estimated cost of $18,000. The present Cape Cod style white brick lighthouse was built and ran continuously for 93 years, guiding ships in and it has a 65-foot tower height, and a focal plane that is variously reported as 68 or 72 feet. The new Light and keepers quarters became visual focuses of the shoreline lumber community of Brimley, in 1885, a bell tower was erected, which incorporated a Stevens automatic bell striking machine. In 1890, the tower was torn down, and a fog signal building was built with steam whistles installed. In 1926 they were replaced by Type F diaphone fog horns, in 1905, a two-floor extension was added to the 1871 building, providing living space for another assistant keeper, bringing the staff to three Lighthouse keepers. At peak operation, the station was manned by a Head Keeper, the children of the keepers and local fisherman were enough to populate a local school on the grounds for a period. Other buildings on the included, an assistant keepers quarters, fog signal building. The station was deactivated in 1962, replaced by the Canadian operated Gros Cap Reefs Light, in 1993 the light quarters and light were completely renovated
22.
Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper
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Frank Leslies Illustrated Newspaper, later renamed Leslies Weekly, was an American illustrated literary and news magazine founded in 1852 and published until 1922. It was one of several magazines started by publisher and illustrator Frank Leslie, the Illustrated Newspaper was founded in 1852. John Y. Foster was the first editor of the weekly, there were 30 copies of the first edition printed. By 1897, its circulation had grown to an estimated 65,000 copies, after Leslies death in 1880, the magazine was continued by his widow, the womens suffrage campaigner Miriam Florence Leslie. The name, by then a well-established trademark, remained also after 1902 and it often took a strongly patriotic stance and frequently featured cover pictures of soldiers and heroic battle stories. It also gave extensive coverage to less martial events such as the Klondike gold rush of 1897, among the writers publishing their stories in the weekly were Louisa May Alcott, H. Irving Hancock, Helen R. Martin, Eleanor Franklin Egan, and Ellis Parker Butler. Several notable illustrators worked for the publication, including Albert Berghaus and Norman Rockwell, who created covers for the magazine in its latter years, and Fernando Mirando y Casellas. Surviving copies of the magazine at present fetch handsome prices as collectors items and are considered to give a picture of American life during the decades of its publication
23.
Milwaukee
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Milwaukee is the largest city in the state of Wisconsin and the fifth-largest city in the Midwestern United States. The county seat of Milwaukee County, it is on Lake Michigans western shore, Milwaukees estimated population in 2015 was 600,155. Milwaukee is the cultural and economic center of the Milwaukee–Racine–Waukesha Metropolitan Area with an estimated population of 2,046,692 as of 2015. Ranked by estimated 2014 population, Milwaukee is the 31st largest city in the United States, the first Europeans to pass through the area were French Catholic missionaries and fur traders. In 1818, the French Canadian explorer Solomon Juneau settled in the area, large numbers of German immigrants helped increase the citys population during the 1840s, with Poles and other immigrants arriving in the following decades. Known for its traditions, Milwaukee is currently experiencing its largest construction boom since the 1960s. In addition, many new skyscrapers, condos, lofts and apartments have been built in neighborhoods on and near the lakefront, the word Milwaukee may come from the Potawatomi language minwaking, or Ojibwe language ominowakiing, Gathering place. The first recorded inhabitants of the Milwaukee area are the Menominee, Fox, Mascouten, Sauk, Potawatomi, Ojibwe, many of these people had lived around Green Bay before migrating to the Milwaukee area around the time of European contact. In the second half of the 18th century, the Indians at Milwaukee played a role in all the wars on the American continent. During the French and Indian War, a group of Ojibwas, in the American Revolutionary War, the Indians around Milwaukee were some of the few Indians who remained loyal to the American cause throughout the Revolution. After American independence, the Indians fought the United States in the Northwest Indian War as part of the Council of Three Fires, during the War of 1812, Indians held a council in Milwaukee in June 1812, which resulted in their decision to attack Chicago. This resulted in the Battle of Fort Dearborn on August 15,1812, the War of 1812 did not end well for the Indians, and after the Black Hawk War in 1832, the Indians in Milwaukee signed their final treaty with the United States in Chicago in 1833. This paved the way for American settlement, Europeans had arrived in the Milwaukee area prior to the 1833 Treaty of Chicago. French missionaries and traders first passed through the area in the late 17th and 18th centuries, alexis Laframboise, in 1785, coming from Michilimackinac settled a trading post, therefore, he is the first European descent resident of the Milwaukee region. Early explorers called the Milwaukee River and surrounding lands various names, Melleorki, Milwacky, Mahn-a-waukie, Milwarck, for many years, printed records gave the name as Milwaukie. One story of Milwaukees name says, ne day during the thirties of the last century a newspaper calmly changed the name to Milwaukee, the spelling Milwaukie lives on in Milwaukie, Oregon, named after the Wisconsin city in 1847, before the current spelling was universally accepted. Milwaukee has three founding fathers, Solomon Juneau, Byron Kilbourn, and George H. Walker, Solomon Juneau was the first of the three to come to the area, in 1818. He was not the first European settler but founded a town called Juneaus Side, or Juneautown, in competition with Juneau, Byron Kilbourn established Kilbourntown west of the Milwaukee River and made sure the streets running toward the river did not join with those on the east side
24.
Wisconsin
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Wisconsin is a U. S. state located in the north-central United States, in the Midwest and Great Lakes regions. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, Wisconsin is the 23rd largest state by total area and the 20th most populous. The state capital is Madison, and its largest city is Milwaukee, the state is divided into 72 counties. Wisconsin is second to Michigan in the length of its Great Lakes coastline, Wisconsin is known as Americas Dairyland because it is one of the nations leading dairy producers, particularly famous for its cheese. Manufacturing, especially paper products, information technology, and tourism are major contributors to the states economy. The word Wisconsin originates from the given to the Wisconsin River by one of the Algonquian-speaking Native American groups living in the region at the time of European contact. French explorer Jacques Marquette was the first European to reach the Wisconsin River, arriving in 1673, subsequent French writers changed the spelling from Meskousing to Ouisconsin, and over time this became the name for both the Wisconsin River and the surrounding lands. English speakers anglicized the spelling from Ouisconsin to Wisconsin when they began to arrive in numbers during the early 19th century. The legislature of Wisconsin Territory made the current spelling official in 1845, the Algonquin word for Wisconsin and its original meaning have both grown obscure. Interpretations vary, but most implicate the river and the red sandstone that lines its banks, other theories include claims that the name originated from one of a variety of Ojibwa words meaning red stone place, where the waters gather, or great rock. Wisconsin has been home to a variety of cultures over the past 12,000 years. The first people arrived around 10,000 BCE during the Wisconsin Glaciation and these early inhabitants, called Paleo-Indians, hunted now-extinct ice age animals such as the Boaz mastodon, a prehistoric mastodon skeleton unearthed along with spear points in southwest Wisconsin. After the ice age ended around 8000 BCE, people in the subsequent Archaic period lived by hunting, fishing, agricultural societies emerged gradually over the Woodland period between 1000 BCE to 1000 CE. Toward the end of period, Wisconsin was the heartland of the Effigy Mound culture. Later, between 1000 and 1500 CE, the Mississippian and Oneota cultures built substantial settlements including the village at Aztalan in southeast Wisconsin. The Oneota may be the ancestors of the modern Ioway and Ho-Chunk tribes who shared the Wisconsin region with the Menominee at the time of European contact, the first European to visit what became Wisconsin was probably the French explorer Jean Nicolet. He canoed west from Georgian Bay through the Great Lakes in 1634, pierre Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers visited Green Bay again in 1654–1666 and Chequamegon Bay in 1659–1660, where they traded for fur with local Native Americans. In 1673, Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet became the first to record a journey on the Fox-Wisconsin Waterway all the way to the Mississippi River near Prairie du Chien
25.
Stephen A. Douglas
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Stephen Arnold Douglas was an American politician from Illinois and the designer of the Kansas–Nebraska Act. He was a U. S. representative, a U. S. senator, Douglas had previously defeated Lincoln in a Senate contest, noted for the famous Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858. He was nicknamed the Little Giant because he was short in physical stature, Douglas was well known as a resourceful party leader, and an adroit, ready, skillful tactician in debate and passage of legislation. He was a champion of the Young America movement which sought to modernize politics and replace the agrarian, as chairman of the Committee on Territories, Douglas dominated the Senate in the 1850s. Opposition to this led to the formation of the Republican Party, Douglas initially endorsed the Dred Scott decision of 1857. But during the 1858 Senate campaign, he argued its effect could be negated by popular sovereignty and he also opposed the efforts of President James Buchanan and his Southern allies to enact a Federal slave code and impose the Lecompton Constitution on Kansas. In 1860, the conflict over slavery led to the split in the Democratic Party in the 1860 Convention, hardline pro-slavery Southerners rejected Douglas, and nominated their own candidate, Vice President John C. Breckinridge, while the Northern Democrats nominated Douglas, Douglas deeply believed in democracy, arguing the will of the people should always be decisive. When civil war came in April 1861, he rallied his supporters to the Union cause with all his energies and he was born Stephen Arnold Douglass in Brandon, Vermont, to Stephen Arnold Douglass and Sarah Fisk. Douglas dropped the s from his name some years later. His father, a physician and Middlebury College graduate, died suddenly when Stephen was just a few months old and he grew up with his mother and was educated in the local schools. As a teenager, he was apprenticed to a cabinetmaker in Middlebury and his mother remarried in 1830 and moved to western New York. Although he wished to attend Middlebury College like his father, his family couldnt support his continued formal education, instead, he began to teach school while studying law with Walter and Levi Hubbell. While studying law he became friendly with Henry B, payne, a law student in another attorneys office. Payne later became a prominent businessman and politician in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1833 Douglas migrated first to Cleveland, and then to Winchester, Illinois, where he served as an itinerant teacher and opened a school for three months at three dollars a pupil. He then settled in Jacksonville, Illinois, where he was admitted to the bar, Douglas became a member of the Masonic fraternity in Springfield Lodge No.4 in Springfield, Illinois in 1839. He was a member of several Masonic organizations in Springfield, in March 1847 he married Martha Martin, the 21-year-old daughter of wealthy Colonel Robert Martin of North Carolina. The year after their marriage, her father died and bequeathed Martha a 2, 500-acre cotton plantation with 100 slaves on the Pearl River in Lawrence County, Mississippi
26.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
27.
Beaufort scale
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The Beaufort scale /ˈboʊfərt/ is an empirical measure that relates wind speed to observed conditions at sea or on land. Its full name is the Beaufort wind force scale, the scale was devised in 1805 by Irish-born Francis Beaufort, a Royal Navy officer, while serving on HMS Woolwich. Beaufort succeeded in standardizing the scale, in 1916, to accommodate the growth of steam power, the descriptions were changed to how the sea, not the sails, behaved and extended to land observations. Rotations to scale numbers were standardized only in 1923, director of the UK Meteorological Office, was responsible for this and for the addition of the land-based descriptors. The measure was slightly altered some decades later to improve its utility for meteorologists, the Beaufort scale was extended in 1946, when forces 13 to 17 were added. However, forces 13 to 17 were intended to only to special cases. Nowadays, the scale is only used in Taiwan and mainland China. Internationally, WMO Manual on Marine Meteorological Services defined the Beaufort Scale only up to Force 12 and there was no recommendation on the use of the extended scale. Wind speed on the 1946 Beaufort scale is based on the relationship, v =0.836 B3/2 m/s Where v is the equivalent wind speed at 10 metres above the sea surface. For example, B =9.5 is related to 24.5 m/s which is equal to the limit of 10 Beaufort. Using this formula the highest winds in hurricanes would be 23 in the scale, however, the extended Beaufort numbers above 13 do not match the Saffir–Simpson Scale. Wave heights in the scale are for conditions in the open ocean, the wind speeds in different units are not mathematically equivalent, e. g. 12–19 km/h is not equivalent to 8–12 mph, and both are not equivalent to 7–10 knots. The reason is that the Beaufort scale is not an exact nor an objective scale and it was based on visual and subjective observation of a ship and of the sea. The corresponding integral wind speeds were determined later, but the values in different units were never made equivalent. The scale is used in the Shipping Forecasts broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in the United Kingdom, and in the Sea Area Forecast from Met Éireann, Met Éireann issues a Small Craft Warning if winds of Beaufort force 6 are expected up to 10 nautical miles offshore. This scale is widely used in the Netherlands, Germany, Greece, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malta and Macau. Taiwan uses the Beaufort scale with the extension to 17 noted above, China also switched to this extended version without prior notice on the morning of 15 May 2006, and the extended scale was immediately put to use for Typhoon Chanchu. Hong Kong and Macau however keep using force 12 as the maximum, a set of red warning flags and red warning lights is displayed at shore establishments which coincide with the various levels of warning
28.
Port
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A port is a location on a coast or shore containing one or more harbors where ships can dock and transfer people or cargo to or from land. Port locations are selected to optimize access to land and navigable water, for commercial demand, Ports with deeper water are rarer, but can handle larger ships. Since ports throughout history handled every kind of traffic, support and storage facilities vary widely, may extend for miles, some ports have an important military role. One of the worlds oldest known artificial harbors is at Wadi al-Jarf on the Red Sea, along with the finding of harbor structures, ancient anchors have also been found. Guangzhou was an important port during the ancient times as far back as the Qin Dynasty, canopus was the principal port in Egypt for Greek trade before the foundation of Alexandria. Athens port of Piraeus was the base for the Athenian fleet, lothal is one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilisation, located in the Bhāl region of the modern state of Gujarāt and dating from 3700 BCE. Ostia Antica was the port of ancient Rome with Portus established by Claudius, Ports often have cargo-handling equipment, such as cranes and forklifts for use in loading ships, which may be provided by private interests or public bodies. Often, canneries or other processing facilities will be located nearby, some ports feature canals, which allow ships further movement inland. Access to intermodal transportation, such as railroads and highways, is critical to a port, so that passengers, Ports with international traffic have customs facilities. Harbor pilots and tugboats may maneuver large ships in tight quarters when near docks, the terms port and seaport are used for different types of port facilities that handle ocean-going vessels, and river port is used for river traffic, such as barges and other shallow-draft vessels. An inland port is a port on a lake, river, or canal with access to a sea or ocean. An example of this is the St. Lawrence Seaway which allows ships to travel from the Atlantic Ocean several thousand kilometers inland to Great Lakes ports like Duluth-Superior, a fishing port is a port or harbor for landing and distributing fish. It may be a facility, but it is usually commercial. A fishing port is the port that depends on an ocean product. In recent decades, regulations to save fishing stock may limit the use of a fishing port, a dry port is an inland intermodal terminal directly connected by road or rail to a seaport and operating as a centre for the transshipment of sea cargo to inland destinations. A warm-water port is one where the water does not freeze in wintertime, because they are available year-round, warm-water ports can be of great geopolitical or economic interest. A seaport is further categorized as a port or a cargo port. Additionally, cruise ports are known as a home port or a port of call
29.
Chief steward
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A chief steward is the senior crew member working in the stewards department of a ship. Since there is no purser on most ships in the United States Merchant Marine, in the British Merchant Navy, a steward is a junior member of the department, and so the term chief steward is always used for the senior member. The chief steward directs, instructs, and assigns personnel performing such functions as preparing and serving meals, moreover, the steward oversees cleaning and maintaining officers quarters and steward department areas, and receiving, issuing, and inventorying stores. The chief steward also plans menus, compiles supply, overtime, the steward may also requisition or purchase stores and equipment. Other duties may include baking bread, rolls, croissants, cakes, pies, cookies, a chief stewards duties may overlap with those of the Stewards Assistant, the Chief Cook, and other Stewards Department crew members. In the United States Merchant Marine, in order to be occupied as a chief steward a person has to have a Merchant Mariners Document issued by the United States Coast Guard. Because of international conventions and agreements, all chief cooks who sail internationally are similarly documented by their respective countries, Chief stewards on large passenger vessels can be considered to be officers. Seafarers professions and ranks Galley Service Contract Act Directory of Occupations,47340 CHIEF COOK/STEWARD, archived from the original on July 28,2005. United States Coast Guard Merchant Mariner Licensing and Documentation web site
30.
Lifeboat (shipboard)
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A lifeboat is a small, rigid or inflatable boat carried for emergency evacuation in the event of a disaster aboard a ship. Lifeboat drills are required by law on larger commercial ships, in the military, a lifeboat may double as a whaleboat, dinghy, or gig. The ships tenders of cruise ships often double as lifeboats, recreational sailors usually carry inflatable life rafts, though a few prefer small proactive lifeboats that are harder to sink and can be sailed to safety. Inflatable lifeboats may be equipped with auto-inflation canisters or mechanical pumps, a quick release and pressure release mechanism is fitted on ships so that the canister or pump automatically inflates the lifeboat, and the lifeboat breaks free of the sinking vessel. Commercial aircraft are required to carry auto-inflating life rafts in case of an emergency water landing. Ship-launched lifeboats are lowered from davits on a deck, and are hard to sink in normal circumstances. The cover serves as protection from sun, wind and rain, can be used to collect rainwater, lifeboats have oars, flares and mirrors for signaling, first aid supplies, and food and water for several days. Modern lifeboats carry an Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon and either a radar reflector or Search, during the Age of Sail, the ships boats were often also used as lifeboats in case of emergency. In March 1870, answering a question at the House of Commons of the United Kingdom about the sinking of PS Normandy and they would encumber the decks, and rather add to the danger than detract from it. It was not until after the sinking of the RMS Titanic on April 15,1912, the Titanic′s boats had a capacity of 1,178 people on a ship capable of carrying 3,330 people. This was resolved by the use of collapsible lifeboats, a number of which had been carried on the Titanic. The US Navy asked various groups and manufacturers to suggest solutions, the result was the first enclosed, unsinkable, self-righting lifeboat, manufactured in Delanco, New Jersey, USA, the first units were delivered in 1944. These radically new lifeboats were 24 feet in length and weighed 5,000 lbs and they had two enclosed cabins at each end which could hold a total of 25 persons. The space in between was designed to help persons in the water be pulled aboard, and could be enclosed with a canvas top, the new type lifeboat could be driven either by a small motor or sail. Also, in 1943 the US developed a balsa wood liferaft that would not sink and these balsa liferafts were designed to hold five to ten men on a platform suspended on the inside or fifteen to twenty-five hanging lines placed on the outsides. They were inexpensive, and during the war thousands were stored in any space possible on US warships and these liferafts were intended only for use during a short term before lifeboats or another ship in the convoy or group could bring them aboard. Today, enclosed lifeboats are the preferred lifeboats fitted on modern merchant ships because of their protection against the elements. Generally each merchant ship has one fitted on the port side and one on the starboard side
31.
Port and starboard
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Port and starboard are nautical and aeronautical terms for left and right, respectively. Port is the side of a vessel or aircraft, facing forward. Starboard is the side, facing forward. Since port and starboard never change, they are references that are not relative to the observer. These terms are also being used as aeronautic terms, the term starboard derives from the Old English steorbord, meaning the side on which the ship is steered. Before ships had rudders on their centrelines, they were steered with an oar at the stern of the ship and, because more people are right-handed. The term is cognate with the Old Norse stýri and borð, since the steering oar was on the right side of the boat, it would tie up at wharf on the other side. Hence the left side was called port, formerly, larboard was used instead of port. This is from Middle-English ladebord and the lade is related to the modern load. Larboard sounds similar to starboard and in 1844 the Royal Navy ordered that port be used instead, the United States Navy followed suit in 1846. Larboard continued to be used well into the 1850s by whalers, in Old English the word was bæcbord, of which cognates are used in other European languages, for example as the present Dutch bakboord, the German backbord and the French term bâbord. Aircraft are lit in the same way
32.
Bow (ship)
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The bow /ˈbaʊ/ is the forward part of the hull of a ship or boat, the point that is usually most forward when the vessel is underway. Both of the fore and forward mean towards the bow. The other end of the boat is the stern, from Middle Dutch boech or Old Norse bógr. The bow is designed to reduce the resistance of the cutting through water. On slower ships like tankers, a bow shape is used to maximise the volume of the ship for a given length. A wet bow results from seawater washing over the top of the hull, a raked stem can help to reduce the wetness of the bow. Aside from making the deck slippery, water can corrode the metal of the ship, if the temperature is low enough this water can also freeze on the deck, rails, turrets, and other exposed surfaces, increasing the topside weight. The bow may be reinforced to serve as an ice-breaker, one example being the bow of container-ship Sea Witch whose reinforcement assisted its destruction of another ship in a 1973 collision, the forward part of the bow, usually on the ships centreline, is called the stem. Traditionally, the stem was a timber or metal bar into which side planks or plates were joined. ISBN 0-7566-0944-5 Steward, Robert, Boatbuilding Manual, 3rd ed. International Marine Publishing Company
33.
Personal flotation device
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A personal flotation device is a piece of equipment designed to assist a wearer to keep afloat in water. The wearer may be conscious or unconscious. PFDs are available in different sizes to accommodate variations in body weight, designs differ depending on wearing convenience and level of protection. The most ancient examples of life jackets can be traced back to inflated bladders of animal skins or hollow, sealed gourds, for support when crossing deep streams. Purpose-designed buoyant safety devices consisting of blocks of wood or cork were used by Norwegian seamen. In 1804 a cork life jacket was available for sale, the Sporting Magazine October,1804, Vol. XXV, No.147, Page 129. It was not until lifesaving services were formed that the safety of boat crews heading out in pulling boats in generally horrific sea conditions was addressed. In 1900, French electrical engineer, Gustave Trouvé, patented a battery-powered wearable lifejacket and it incorporated small, rubber-insulated maritime electric batteries not only to inflate the jacket, but also to power a light to transmit and receive SOS messages and to launch a distress flare. The rigid cork material eventually came to be supplanted by pouches containing watertight cells filled with kapok and these soft cells were much more flexible and comfortable to wear compared with devices utilizing hard cork pieces. Kapok buoyancy was used in many navies fighting in World War II, foam eventually supplanted kapok for inherently buoyant flotation. During World War II, research to improve the design of life jackets was also conducted in the UK by Edgar Pask OBE and his research involved self-administered anaesthesia as a means of simulating unconsciousness in freezing sea-water. Pasks work earned him the OBE and the description of The bravest man in the RAF never to have flown an aeroplane. The Mae West was a nickname for the first inflatable life preserver. The nickname originated because someone wearing the inflated life preserver often appeared to be as physically endowed as the actress Mae West. It was popular during the Second World War with U. S. Army Air Forces and Royal Air Force servicemen, Air crew members whose lives were saved by use of the Mae West were eligible for membership in the Goldfish Club. Devices designed and approved by authorities for use by civilians differ from those designed for use by passengers and crew of aircraft, the ballistic cloth keeps the fragments from the canister from becoming shrapnel injurious to the user. Or the cells can be inflated orally that is by blowing into a tube with a one-way valve to seal the air in the cell. Life jackets must also be supplied on commercial seafaring vessels, be accessible to all crew and passengers, flotation devices are also found in near water-edges and at swimming pools
34.
Bass drum
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A bass drum, or kick drum, is a large drum that produces a note of low definite or indefinite pitch. Bass drums are percussion instruments and vary in size and are used in musical genres. Three major types of bass drums can be distinguished, the type usually seen or heard in orchestral, ensemble or concert band music is the orchestral, or concert bass drum. It is the largest drum of the orchestra, the kick drum, a term for a bass drum associated with a drum kit. It is struck with an attached to a pedal, usually seen on drum kits. The pitched bass drum, generally used in marching bands and drum corps and this is tuned to a specific pitch and is usually played in a set of three to six drums. A bass drum is cylindrical with the drums diameter much greater than the drums depth. There is normally a head at both ends of the cylinder. The heads may be made of skin or plastic. There is normally a means of adjusting the tension either by threaded taps or by strings, Bass drums are built in a variety of sizes, but size has little to do with the volume produced by the drum. The size chosen being based on convenience and aesthetics, music Bass drums have many synonyms and translations, such as Gran Cassa, Grosse caisse, Grosse Trommel, and Bombo. Bass drums are too large to be held and are always mounted in some way. The usual ways of mounting a bass drum are, Using a shoulder harness so that the heads are vertical, on a floor stand as part of a drum kit. The heads are always vertical when mounted in this way, in this situation, the heads may be adjusted to any position between vertical and horizontal. It is possible for the drum to have a single cymbal mounted on it. Bass drums can have a variety of strikers depending on the music, when the drum is mounted vertically, the mallet above may be held in one hand and a rute held in the other. 2 matching bass drum mallets or a double headed mallet are used for playing drum rolls, when used as part of a drum kit, a variation of the mallet described above is mounted on a pedal and called a beater. The earliest known predecessor to the drum was the Turkish davul
35.
Tragedy (event)
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A tragedy is an event of great loss, usually of human life. Such an event is said to be tragic, traditionally the event would require some element of moral failure, some flaw in character, or some extraordinary combination of elements to be tragic. Not all death is considered a tragedy, rather it is a precise set of symptoms surrounding the loss that define it as such. There are a variety of factors that define a death as tragic, an event in which a massive number of deaths occur may be seen as a tragedy. This can be re-enforced by media attention or other public outcry, a tragedy does not necessarily involve massive death. The death of a person, e. g. a public figure or a child. The person need not necessarily have been famous before death, generally, the label of tragedy is given to an event based on public perception. There are a number of factors that can make a death be considered a tragedy, the scope of an event can affect the public view, and make it appear tragic. This can be the case whether the toll is high, or if a single. The degree of attachment in the eye may also impact whether or not the event is publicly labeled as a tragedy. A death may be viewed as a tragedy when it is premature in nature. While an old person who dies of old age is an expectation, publicity is a factor in making the public view an event as a tragedy. With publicity of a number of deaths or even a single death, this plays on the emotions of the general public. The range of coverage affects the number of people in whose eyes the event is viewed as tragic, while local coverage may garner sympathy from those in the hometown of the deceased, international coverage may lead the whole world to mourn. The resulting consequences from one or more deaths can be seen as a tragedy. For example, if a number of persons are killed in a terrorist attack, not only is life lost, but others may lose their sense of security. The long-term effects of an event can render it as tragic, tragedies often have effects that shape those affected, and are remembered even long after, as they clearly impact the future for those involved. They may also be commemorated on anniversaries or whenever they come to mind
36.
Historic Third Ward, Milwaukee
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The Historic Third Ward is a historic warehouse district located in downtown Milwaukee, Wisconsin. This Milwaukee neighborhood is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, today, the Third Ward is home to over 450 businesses and maintains a strong position within the retail and professional service community in Milwaukee as a showcase of a mixed-use district. The neighborhoods renaissance is anchored by many specialty shops, restaurants, art galleries and theatre groups, creative businesses and it is home to the Milwaukee Institute of Art and Design, and the Broadway Theatre Center. The Ward is adjacent to the Summerfest grounds, the district is bounded by the Milwaukee River to the west and south, E. St. Paul Ave to the north, and N. Jackson St. to the east. During the early years of Milwaukee, the Third Ward was a relatively flat, the land was drained, and soon houses populated the west side of the Ward, while along the east side of the Milwaukee River, factories and warehouses were built. Irish immigrants were the settlers of the area. The Ward became known as the Bloody Third, a reputation the area earned for its frequent fistfights, the first railroad linked Milwaukee to the Mississippi River in 1856, letting the wholesalers supply needed goods to the population of settlers in the West. The Irish settlers in the Third ward went through two major tragedies, on September 7,1860 the Lady Elgin steamship left Milwaukee carrying a large number of passengers from the Third Wards Irish community. Over 400 people are believed to have died when the ship sank and is the second greatest loss of life seen on the Great Lakes, a Wisconsin Historical Marker in the Third Ward commemorates the tragedy while a monument dedicated at Calvary Cemetery serves as a cenotaph. The second tragedy struck on October 28,1892, a fire started in the Water Street Union Oil & Paint Co. Strong winds of up to 50 mph helped to spread the fire to the Wards other buildings, in no time at all, the fire was out of control. Cities such as Chicago and Oshkosh helped Milwaukees fire department fight the flames by sending horse-drawn units by rail,440 buildings were destroyed and more than 1,900 people, mostly Irish families, were left without homes by the time the fire was finally under control at midnight. Prominent local architects stepped in to many of the commercial structures after the 1892 fire. Over the next 36 years construction continued, giving the buildings an interesting continuity that unifies the neighborhood because of relatively short time of development. Italian immigrants replaced the Irish, during period of reconstruction. The Italians were very prolific in the businesses, establishing Commission Row. By 1915,29 Italian saloons,45 Italian groceries, an Italian bank, grocery warehouses, liquor distributors dry goods businesses and manufacturers were the business that flourished during this time. Highway construction displaced the close-knit Italian Third Ward community in the 1960s, the trucking industry and suburb growth led to the decline of warehouse operations and industry
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Calvary Cemetery (Milwaukee)
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Calvary Cemetery is the oldest existing Roman Catholic cemetery in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Owned by the Archdiocese of Milwaukee, it is the resting place for many of the citys early influential figures. The cemetery was designated a Milwaukee Landmark in 1981, with 75 acres and approximately 80,000 interments, the Victorian landscape contains many ornate statues, crypts and monuments. It was filled with the remains of the 10-acre Old Cemetery, by 1880 Calvary had 10,307 recorded burials and an additional 20 acres were added. Both the Gothic Revival gate house and Romanesque Revival chapel were designed by architect Erhard Brielmaier, a service building was constructed sometime after 1890 in Queen Anne style using Cream City brick, a distinct light colored brick made locally. The building is still in use today, the wooden gate house with its triumphal arch and four-story tower was completed in 1897. It is the oldest building on the grounds and was repainted in 2002 when a new building was built to the west. Chapel Hill is one of the highest points in Milwaukee and it is used as a burial site for clergy and members of the various religious orders. Many of the citys early catholic churches such as the Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist, Old St. Marys, a large Calvary cross stood at the peak until it was replaced with the chapel. The chapel was built in 1899 using Cream City brick and decorated with stone trim, an arched portico with limestone columns and a rose window set the entrance while three hemispherical apses flank the other three sides. It is crowned by a tower with a peaked roof. Dedicated on All Souls Day in 1902, the chapel held mass on Memorial Day and All Souls Day until 1950, archbishop Henni donated 3 acres of land across Bluemound Road to the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin on September 9,1879 for a monastery and church. In exchange, they were to perform services at the cemetery when parish priests were unable to attend. The cornerstone for Holy Cross Church was placed on October 26,1879, the order blessed the cemetery on All Saints Day. On May 18,2006 a construction worker unearthed human remains in the area believed to be the location of the Old Cemetery near 22nd and Michigan streets. Thirteen burials have since been identified, and archaeologists are unsure if they are remnants from the cemetery or a burial site used by a Potawatomi village. Calvary Cemetery contains a monument dedicated to the approximately 430 people who died with the sinking of the Lady Elgin on Lake Michigan in 1860. Most of those lost in the tragedy were from Milwaukees Third Ward Irish community and is the second greatest loss of life seen on the Great Lakes
38.
Insurance
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Insurance is a means of protection from financial loss. It is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of a contingent, an entity which provides insurance is known as an insurer, insurance company, or insurance carrier. A person or entity who buys insurance is known as an insured or policyholder, the insured receives a contract, called the insurance policy, which details the conditions and circumstances under which the insured will be financially compensated. The amount of money charged by the insurer to the insured for the coverage set forth in the policy is called the premium. If the insured experiences a loss which is covered by the insurance policy. Methods for transferring or distributing risk were practiced by Chinese and Babylonian traders as long ago as the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, Chinese merchants travelling treacherous river rapids would redistribute their wares across many vessels to limit the loss due to any single vessels capsizing. The Babylonians developed a system which was recorded in the famous Code of Hammurabi, c.1750 BC, and practiced by early Mediterranean sailing merchants. If a merchant received a loan to fund his shipment, he would pay the lender an additional sum in exchange for the guarantee to cancel the loan should the shipment be stolen. At some point in the 1st millennium BC, the inhabitants of Rhodes created the general average and this allowed groups of merchants to pay to insure their goods being shipped together. The collected premiums would be used to any merchant whose goods were jettisoned during transport. Separate insurance contracts were invented in Genoa in the 14th century, the first known insurance contract dates from Genoa in 1347, and in the next century maritime insurance developed widely and premiums were intuitively varied with risks. These new insurance contracts allowed insurance to be separated from investment, Insurance became far more sophisticated in Enlightenment era Europe, and specialized varieties developed. Property insurance as we know it today can be traced to the Great Fire of London, initially,5,000 homes were insured by his Insurance Office. At the same time, the first insurance schemes for the underwriting of business ventures became available, by the end of the seventeenth century, Londons growing importance as a center for trade was increasing demand for marine insurance. These informal beginnings led to the establishment of the insurance market Lloyds of London and several related shipping, the first life insurance policies were taken out in the early 18th century. The first company to offer life insurance was the Amicable Society for a Perpetual Assurance Office, founded in London in 1706 by William Talbot, edward Rowe Mores established the Society for Equitable Assurances on Lives and Survivorship in 1762. In the late 19th century, accident insurance began to become available and this operated much like modern disability insurance. The first company to offer accident insurance was the Railway Passengers Assurance Company, by the late 19th century, governments began to initiate national insurance programs against sickness and old age
39.
National Park Service
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It was created on August 25,1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, the National Park Service celebrated its centennial in 2016. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior, the movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior and they wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service, Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3,1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933, the act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It wasnt until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service, the demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery, Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States national parks, Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no government to manage it. Yosemite National Park began as a park, the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership, at first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the staff was replaced by the U. S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, the National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service
40.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
41.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
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SS Northerner
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SS Northerner was the first paddle steamer lost in operations by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. In 1850, Northerner was sold to a Mr. Howard, subsequently purchased by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company she was initially placed in service between San Francisco and Panama. In January,1851, Northerner arrived from San Francisco with $2,600,000 in gold dust and treasure on board, in August,1851 Northerner broke the shaft of her starboard wheel soon after leaving Panama. On October 10,1858, southbound from Olympia to San Francisco, since thousands of dollars of damage was done to both vessels, and it was a clear night in a mile-wide passage, the ship owners filed cross-suits in the Washington Territorial Courts. The owners of the Resolute were unsatisfied with the Washingtons court decision, Northerner sailed for the last time from San Francisco with 108 persons on board at the time of the wreck,58 passengers and 53 crew. The ship hit a rock and wrecked January 6,1860 on Centerville Beach, California. Thirty-eight people died,17 were passengers and 21 crew, seventy others made their way through crashing surf to shore and were aided by local people including Seth Kinman and Augustus Berding. The Centerville Beach Cross marks the place of some of the victims whose bodies were recovered. In December 1863, the U. S. Supreme Court, gold Rush Steamers of the Pacific
43.
SS Hungarian
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SS Hungarian was a transatlantic steamship of the Canadian Allan Line that was launched in 1858, completed in 1859 and sank in 1860. William Denny and Brothers of Dumbarton, Scotland launched her on September 25,1858 and she was powered by a 400 nhp direct-acting steam engine that drove a single screw. Hungarians maiden voyage began on May 18,1859 when she left Liverpool for Quebec and she was wrecked in 1860 at Cape Sable Island, off Nova Scotia, with the loss of all aboard. At 8,00 on November 9,1859, Hungarian sighted a vessel in distress in a northerly gale. A crew of 7 men, including Chief Officer Hardie and Third Officer Porter were lowered into a lifeboat, upon arriving within hailing range, they were told the ship was the British schooner John Martin, which also carried the rescued crew of another schooner wrecked off Labrador. The sinking John Martin was abandoned by its complement of 43, Chief Officer Hardie was knocked overboard while helping passengers into Hungarian. He could not swim, but hauled himself aboard by a rope, Hungarian headed for St. Johns and arrived on the morning of the November 10. Each member of Hungarians crew who had helped in the lifeboat was given a party by the passengers of the trip, on February 8,1860 Hungarian left Liverpool, England for Portland, Maine, under the command of Captain Thomas Jones. She called at Queenstown, Ireland, and departed there on February 9,1860. On the night of February 19, she wrecked on Cape Ledge, the wrecked ship, and survivors who clung to her, were visible from shore, but unreachable due to high seas and gale-force winds that did not relent until six days later. Newspaper articles were published for months after the incident, most messages about the disaster were sent out from Barrington Telegraph and relayed to major cities. News of the wreck following soon after that of her sister ship Indian threw a sense of gloom over the whole of British America, List of shipwrecks Related newspaper articles at The Ships List On The Rocks NSWrecks. net The Global Gazette
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USCS Robert J. Walker (1844)
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Her loss resulted in the death of 20 men, the greatest loss of life in single incident ever to befall the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration or any of its ancestor agencies. Robert J. Walker was a steamer built in 1844 by Joseph Tomlinson at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Robert J. Walker spent the 1850s charting the waters of the United States Gulf Coast and she suffered deaths among her crew in 1852 when two men—her second and third assistant engineers—died of disease during an epidemic along the Gulf Coast. On the night of 20 January 1858, Robert J. Walker was at Pensacola, Florida and her men and boats, along with the hydrographic party of the Coast Survey steamer USCS Varina, promptly assisted in fighting the fire. The next day, Robert J. Walker, at 02,20, a commercial schooner, identified as Fanny by Robert J. Walkers crew, collided with her. She sank in less than 30 minutes in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of New Jersey approximately 12 nautical miles southeast of Absecon Inlet Light and it was the greatest disaster ever to occur in any ancestor agency of the modern-day National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Fanny, meanwhile, arrived at Cape May, New Jersey, no official ceremony in honor of the lost crewmen was held. A commercial fisherman found the wreck of Robert J, a NOAA Maritime Heritage dive team, also in the area for post-Hurricane Sandy operations, confirmed the wrecks identity on 23 June 2013. NOAA used several key clues to confirm the identity of the ship including the size and layout of the hull, unique engines. NOAA has no plans to raise the wreck, make it a sanctuary, or limit diving to it, NOAA History, A Science Odyssey, Tools of the Trade, Ships, Coast and Geodetic Survey Ships, Robert J
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United States
