1.
Sapa Inca
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The Sapa Inca or Sapa Inka, also known as Apu, Inka Qhapaq, or simply Sapa, was the ruler of the Kingdom of Cusco and, later, the Emperor of the Inca Empire and the Neo-Inca State. While the origins of the position are mythical and tied to the foundation of the city of Cusco. The position was hereditary, with son succeeding father, the emperor was viewed as a god. There were two known dynasties, led by the Hurin and Hanan moieties respectively, the latter was in power at the time of Spanish conquest. The last effective Sapa Inca of Inca Empire was Atahualpa, who was executed by Francisco Pizarro and his conquistadors in 1533, little is known of the rulers of the first dynasty of Sapa Incas. Evidently, they were affiliated with the Hurin moiety and their rule did not extend beyond the Kingdom of Cusco and their origins are tied to the mythical establishment of Cusco and are shrouded in later foundation myth. The dynasty was founded by Manco Cápac, considered the son of the sun god Inti. As a rough guide to the reputation of the early Sapa Incas, in later years capac meant warlord. The second dynasty was affiliated with the Hanan moiety and was founded under Inca Roca, after Cápac Yupanquis death, another of his sons, Inca Rocas half-brother Quispe Yupanqui, was intended to succeed him. However, the Hanan revolted and installed Inca Roca instead and he had been with Huayna Cápac when he died. The death of Ninan, the heir, led to the Inca Civil War between Huáscar and Atahualpa, a weakness that the Spanish exploited when they conquered the Inca Empire. This last Sapa Inca must not be confused with Túpac Amaru II, pachacutec, a resurrected Sapa Inca king who is over 500 years old, plays a major role in James Rollins novel Excavation. Kingdom of Cusco Inca Empire Neo-Inca State
2.
Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala
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Today, Guaman Poma is noted for his illustrated chronicle, Nueva Corónica y Buen Gobierno. He went on to become literate in the language, although he did not achieve a perfect grasp of Spanish grammar. He described himself as eighty years of age in his 1615 manuscript, leading many to deduce that he was born in the year 1535, after the 1533 Spanish conquest of Peru. It seems that he used the figure 80 as a metaphor for old age, however, the information known about Guaman Pomas life comes from a variety of written sources. Most likely he was born in the Lucanas province and spent most of his life in or near Huamanga, in the late 1580s to early 1590s, he was an assistant to Fray Martin de Murua, another Spanish cleric. In 1594 he was employed by the Spanish judge of Huamanga who was in charge of land titles, based on a published work, in 1967, by archaeologist Edward P. The Huaman Family, per stirpes, belonged to the wealthy among the Inca Empire, before, as it used to be common, the marriages among the ruling families took place, to remain in control and current. At the time, the Huaman were a family of warriors. They venerated the wild bird, that grows in the Andean Region of Peru. There can be found, among the Incas family tree lines, a)Tarco Huaman Inca, son of Inca Mayta Capac, cousin of Capac Yupanqui, b) Huaman Achachi, brother of Tupac Inca Yupanqui. C)Inca Huaman Taysi, son of Inca Rocca, d)Landowner Don Antonio Huaman Cucho, in Huamanga City, in 1570 declares ownership of several cities for the descendent of the Huaman Family as an Inca descendent. Reasons for which most of wealth in gold, and ornaments were hidden. Most family members moved to different areas from Peru and Ecuador, the most prominent landowners were located in Pariamarca, Santiago de Huaman, Quito and Huamanga. There are tales among the Andeans that one day the. Hawk will fly high, Huaman Pomas great work was the El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno, a 1, 189-page document written largely in Spanish, with sections in Quechua. He wrote Corónica instead of Crónica, a form of the common in the Middle Ages. His book remains the longest sustained critique of Spanish colonial rule produced by a subject in the entire colonial period. Written between 1600 and 1615 and addressed to King Philip III of Spain, the Corónica outlines the injustices of colonial rule and it is our country, he said, because God has given it to us. The king never received the document, the Crónica is remarkable in many ways
3.
Viracocha Inca
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Viracocha or Wiraqucha was the eighth Sapa Inca of the Kingdom of Cusco and the third of the Hanan dynasty. His wifes name was Mama Runtucaya, and their sons included Inca Rocca, Tupac Yupanqui, Pachacuti and his original name was Hatun Tupaq Inca, but was named Viracocha after seeing visions of the god in Urcos. With Ccuri-chulpa, he had two sons, Inca Urco and Inca Socso. Events in Viracocha Inkas life have been recorded by several Spanish writers, traditional oral histories of the Inka have been recorded by the Spanish Jesuit Bernabe Cobo. According to these accounts, including a widely recognized sixteenth century written by Miguel Cabello Balboa, Viracocha Inka was a warlike. As a young man, Viracocha declared that after he took the throne he would conquer half the world, however, in 1438 when, according to Cobo, the Chanka offensive took place, Viracocha was advised to leave Cusco before the Chanca attack. He left for Caquia Xaquixahuana, taking his sons, Inca Urco. However, his son, Cusi Inca Yupanqui refused to abandon Cuzco. He remained with his brother Inca Rocca and six other chiefs, the spoils were offered to Inca Viracocha to tread on, but he refused, stating Inca Urco should do so, as his successor. Inca Rocca later killed his brother Urco, and Inca Viracocha died of grief in Caquia Xaquixahuana, one chronicler, Sarmiento de Gamboa, states that Viracocha was the first Incan to rule the territories he conquered, while his predecessors merely raided and looted them. His captains, Apu Mayta and Vicaquirau, subdued the area within 8 leagues of Cuzco, austin, TX, University of Texas Press. 1491-New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus
4.
Topa Inca Yupanqui
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Topa Inca Yupanqui or Túpac Inca Yupanqui, translated as noble Inca accountant, was the second Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire, fifth of the Hanan dynasty, and tenth of the Inca civilization. His father was Pachacuti, and his son was Huayna Capac, topa Inca belonged to the Qhapaq panaca. His father appointed him to head the Inca army in 1463 and he extended the realm northward along the Andes through modern Ecuador, and developed a special fondness for the city of Quito, which he rebuilt with architects from Cuzco. He became Inca in his turn upon his fathers death in 1471 and he conquered Chimor, which occupied the northern coast of what is now Peru, the largest remaining rival to the Incas. He conquered the province of Antis and subdued the Collas and he imposed rules and taxes, creating two Governor Generals, Suyuyoc Apu, one in Xauxa and the other in Tiahuanacu. Tupac Inca Yupanqui created the fortress Saksaywaman on the plateau above Cuzco. Tupac Inca died in 1493, leaving two sons, and 90 illegitimate sons and daughters. He had nominated as his successor Ccapac Huari, son of his concubine Chuqui Ocllo and this left the path clear for his legitimate son, Titu Cusi Hualpa, to succeed him as the emperor Huayna Capac. Topa Inca Yupanqui is also credited with leading a roughly 10-month-long voyage of exploration into the Pacific around 1480, reportedly visiting islands he called Nina Chumpi, the voyage is mentioned in the History of the Incas by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa in 1572. Pedro Sarmiento described the expedition as follows, …there arrived at Tumbez some merchants who had come by sea from the west and they gave information of the land whence they came, which consisted of some islands called Avachumbi and Ninachumbi, where there were many people and much gold. Tupac Inca was a man of lofty and ambitious ideas, and was not satisfied with the regions he had already conquered. So he determined to challenge a happy fortune, and see if it would favour him by sea. … The Inca, having this certainty and he caused an immense number of balsas to be constructed, in which he embarked more than 20,000 chosen men. These trophies were preserved in the fortress of Cuzco until the Spaniards came, the duration of this expedition undertaken by Tupac Inca was nine months, others say a year, and, as he was so long absent, every one believed he was dead. Many historians are skeptical that the voyage took place. Supporters have usually identified the islands with the Galápagos Islands and it has also been suggested that one of the islands was Easter Island, where oral traditions have claimed that a group of long-eared hanau eepe came to the island from an unknown land
5.
Quechua language
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Quechua /ˈkɛtʃwə/, also known as runa simi, is an indigenous language family, with variations spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Andes and highlands of South America. Derived from an ancestral language, it is the most widely spoken language family of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Approximately 13% of Peruvians speak Quechua and it is perhaps most widely known for being the main language of the Inca Empire, and was disseminated by the colonizers throughout their reign. Quechua had already expanded across wide ranges of the central Andes long before the expansion of the Inca Empire, the Inca were one among many peoples in present-day Peru who already spoke forms of Quechua. In the Cusco region, Quechua was influenced by languages such as Aymara. The Cuzco variety of Quechua developed as quite distinct, in similar ways, diverse dialects developed in different areas, related to existing local languages, when the Inca Empire ruled and imposed Quechua as the official language. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century and it was officially recognized by the Spanish administration and many Spanish learned it in order to communicate with the local peoples. Clergy of the Catholic Church adopted Quechua to use as the language of evangelization, given its use by the Catholic missionaries, the range of Quechua continued to expand in some areas. In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, the Crown banned even loyal pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vegas Comentarios Reales. Despite a brief revival of the immediately after the Latin American nations achieved independence in the 19th century. Gradually its use declined so that it was mostly by indigenous people in the more isolated. Nevertheless in the 21st century, those speaking Quechua language speakers number 8 to 10 million people across South America, the oldest written records of the language are by missionary Domingo de Santo Tomás, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua de los indios de los reynos del Perú in 1560. In 1975 Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages, the major obstacle to the usage and teaching of Quechua is the lack of written materials in that language, such as books, newspapers, software, and magazines. The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a spoken language. In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in intercultural education in Bolivia, Ecuador. Even in these areas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populations, some indigenous people in each of the countries are having their children study in Spanish for the purposes of social advancement. Radio Nacional del Perú broadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings, Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua
6.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
7.
Inti
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Inti is the ancient Incan sun god. He is revered as the patron of the Inca state. Although most consider Inti the sun god, he is more viewed as a cluster of solar aspects. Worshiped as a deity of the Inca Empire, he is of unknown mythological origin. The most common story says that he is the son of Viracocha, Inti and his sister, Mama Killa, the Moon goddess were generally considered benevolent deities. According to an ancient myth, Inti taught his son Manco Cápac and his daughter Mama Ocllo the arts of civilization, another legend, however, states Manco Cápac was the son of Viracocha. Inti ordered his children to build the Inca capital where a golden wedge they carried with them would penetrate the earth. Incas believed that this happened in the city of Cusco, the Inca ruler was considered to be the living representative of Inti. Pachacuti is often linked to the origin and expansion of the Inca Sun Cult, the Willaq Umu was the high priest of the Sun. His position placed him as the second most powerful person in the kingdom and he was directly underneath the Sapa Inca, and they were often brothers. The emperor and his family were believed to be descended from Inti, a great golden disk representing Inti was captured by the Spanish conquistadors in 1571 and was sent to the pope via Spain. The Inca dedicated many ceremonies to the Sun in order to ensure the Sapa Incas welfare, the sun was also important to the Incas, particularly the people of the highlands, because it was necessary for the production of crops like maize and other grains. The suns heat was thought to cause rain. During the rainy season the sun was hotter and brighter, while during the dry season it was weaker, the Incas would set aside large quantities of natural and human resources throughout the empire for Inti. Each conquered province was supposed to dedicate a third of their lands and herds to Inti as mandated by the Inca, each major province would also have a Sun Temple in which male and female priests would serve. The female priests were the mamakuna, who were chosen from the aqllakuna, additionally, the chief temple of the Inca state religion was the Qurikancha in Cusco. Within this temple were wall niches in which the bodies of previous emperors and rulers were exhibited along with statues of Inti in certain festivals. Some figures of Inti also depicted him in form with a hollowed out midsection that was filled with a concoction made of gold dust
8.
Coricancha
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Coricancha, Korikancha, Qurikancha, or Quri Kancha was the most important temple in the Inca Empire. Originally named Inti Kancha or Inti Wasi, it was dedicated to Inti, mostly destroyed after the 16th century war with the Spanish conquistadors much of its stonework forms the foundation of the Santo Domingo church and convent. Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui rebuilt Cusco and the House of the Sun, enriching it with more oracles and edifices and he provided vases of gold and silver for the Mama-cunas, nuns, to use in the veneration services. Finally, he took the bodies of the seven deceased Incas, the walls were once covered in sheets of solid gold, and its adjacent courtyard was filled with golden statues. Spanish reports tell of its opulence that was fabulous beyond belief, when the Spanish required the Inca to raise a ransom in gold for the life of the leader Atahualpa, most of the gold was collected from Coricancha. The Spanish colonists built the Church of Santo Domingo on the site, demolishing the temple, construction took most of a century. This is one of sites where the Spanish incorporated Inca stonework into the structure of a colonial building. Major earthquakes severely damaged the church, but the Inca stone walls, built out of huge, tightly-interlocking blocks of stone, nearby is an underground archaeological museum, which contains numerous interesting pieces, including mummies, textiles, and sacred idols from the site. The site now includes the Church and Convent of Santo Domingo. Iperu, tourist information and assistance Tourism in Peru Media related to Qurikancha at Wikimedia Commons
9.
Cusco
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Cuzco, often spelled Cusco, is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region as well as the Cusco Province, in 2013, the city had a population of 435,114. Located on the end of the Knot of Cuzco, its elevation is around 3,400 m. The site was the capital of the Inca Empire from the 13th until the 16th-century Spanish conquest. In 1983 Cusco was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and it has become a major tourist destination, hosting nearly 2 million visitors a year. The Constitution of Peru designates it as the Historical Capital of Peru, the indigenous name of this city is Qusqu. Although the name was used in Quechua, its origin is found in the Aymara language, the word is derived from the phrase qusqu wanka, related to the citys foundation myth of the Ayar Siblings. According to this legend, Ayar Awqa acquired wings and flew to the site of the future city, there he was transformed into a rock to mark the possession of the land by his ayllu. Then Ayar Oche stood up, displayed a pair of large wings, then they went up on top of the hill. Now at the site where he was to remain as an idol and he returned and told Ayar Manco that from then on he was to be named Manco Capac. Ayar Oche came from where the Sun was and the Sun had ordered that Ayar Manco take that name, after this had been stated by the idol, Ayar Oche turned into a stone, just as he was, with his wings. Later Manco Capac went down with Ayar Auca to their settlement. he liked the place now occupied in this city Cuzco, Manco Capac and his companion, with the help of the four women, made a house. Having done this, Manco Capac and his companion, with the four women and it is said that they took the maize from the cave, which this lord Manco Capac named Pacaritambo, which means those of origin because. they came out of that cave. The Spanish conquistadors adopted the name, transliterating it into Spanish phonetics as Cuzco or, less often. Cuzco was the spelling on official documents and chronicles in colonial times. Cuzco, pronounced as in 16th-century Spanish, seems to have been an approximation to the Cusco Quechua pronunciation of the name at the time. As both Spanish and Quechuan pronunciation have evolved since then, the Spanish pronunciation of z is no longer close to the Quechuan pronunciation of the consonant represented by z in Cuzco. In 1976, the city signed an ordinance banning the traditional spelling and ordering the use of a new one, Cusco
10.
Kingdom of Cusco
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The Kingdom of Cusco was a small kingdom based in Cusco on the Andean mountain ranges that began as a small city-state founded by the Incas around the 12th century. In time, through warfare or peaceful assimilation, it began to grow and was succeeded by the Inca Empire. The Inca people began as a tribe in the Cuzco area around the 12th century AD, under the leadership of Manco Cápac, they formed the small city-state of Cusco, shown in red on the map below. In 1438 AD, under the command of the Sapa Inca Pachacuti, Pachacuti is thought to have built the citadel of Machu Picchu, either as a family home or as a vacation estate. The Sapa Inca of the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cusco were, in order, Manco Cápac, Sinchi Roca, Lloque Yupanqui, Mayta Cápac, evidence of state organization dates from 1200 AD. Little is known of this population, but in years the meaning of cápac meant warlord. The Inca civilization spread rapidly from their beginnings in the Kingdom of Cuzco located in southern Peru. The following outlines each of the Incan rulers and a few of their accomplishments in greater detail, while in fact, his kingdom was still limited to the valley of Cuzco. His great military feat may have been the subjugation of another tribe in the valley, túpac Amaru was the last legitimate Inca to rule, and, unfortunately, the most unfit. With the death of his elder brother Titu Cosi, he ordered the execution of all Spanish people living in Vilcabamba and this resulted in his death and the end of Incan sovereignty, for Vilcabamba was occupied and the survivors enslaved. The Last Days of the Incas
11.
Inca Empire
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The Inca Empire, also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, and possibly the largest empire in the world in the early 16th century. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru, the Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572, from 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. The Incas considered their king, the Sapa Inca, to be the son of the sun, the Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many features associated with civilization in the Old world. In the words of one scholar, The Incas lacked the use of wheeled vehicles, the Incan economy has been described as feudal, slave, socialist. The economy functioned largely without money and without markets, instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. Taxes consisted of an obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food, the Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, the four suyu. The four suyu were, Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, Qullasuyu and Kuntisuyu, the name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu, the term Inka means ruler or lord in Quechua and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family. The Incas were a small percentage of the total population of the empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000. The Spanish adopted the term as a term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class. As such the name Imperio inca referred to the nation that they encountered, the Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Incan oral history tells a story of three caves. The center cave at Tampu Tuqu was named Qhapaq Tuqu, the other caves were Maras Tuqu and Sutiq Tuqu. Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave and they were, Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Awqa and Ayar Uchu, and Mama Ocllo, Mama Raua, Mama Huaco and Mama Qura. Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans, Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live and they traveled for a long time
12.
Machu Picchu
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Machu Picchu is a 15th-century Inca citadel situated on a mountain ridge 2,430 metres above sea level. It is located in the Cusco Region, Urubamba Province, Machupicchu District in Peru, above the Sacred Valley, most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was built as an estate for the Inca emperor Pachacuti. Often mistakenly referred to as the Lost City of the Incas, the Incas built the estate around 1450 but abandoned it a century later at the time of the Spanish Conquest. Machu Picchu was built in the classical Inca style, with polished dry-stone walls and its three primary structures are the Inti Watana, the Temple of the Sun, and the Room of the Three Windows. Most of the buildings have been reconstructed in order to give tourists a better idea of how they originally appeared. By 1976, thirty percent of Machu Picchu had been restored, Machu Picchu was declared a Peruvian Historical Sanctuary in 1981 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. In 2007, Machu Picchu was voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in a worldwide Internet poll. In the Quechua language, machu means old or old person, while picchu means peak, mountain or prominence with a base that ends in sharp peaks. Machu Picchu was built around 1450, at the height of the Inca and its construction appears to date to the period of the two great Inca rulers, Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui and Túpac Inca Yupanqui. It was abandoned just over 100 years later, in 1572 and it is possible that most of its inhabitants died from smallpox introduced by travellers before the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area. Although it was located only about 80 kilometers from the Inca capital in Cusco, the conquistadors had notes of a place called Piccho, although no record of a Spanish visit exists. The types of sacred rocks defaced by the conquistadors in other locations are untouched at Machu Picchu, over the centuries, the surrounding jungle overgrew the site, and few outside the immediate area knew of its existence. The site may have discovered and plundered in 1867 by a German businessman. Some evidence indicates that German engineer J. M. von Hassel arrived earlier, maps show references to Machu Picchu as early as 1874. In 1911 American historian and explorer Hiram Bingham travelled the region looking for the old Inca capital and was shown to Machu Picchu by a local farmer, Bingham brought Machu Picchu to international attention and organized another expedition in 1912 to undertake major clearing and excavation. He returned in 1914 and 1915 to continue with excavation, in 1981, Peru declared an area of 325.92 square kilometres surrounding Machu Picchu a Historical Sanctuary. In addition to the ruins, the sanctuary includes a portion of the adjoining region, rich with the flora and fauna of the Peruvian Yungas. In 1983, UNESCO designated Machu Picchu a World Heritage Site, describing it as a masterpiece of architecture
13.
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
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Garcilaso de la Vega, born Gómez Suárez de Figueroa and known as El Inca or Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, was a chronicler and writer born in the Spanish Empires Viceroyalty of Peru. Sailing to Spain at 21, he was educated informally there, the son of a Spanish conquistador and an Inca noblewoman born in the early years of the conquest, he is recognized primarily for his histories about Inca history, culture, and society. His work was influential and well-received and it was as the first literature by an author born in the Americas to enter the western canon. After his fathers death in 1559, De la Vega moved to Spain in 1561, born Gómez Suárez de Figueroa, in Cusco, Peru, in 1539, he was the illegitimate son of a Spanish aristocrat and a royal Inca mother. He was born during the years of the Spanish conquest. His father was Spanish captain and conquistador Sebastián Garcilaso de la Vega y Vargas and his mother was an Inca princess, Palla Chimpu Ocllo, who was baptized after the fall of Cuzco as Isabel Suárez Chimpu Ocllo. She was descended from Inca nobility, a daughter of Túpac Huallpa, because he was illegitimate and the ravages of the conquest were underway, the boy was given only his mothers surname. Under the Spanish system of caste that developed, he would have classified as a criollo. Gómez lived with his mother and her Inca family for the first ten years of his life and his first language was Quecha, but he also learned Spanish from his early years. His father took the boy into his household and gave him some education, Suárez de Figueroa received an inheritance when his father died in 1559. The next year, at 21, he decided to travel to Spain, when Gómez was young, his father had abandoned his mother and officially married a younger Spanish woman. De la Vegas mother Palla Chimpu Ocllo married Juan de Pedroche and had two daughters, De la Vegas half sisters, ana Ruíz married her cousin Martín de Bustinza, and Luisa de Herrera married Pedro Márquez de Galeoto. Suárez de Figueroa reached Spain in 1561 while there was fighting in his native country under the conquest. The Spanish did not achieve their victory until 1572. He traveled to Montilla, where he met his fathers brother, Alonso de Vargas, the younger man soon traveled to Madrid to seek official acknowledgement as his fathers son from the Crown, and he was allowed to take the name of Garcilaso de la Vega. Also referred to as El Inca or Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, together with his uncles support, gaining his fathers name helped him in society. He remained in Spain and did not return to his native country, as warfare continued in the conquest, he was at political and even physical risk there because of his royal Inca lineage. It is recorded that he died in Córdoba on 23 April 1616 and he had at least two sons, born of relationships with different servants
14.
Inti Raymi
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The Inti Raymi is a religious ceremony of the Inca Empire in honor of the god Inti, one of the most venerated deities in Inca religion. It was the celebration of the winter solstice - the shortest day of the year in terms of the time between sunrise and sunset and the Inca New Year, in territories south of the equator the gregorian months of June and July are winter months. During the Inca Empire, the Inti Raymi was the most important of four ceremonies celebrated in Cusco, the celebration took place in the Haukaypata or the main plaza in the city. According to chronicler Garcilaso de la Vega, Sapa Inca Pachacuti created the Inti Raymi to celebrate the new year in the Andes of the Southern Hemisphere, the ceremony was also said to indicate the mythical origin of the Incas. It lasted for nine days and was filled with colorful dances and processions, as well as sacrifices to thank Pachamama. The last Inti Raymi with the Inca Emperors presence was carried out in 1535, after which the Spanish, in 1944, a historical reconstruction of the Inti Raymi was directed by Faustino Espinoza Navarro and indigenous actors. The first reconstruction was based on the chronicles of Garcilaso de la Vega. Inti Raymi is still celebrated in indigenous cultures throughout the Andes, celebrations involve music, colorful costumes and the sharing of food. In many parts of the Andes though, this celebration has been connected to the festivals of Saint John the Baptist. Cultural periods of Peru History of Peru Northern solstice Willkakuti Media related to Inti Raymi at Wikimedia Commons The celebration of the Sun Inti Raymi - Cultura Interactiva
15.
Aguas Calientes, Peru
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Machupicchu or Machupicchu Pueblo, also known as Aguas Calientes, is a location in Peru situated in the Cusco Region, Urubamba Province. It is the seat of the Machupicchu District, Machupicchu lies at the Willkanuta River. It is the closest access point to the site of Machu Picchu which is 6 kilometres away or about a 1.5 hours walk. There are many hotels and restaurants for tourists, as well as hot baths which gave the town its colloquial Spanish name. The baths were destroyed by several years ago, but have been rebuilt. The town was the hub for worker lodging and their equipment until the railway was completed in 1931. Machupicchu serves as a terminal for the PeruRail and Inca Rail passenger train service from Cusco, trains serve locals and tourists arriving from Cusco and Ollantaytambo to visit Machu Picchu. A sheltered souvenir market is adjacent to the train station, avenue Pachacutec is the main and only thoroughfare of the town, connecting the baths to the towns main square. The Central Machupicchu Hydroelectric Plant is nearby at the Urubamba River and it generates about 90 MW for the regions of Cusco, Puno, and Apurímac. It was first constructed between 1958 and 1965 and expanded between 1981 and 1985, the plant was damaged by a landslide on 28 February 1998 and ceased operations until 13 July 2001. Haworth, United Kingdom Otama village, Fukushima Prefecture, Japan Tourism in Peru Wiñay Wayna Aguas-Calientes. com Aguas Calientes at cusco-peru. org Aguas Calientes travel guide from Wikivoyage
16.
Kuraka
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A kuraka was an official of the Inca Empire who held the role of magistrate, about 4 levels down from the Sapa Inca, the head of the Empire. The kurakas were the heads of the ayllus and they served as tax collector, and held religious authority, in that they mediated between the supernatural sphere and the mortal realm. They were responsible for making sure the spirit world blessed the mortal one with prosperity, kurakas enjoyed privileges such as being exempt from taxation, the right to polygamy and to ride in a litter. The kuraka was an aristocrat who frequently, but not always, kuraka means superior or principal, and his authority was granted by the Inca. Each ayllu actually had four kurakas, upper and lower, however, of the four, one kuraka was still superior to the rest. Indigenous elites maintained their positions so long as they played their assigned role, in the late eighteenth century, the increased taxation of indigenous put pressure on kurakas allegiances to their own communities and their desire to maintain their status in the colonial order. One of the functions of the kurakas was to choose a bride for adult males, aged 25 and over, who could not choose, or had not chosen, a wife. The kurakas could also decide, in the event two men wanted to marry the woman, which man would be allowed to marry. The kurakas also dealt with crimes, but had to refer major crimes to the provincial capital. Among other duties, the kurakas settled disputes, allocated agricultural lands, organized community events, the kurakas experienced a transformation during the first years of Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire. Since the Inca had not consolidated their rule over many regions, some kurakas were anti-Inca, outside of the former Inca capital of Cuzco, the regional caciques were the most resolute collaborators with the Spanish Crown. In Peru and elsewhere in Spanish America, the Spanish crown recognized indigenous nobility and they were exempt from taxation and were granted privileges to ride horses and carry swords. This did not entail a renunciation of their sources of power. In practical terms, the kurakas collected tribute and mobilized labor, some kurakas in the colonial era attempted to strengthen their claims to power and intermarried with the royal Inca descent groups, while at the same time pledging loyalty to the Spanish crown. This situation resulted in their needing to reconcile these two loyalties in the colonial situation, the role of the kuraka was further transformed in the late colonial era. In the period after the Great Rebellion, the no longer recognized the kurakas, delegitimizing their lineages. The traditional elite attire of indigenous nobles was banned, as was music, dance, painting of images of Incas, Inca names, and other cultural manifestations of Inca power and influence. The crown rewarded loyalist kurakas with material rewards, such as money and land, as well as markers of prestige, such as military promotions, however, the power and position of kurakas in general was eroded
17.
Kinship
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Anthropologist Robin Fox states that the study of kinship is the study of what man does with these basic facts of life – mating, gestation, parenthood, socialization, siblingship etc. Human society is unique, he argues, in that we are working with the raw material as exists in the animal world. These social ends include the socialization of children and the formation of economic, political. Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves, or it can refer to the study of the patterns of relationships in one or more human cultures. Further, even within two broad usages of the term, there are different theoretical approaches. Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related by both descent – i. e. social relations during development – and by marriage. Human kinship relations through marriage are commonly called affinity in contrast to the relationships that arise in ones group of origin, in some cultures, kinship relationships may be considered to extend out to people an individual has economic or political relationships with, or other forms of social connections. Within a culture, some descent groups may be considered to lead back to gods or animal ancestors and this may be conceived of on a more or less literal basis. Kinship can also refer to a principle by which individuals or groups of individuals are organized into groups, roles, categories. Family relations can be represented concretely or abstractly by degrees of relationship, a relationship may be relative or reflect an absolute. Degrees of relationship are not identical to heirship or legal succession, many codes of ethics consider the bond of kinship as creating obligations between the related persons stronger than those between strangers, as in Confucian filial piety. In a more general sense, kinship may refer to a similarity or affinity between entities on the basis of some or all of their characteristics that are under focus. This may be due to a shared origin, a shared historical or cultural connection. For example, a person studying the roots of human languages might ask whether there is kinship between the English word seven and the German word sieben. It can be used in a more diffuse sense as in, for example, in biology, kinship typically refers to the degree of genetic relatedness or coefficient of relationship between individual members of a species. It may also be used in this sense when applied to human relationships. Family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, in most societies it is the principal institution for the socialization of children. Kin terminologies can be descriptive or classificatory
18.
Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa
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Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa was a Spanish explorer, author, historian, mathematician, astronomer, and scientist. His birthplace is not certain and may have been Pontevedra, in Galicia, where his family originated, or Alcalá de Henares in Castile. His father Bartolomé Sarmiento was born in Pontevedra and his mother María Gamboa was born in Bilbao, at the age of 18, Sarmiento de Gamboa entered the royal military in the European wars. Between 1550 and 1555 the future navigator fought in the armies of Emperor Charles V, in 1555 he began his exploring career, sailing across the Atlantic Ocean. His first destination was New Spain, where he lived for two years, little is known of this period in his life, other than that he encountered difficulties with the Inquisition. He then sailed to Peru, where he lived for more than twenty years, in Lima he was accused by the Inquisition of possessing two magic rings and some magic ink and of following the precepts of Moses. The expedition failed to find gold and attempts at establishing a settlement in the Solomon Islands ended in failure, in order to take credit of the discoveries for himself Mendaña threw the journals and maps made by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa overboard and abandoned him in Mexico. However, a trial was held in Lima, with the result giving Sarmiento credit for the discoveries. In 1572 he was commissioned by Francisco de Toledo, the fifth Viceroy of Peru, Toledo hoped such a history would justify Spanish colonisation by revealing the violent history of the Incas. Sarmiento collected oral accounts first hand from Inca informants and produced a history that chronicles their violent conquest of the region, the royal sponsorship of the work guaranteed Sarmiento direct access to the highest Spanish officials in Cuzco. It also allowed him to summon influential natives, as well as those who had witnessed the fall of the Inca Empire, so that they could relate their stories. Sarmiento traveled widely and interviewed numerous local leaders and lords, surviving members of the royal Inca families, after the public reading, which occurred on 29 February and 1 March 1572, the manuscript was entrusted to a member of the viceroys personal guard. However, due to a series of events, this irreplaceable document of Inca history was relegated to obscurity for centuries. He became the commander of the station in the Pacific in 1578. Sarmiento de Gamboa sailed out of the port of Callao with eleven vessels in 1579 to capture Drake. The expedition lost eight vessels in a storm, and Flores, on account of rivalry with Sarmiento de Gamboa, abandoned him with twelve vessels in the entry of the Strait and returned to Spain. The settlement failed shortly after he left, and when Thomas Cavendish visited the ruins in 1587 he renamed the place Port Famine. In 1584 Sarmiento de Gamboa sailed for Europe, but he was captured by an English fleet under to Sir Walter Raleigh and carried to England where he was presented to Queen Elizabeth I of England
19.
Civilization III
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Sid Meiers Civilization III, commonly shortened to Civ III or Civ 3, is the third installment of the Sid Meiers Civilization turn-based strategy video game series. It was preceded by Civilization II and followed by Civilization IV, the game offers very sophisticated game play in terms of both mechanics and strategy. Unlike the original game, Civ III was not designed by Sid Meier, but by Jeff Briggs, a designer, and Soren Johnson. Civilization III, like the other Civilization games, entails building an empire, from the ground up, beginning in 4,000 BC and continuing slightly beyond the modern day. The player must balance a good infrastructure, resources, diplomatic and trading skills, technological advancement, city and empire management, culture, the game map is made up of square tiles on a grid. Cities must be built a minimum of two away from each other. Each tile is made of a type of terrain that determines, among other things, how much food, production. Food is used to grow the players cities, each population unit requires food to survive, and excess food is stored. Larger the population of the civilization, the larger the food storage, production, represented in the game as shields, is used to build units, buildings, and wonders. This commerce is split up as the player sees fit between technological research, tax revenue, and luxuries, each with a different purpose, each citys citizens have a certain mood. If most citizens are unhappy, the city falls into civil disorder and all production ceases, if a city remains in civil disorder for too long, if most citizens are happy, they will like their leader and increase economic benefits. Terrain improvements are built by Worker units, irrigation increases food, mines increase production, and roads increase commerce and reduce movement costs for all allied land units using them. Two civilizations must have Right of passage treaty signed to benefit from each others roads, buildings enhance a city in some way and cost maintenance. Like units and Wonders, each one can only be built when the technology has been acquired. Buildings require financial maintenance each turn, and can be destroyed, only one of each type of building can be constructed in each city. As in previous installments of Civilization, there are unique Wonders of the World that can only be built once per game, Wonders provide a variety of major benefits to a specific city, all cities on a continent or to an entire empire. Civilization III also added Small Wonders, Small Wonders have, for the most part, a sociological requirement to construct them, as well as a technological requirement. When a civilization captures a city with a Small Wonder, it is automatically destroyed, some examples of small wonders are Wall Street, the Forbidden Palace and The Pentagon
20.
Civilization V
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Sid Meiers Civilization V is a 4X video game in the Civilization series developed by Firaxis Games. The game was released on Microsoft Windows in September 2010, on OS X on November 23,2010, the game is based on an entirely new game engine with hexagonal tiles instead of the square tiles of earlier games in the series. Many elements from Civilization IV and its expansion packs have been removed or changed, such as religion, the combat system has been overhauled, removing stacking of military units and enabling cities to defend themselves by firing directly on nearby enemies. In addition, the maps contain computer-controlled city-states as non-player characters that are available for trade, diplomacy, a civilizations borders also expand one tile at a time, favoring more productive tiles, and roads now have a maintenance cost, making them much less common. The game features community, modding, and multiplayer elements and it is available for download on Steam. Its first expansion pack, Civilization V, Gods & Kings, was released on June 19,2012, in North America and it includes features such as religion, espionage, enhanced naval combat and combat AI, as well as nine new civilizations. A second expansion pack, Civilization V, Brave New World, was announced on March 15,2013. It includes features such as trade routes, a world congress, tourism, great works, as well as nine new civilizations, eight additional wonders. It was released on July 9,2013, in North America, Civilization V is a turn-based strategy game, where each player represents the leader of a certain nation or ethnic group and must guide its growth over the course of thousands of years. The four levels of AI complement each other to allow for complex and fluid AI behaviours, each of the AI-controlled leaders has a unique personality, determined by a combination of flavors on a ten-point scale, however, the values may differ slightly in each game. There are 26 flavors, grouped into categories including growth, expansion, wide strategy, military preferences, recon, naval recon, naval growth, as in previous versions, cities remain the central pillar of Civilization gameplay. The city will also expand its borders one or more tiles at a time, the expansion process is automated and directed towards the citys needs, but tiles can be bought with gold. Cities have hit points that, if taken down to zero, will signal the citys defeat to invading forces, in addition, any melee unit loses hit points upon attacking a city, dependent upon the strength of the city and unit. Hit points can be increased by garrisoning a unit in the city or building defensive structures. I, in this iteration of the series, tactical gameplay in combat is encouraged in place of overwhelming numerical force, with the introduction of new gameplay mechanisms. Most significantly, the grid of the world map has been replaced with a hexagonal grid. Increased movement points, simpler transportation over water, ranged attacks, there is also a balance between ranged and melee units. Ranged units can attack melee units without retribution, but melee units will normally destroy ranged units, in an effort to make individual units more valuable to the player, they take longer to produce, and gain experience from defeating enemy units. At set levels this experience can be redeemed for promotions, which provide bonuses for increasing their effectiveness
21.
James Rollins
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Rollins experiences and expertise as an amateur spelunker and a certified scuba diver have provided content for some of his novels, which are often set in underground or underwater locations. Under the pen name James Clemens, he has also published novels, such as Witch Fire, Witch Storm, Witch War, Witch Gate, Witch Star, Shadowfall. His father worked for Libbys canning plant, his mother was a housewife and mother of seven and he attended Parkway South Junior High School and then graduated from Parkway West Senior High School in Ballwin, Missouri, in 1979. His undergraduate work focused on evolutionary biology and he graduated from the University of Missouri, Columbia in 1985 with a doctorate in veterinary medicine. Soon afterward, he moved to Sacramento, California, where he established his veterinary practice and its a 14-, 16-, 18-hour-a-day job. I owned my own practice, had 24 employees, I couldn’t get away, that was the biggest thing. In the 10 years I ran my own practice, I had three weeks of vacation total, I started writing during my lunch hour at the clinic—dogs barking, cats meowing—so now I can write anywhere. Now, hes flipped that equation, Once a week I spend about eight hours spaying and neutering trapped feral cats for the Sacramento Council of Cats, all I do with my veterinary degree now is remove genitalia. Rollins found the authors of the Doc Savage series inspirational as a youth and he also enjoyed L. Frank Baums Oz series, Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan novels, and C. S. Lewis Chronicles of Narnia. Czajkowski sold his first novel, Witch Fire, under the pen name James Clemens, Brooks had been one of the judges for a writing contest at the Maui Writers Conference in Maui, Hawaii, in which James had entered a manuscript he had recently completed. Beneath the ice at the bottom of the Earth is a magnificent subterranean labyrinth, a team of specialists, led by archaeologist Ashley Carter, has been hand-picked to explore this secret place and to uncover the riches it holds. But they are not the first to venture here—and those they follow did not return, There are mysteries here older than humanity and revelations that could change the world. But there are things that should not be disturbed—and a devastating truth that could doom Ashley. The caverns are inhabited by an entire ecosystem of primitive mammals—some intelligent, others savage. In Peru, low in the Andes, Dr. Henry Conklin discovers a 500-year-old mummy that should not be there. While deep in the South American jungle, Conklins nephew, Sam, ingenious traps have been laid to ensnare the careless and unsuspecting, and wealth beyond imagining could be the reward for those with the courage to face the terrible unknown. But where does this perilous journey end—in the cold, shrouded heart of a breathtaking necropolis—something else is waiting for Sam Conklin, a thing created by Man, yet not humanly possible. Ex-Navy SEAL Jack Kirkland surfaces from an aborted underwater salvage mission to find the Earth burning, solar flares have triggered a series of gargantuan natural disasters
22.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
23.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
24.
Yale University Press
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Yale University Press is a university press associated with Yale University. It was founded in 1908 by George Parmly Day, and became a department of Yale University in 1961. As of 2009, Yale University Press published approximately 300 new hardcover and 150 new paperback books annually and has more than 6,000 books in print and its books have won five National Book Awards, two National Book Critics Circle Awards and eight Pulitzer Prizes. Since its inception in 1919, the Yale Series of Younger Poets Competition has published the first collection of poetry by new poets, the first winner was Howard Buck, the 2011 winner was Katherine Larson. Yale University Press and Yale Repertory Theatre jointly sponsor the Yale Drama Series, the winner of the annual competition is awarded the David C. Horn Prize of $10,000, publication of his/her manuscript by Yale University Press, the Yale Drama Series and David C. Horn Prize are funded by the David Charles Horn Foundation, in 2007, Yale University Press acquired the Anchor Bible Series, a collection of more than 115 volumes of biblical scholarship, from the Doubleday Publishing Group. New and backlist titles are now published under the Anchor Yale Bible Series name, the Dwight H. Terry Lectureship was established in 1905 to encourage the consideration of religion in the context of modern science, psychology, and philosophy. Many of the lectures, which are hosted by Yale University, have been edited into book form by the Yale University Press, the Yale Publishing Course was founded in 2010 by former Publishing Director of the Yale University Press, Tina C. It filled the gap created by the closing of the legendary Stanford Publishing Course and it operates under the aegis of the Office of International Affairs of Yale University. The Course trains mid to senior-level publishing professionals to tackle the most compelling issues facing the publishing industry, the curriculum focuses on in-depth analyses of global trends, innovative business models, management strategies, and new advances in technology. Its immersive week-long programs, one devoted to publishing and the other to magazine and digital publishing, combine lectures, discussion groups. The faculty is made up of leading experts and members of the Yale School of Management, the Yale Library. Participants come from all over the world and represent all areas of publishing within organizations of all sizes and types of publications, in 1963, the Press published a revised edition of Ludwig von Misess Human Action. Official website, including a mission statement Yale University Press, London Yale Publishing Course, New Haven, Connecticut
25.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
26.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
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