1.
French Foreign Legion
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The French Foreign Legion is a military service branch of the French Army established in 1831, unique because it was created for foreign nationals willing to serve in the French Armed Forces. Commanded by French officers, it is open to French citizens. This is a way to strengthen them enough to work as a team, although it is part of the French Military, it is the only unit of the military that does not swear allegiance to France, but to the Foreign Legion itself. Consequently, training is described as not only physically challenging. French citizenship may be applied for three years service. Additionally, any soldier who becomes injured during a battle for France immediately becomes a French citizen under a known as Français par le sang versé. As of 2008, members come from 140 countries, the French Foreign Legion was primarily used to protect and expand the French colonial empire during the 19th century. The Foreign Legion was initially stationed only in Algeria, where it took part in the pacification, in World War I, the Foreign Legion fought in many critical battles on the Western Front. It played a role in World War II than in World War I, though having a part in the Norwegian, Syrian. During the First Indochina War, the Foreign Legion saw its numbers swell, the FFL lost a large number of men in the catastrophic Battle of Dien Bien Phu. Notable operations during this period included the Suez Crisis, the Battle of Algiers and various offensives launched by General Maurice Challe including Operations Oranie, in 1990, the Foreign Legion was sent to the Persian Gulf as a part of Opération Daguet. In the 1990s, the Foreign Legion helped with the evacuation of French citizens and foreigners in Rwanda, Gabon, the Foreign Legion was also deployed in Cambodia, Somalia, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the mid- to late-1990s, the Foreign Legion was deployed in the Central African Republic, Congo-Brazzaville, many other countries have tried to emulate the French Foreign Legion model. There have been composed of foreign recruits in China, Israel, the Netherlands, Rhodesia, Russia. The French Foreign Legion was created by Louis Philippe, the King of the French, recruits included soldiers from the recently disbanded Swiss and German foreign regiments of the Bourbon monarchy. The Royal Ordinance for the establishment of the new regiment specified that the foreigners recruited could only serve outside France, the French expeditionary force that had occupied Algiers in 1830 was in need of reinforcements and the Legion was accordingly transferred by sea in detachments from Toulon to Algeria. The Foreign Legion was initially divided into six national battalions, smaller national groups, such as the ten Englishmen recorded in December 1832, appear to have been placed randomly. In late 1831, the first legionnaires landed in Algeria, the country that would be the Foreign Legions homeland for 130 years, the Foreign Legions first service in Algeria came to an end after only four years, as it was needed elsewhere
2.
Algeria
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Algeria, officially the Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a sovereign state in North Africa on the Mediterranean coast. Its capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the far north. With an area of 2,381,741 square kilometres, Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world, the country is a semi-presidential republic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes. Abdelaziz Bouteflika has been President since 1999, Berbers are the indigenous inhabitants of Algeria. Algeria is a regional and middle power, the North African country supplies large amounts of natural gas to Europe, and energy exports are the backbone of the economy. According to OPEC Algeria has the 16th largest oil reserves in the world, Sonatrach, the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa. Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest defence budget on the continent, most of Algerias weapons are imported from Russia, with whom they are a close ally. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC, the countrys name derives from the city of Algiers. The citys name in turn derives from the Arabic al-Jazāir, a form of the older Jazāir Banī Mazghanna. In the region of Ain Hanech, early remnants of hominid occupation in North Africa were found, neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles similar to those in the Levant. Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques, tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called Aterian. The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called Iberomaurusian and this industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the Maghreb between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC and this life, richly depicted in the Tassili nAjjer paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The amalgam of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a native population that came to be called Berbers. These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages, as Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, by the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the Revolt of the Mercenaries, Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthages North African territory, the Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars
3.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
4.
Arabs
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Arabs are an ethnic group inhabiting the Arab world. They primarily live in the Arab states in Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Arabs are first mentioned in the mid-ninth century BCE as a tribal people dwelling in the central Arabian Peninsula. The Arabs appear to have been under the vassalage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, tradition holds that Arabs descend from Ishmael, the son of Abraham. The Arabian Desert is the birthplace of Arab, there are other Arab groups as well that spread in the land and existed for millennia. Before the expansion of the Caliphate, Arab referred to any of the largely nomadic Semitic people from the northern to the central Arabian Peninsula and Syrian Desert. Presently, Arab refers to a number of people whose native regions form the Arab world due to spread of Arabs throughout the region during the early Arab conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries. The Arabs forged the Rashidun, Umayyad and the Abbasid caliphates, whose borders reached southern France in the west, China in the east, Anatolia in the north, and this was one of the largest land empires in history. The Great Arab Revolt has had as big an impact on the modern Middle East as the World War I, the war signaled the end of the Ottoman Empire. They are modern states and became significant as distinct political entities after the fall and defeat, following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945. The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab homeland whilst respecting the sovereignty of its member states. Beyond the boundaries of the League of Arab States, Arabs can also be found in the global diaspora, the ties that bind Arabs are ethnic, linguistic, cultural, historical, identical, nationalist, geographical and political. The Arabs have their own customs, language, architecture, art, literature, music, dance, media, cuisine, dress, society, sports, the total number of Arabs are an estimated 450 million. This makes them the second largest ethnic group after the Han Chinese. Arabs are a group in terms of religious affiliations and practices. In the pre-Islamic era, most Arabs followed polytheistic religions, some tribes had adopted Christianity or Judaism, and a few individuals, the hanifs, apparently observed monotheism. Today, Arabs are mainly adherents of Islam, with sizable Christian minorities, Arab Muslims primarily belong to the Sunni, Shiite, Ibadi, Alawite, Druze and Ismaili denominations. Arab Christians generally follow one of the Eastern Christian Churches, such as the Maronite, Coptic Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, or Chaldean churches. Listed among the booty captured by the army of king Shalmaneser III of Assyria in the Battle of Qarqar are 1000 camels of Gi-in-di-buu the ar-ba-a-a or Gindibu belonging to the Arab
5.
Berbers
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Berbers or Amazighen are an ethnic group indigenous to North Africa. They are distributed in an area stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Siwa Oasis in Egypt, historically, they spoke Berber languages, which together form the Berber branch of the Afro-Asiatic family. The majority of Berbers are predominantly Sunni Muslim, the Berber identity is usually wider than language and ethnicity, and encompasses the entire history and geography of North Africa. Berbers are not an entirely homogeneous ethnicity and they encompass a range of phenotypes, societies and ancestries, the unifying forces for the Berber people may be their shared language, or a collective identification with Berber heritage and history. There are some twenty-five to thirty million Berber speakers in North Africa, the number of ethnic Berbers is far greater, as a large part of the Berbers have acquired other languages over the course of many decades or centuries, and no longer speak Berber today. The majority of North Africas population is believed to be Berber in origin, Berbers call themselves some variant of the word i-Mazigh-en, possibly meaning free people or noble men. The name likely had its ancient parallel in the Roman and Greek names for Berbers, dihya or Kahina was a religious and military leader who led a fierce Berber resistance against the Arab-Muslim expansion in Northwest Africa. Kusaila was a leader of the Awraba tribe of the Berber people. A history by a Roman consul in Africa made the first reference of the barbarian to describe Numidia. The use of the term Berber spread in the following the arrival of the Vandals during their major invasions. The English term was introduced in the 19th century, replacing the earlier Barbary, for the historian Abraham Isaac Laredo the name Amazigh could be derived from the name of the ancestor Mezeg which is the translation of biblical ancestor Dedan son of Sheba in the Targum. According to Leo Africanus, Amazigh meant free man, though this has been disputed, further, it also has a cognate in the Tuareg word Amajegh, meaning noble. The Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines mentioned various tribes with similar names living in Greater Libya in the areas where Berbers were later found, later tribal names differ from the classical sources, but are probably still related to the modern Amazigh. The Meshwesh tribe among them represents the first thus identified from the field, all those names are similar and perhaps foreign renditions of the name used by the Berbers in general for themselves, Imazighen. The Maghreb region in northwestern Africa is believed to have been inhabited by Berbers from at least 10,000 BC, local cave paintings, which have been dated to twelve millennia before present, have been found in the Tassili nAjjer region of southern Algeria. Other rock art has been observed in Tadrart Acacus in the Libyan desert, a Neolithic society, marked by domestication and subsistence agriculture, developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean region of northern Africa between 6000 and 2000 BC. This type of life, richly depicted in the Tassili nAjjer cave paintings of southeastern Algeria, prehistorical Tifinagh scripts were also found in the Oran region. During the pre-Roman era, several independent states existed before the king Masinissa unified the people of Numidia
6.
Thomas Robert Bugeaud
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Thomas Robert Bugeaud, marquis de la Piconnerie, duc dIsly was a Marshal of France and Governor-General of Algeria. He was born at Limoges, a member of a family of Périgord. He ran away home, and for some years lived in the country as an agricultural worker. At the age of twenty he became a soldier in the Vélites of the Imperial Guard. Early in 1806, he was given a commission, and as a Second Lieutenant he served in the Jena and Eylau campaigns, in 1808, he was in the first French corps to enter Spain, and was stationed in Madrid during the revolt of the Dos Mayo. At the first restoration he was made a colonel, but he rejoined Napoleon during the Hundred Days and he spent the fifteen years after the fall of Napoleon without employment, returning to agriculture and developing his home district of Périgord. The July revolution of 1830 reopened his military career and after a tenure of regimental command he was in 1831 made a maréchal de camp. He was re-elected in 1834,1837, and 1839, although he initially disapproved of the conquest of Algeria, his undeviating adherence to Louis Philippe brought him into agreement with the government. He embarked on a campaign to win the swift, complete and he was sent to Africa in a subordinate capacity and proceeded to initiate his war of flying columns. He won his first victory on 7 July 1836, made a brilliant campaign of six weeks duration, and returned home with the rank of lieutenant-general. Finally, in 1840, he was nominated governor-general of Algeria, and early in 1841 he put into force his system of flying columns, a controversial but successful tactic known as Razzia at the time. His swiftness and energy drove back the forces of Abd-el-Kader from place to place, while the devotion of the rank, in 1842, he secured the French positions by undertaking the construction of roads. In 1843, Bugeaud was made marshal of France, and in this and his great victory of Isly on 14 August 1844 won him the title of duke. In 1845, however, he had to take the field again in consequence of the disaster of Sidi Brahim and his resignation was due to differences with the home government on the question of the future government of the province. Amidst his other activities he had time to study the agricultural characteristics of the conquered country. In 1848, the marshal was in Paris during the revolution and he was asked, but eventually refused, to be a candidate for the presidency in opposition to Louis Napoleon. His last public service was the command of the army of the Alps and he died in Paris in 1849. Bugeauds writings were numerous, including his Œuvres militaires, collected by Weil, many reports on Algeria and the war there
7.
Jacques Louis Randon
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Jacques Louis César Alexandre Randon, 1st Count Randon was a French military and political leader, also Marshal of France and governor of Algeria. He was born at Grenoble in Dauphiné, of a Protestant family, later in life he converted to Catholicism, under the influence of his second wife. He was a nephew of General Jean-Gabriel, Count Marchand, the husband of an aunt, revolutionary Antoine-Joseph Barnave was a first cousin of his mother. He enlisted in the French Army at sixteen, joined his uncle Marchand in Warsaw and was promoted to sergeant on 11 April 1812 and he took part in the Russian Campaign, the taking of Moscow and the retreat back. He then fought in Napoleons campaigns in Germany and France, notably at the battles of Lützen, Bautzen and he was Minister of War from January to October 1851, after which he was appointed Governor-General of Algerie. Although initially not in favour of the coup of December 1851 and he was made a Count in 1852, and Marshal of France in 1856, at the same time as Canrobert and Bosquet. He served again as Minister of War from 1859 to 1867 and he received no command during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, because of his high age. Modern research has shown that the accusation is unfounded and that, quite contrarily. He died on 16 January 1871 in Geneva, leaving one surviving daughter. Marshal Randon later remarried to Zénaïde Suin
8.
Emir Abdelkader
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The name Abdelkader is sometimes transliterated as ʿAbd al-Qādir, Abd al-Kader, Abdul Kader or other variants, and he is often referred to as simply the Emir Abdelkader. Ibn Muhieddine is a patronymic meaning son of Muhieddine, and al-Hasani is an honorary patronymic indicating his descent from Hasan ibn Ali and he is also often given the titles emir prince, and shaykh sheik. Abdelkader was born near the town of Mascara in 1808, to a family of religious aristocracy and his father, Muhieddine al-Hasani, was a muqaddam in a religious institution affiliated with the Qadiriyya Sufi order of Islam and claimed descendance from Muhammad, through the Idrisids. Abdelkader was thus a sharif, and entitled to add the honorary patronymic al-Hasani to his name and he grew up in his fathers zawiya, which by the early nineteenth century had become the centre of a thriving community on the banks of the Oued al-Hammam river. Like other students, he received an education in theology, jurisprudence and grammar, it was said that he could read. A gifted student, Abdelkader succeeded in reciting the Quran by heart at the age of 14, thereby receiving the title of hafiz and he was a good orator and could excite his peers with poetry and religious diatribes. In 1825, he set out on the Hajj, the Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca, while there, he encountered Imam Shamil, the two spoke at length on different topics. He also traveled to Damascus and Baghdad, and visited the graves of noted Muslims, such as Shaykh Ibn Arabi and this experience cemented his religious enthusiasm. On his way back to Algeria, he was impressed by the carried out by Muhammad Ali in Egypt. He returned to his homeland a few months before the arrival of the French, in 1830, Algeria was invaded by France, French colonial domination over Algeria eventually supplanted domination by the Ottoman Empire and the Koulouglis. It was at point that Abdelkader came to the fore. At a meeting of the tribes in the autumn of 1832, he was elected Emir. The appointment was confirmed five days later at the Great Mosque of Mascara, using this treaty as a start, he imposed his rule on the tribes of the Chelif, Miliana, and Médéa. Abdelkaders tribal warriors met the French forces in July 1834 at the Battle of Macta, Frances response was to step up its pacification campaign, and under new commanders the French won several important encounters including the Battle of Sikkak. The result, after protracted negotiations, was the Treaty of Tafna and this treaty gave even more control of interior portions of Algeria to Abdelkader, but with the recognition of Frances right to imperial sovereignty. Abdelkader thus won control of all of Oran and extended his reach to the province of Titteri. The period of following the Treaty of Tafna benefited both sides, and the Emir Abdelkader took the opportunity to consolidate a new functional state. He played down his political power, however, repeatedly declining the title of sultan and he first military action was to move south into the Sahara and at-Tijini
9.
Lalla Fatma N'Soumer
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She was seen as the embodiment of the struggle. Lalla, the equivalent of sidi, is an honorific reserved for women of high rank. Fadhma is the Berber spelling of the Arabic name Fatima, which is colloquially pronounced Fatma in most Arabic dialects as well as Berber. Her ashes were transferred in 1994 from the cemetery of Sidi Abdellah,100 meters from the zawiya Boumâali in Tourtatine towards the Square of the Martyrs of El Alia Cemetery. Campagne de 1857, Paris 1858 Adolphe Hanoteau, Poésies populaires de la Kabylie du Jurjura, Paris 1867 Tahar Oussedik, Lalla Fadhma nSummer, Algeri, Laphomic,1983 Boukhalfa Bitam, Fadhma nSoumer
10.
Cheikh Mokrani
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Mohamed El- Mokrani was one of the principal leaders of the popular uprising at the end of 19th century following the French conquest in Bordj Bou Arreridj, Algeria in 1830. Since the Crimean War, the demand for grain had pushed up the price of Algerian wheat to European levels, storage silos were emptied when the world markets impact was felt in Algeria, and Muslim farmers sold their grain reserves — including seed grain — to French speculators. When serious drought struck Algeria and grain crops failed in 1866 and for years following, Muslim areas faced starvation. It was estimated that 20% of the Muslim population of Constantine died over a three-year period, in 1871 the civil authorities repudiated guarantees made to tribal chieftains by the previous military government for loans to replenish their seed supply. This act alienated even pro-French Muslim leaders, while it undercut their ability to control their people and it was against this background of misery and hopelessness that the stricken Kabyles rose in revolt. Mohand at-AMokrane was the son of Ahmed AMokrane one of the governors of the area of Medjana located in the highlands of Kabylie, after the death of Ahmed -AMokrane, the French authorities appointed Mohand in his place. However following dissension with the French administration, he resigned from his position in March 1871 and this conflict happened as a result of the colonial authorities disregarding at-aMokrane, creating a French-populated commune of Bordj Bou Arréridj and appointing a French officer as its head. Using his position and influence on Rahmania brotherhood sheikh mohand-aMokrane was able to overcome the dissension in his camp, after having carried several battles Mohand Amokrane was martyred on May 5,1871 at Taouraga. His tomb is located in kollaa nat-Abbas, under the command of his brother Oumzrag, the uprising continued until January 20,1872, date of his arrest and deportation to New Kaledonia, an island in the pacific. After the arrest of Sheik-el-Haddad, the continued under Bouamama. There were also other small insurrectionary movements at Blessed-Menaceur, which forces besieged Cherchel, Zurich, Vesoul-Benian and Hammam-Rirha, from July to September 1872, French forces had still to completely subdued Kabylie. Bou-Mezrag took refuge at Maadid, and later managed to escape the French finding allies among the Tuareg tribes of the South, the general Delacroix, with a small expeditionary force, continued to pursue the rebels until beyond Ouargla. BouMezrag Mokrani, which had remained six days without drinking nor to eat, was finally captured removed, the insurrection, which had begun on March 16,1871 in Medjana was finished on January 20,1872 by the arrest of Bou-Mezrag. Although a third only of Algeria had taken part in the movement, exile of the brother of El-Mokrani and the whole family to the New Caledonia occurred shortly afterwards. Together with them 212 persons, called Kabyles du Pacifique, who participated in the revolt were tried and deported by French authorities to labor camps on the island of New Caledonia, mokranis descendants still live on the island
11.
French conquest of Algeria
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The French conquest of Algeria took place between 1830 and 1847. Algerian resistance forces were divided between forces under Ahmed Bey at Constantine, primarily in the east, and nationalist forces in Kabylie and the west. Treaties with the nationalists under Abd al-Qādir enabled the French to first focus on the elimination of the remaining Ottoman threat, al-Qādir continued to give stiff resistance in the west. He surrendered to French forces in 1847, the territory now known as Algeria was only partially under the Ottoman Empires control in 1830. The dey ruled the entire Regency of Algiers, but only exercised direct control in and around Algiers, with Beyliks established in a few outlying areas, including Oran and Constantine. The remainder of the territory, while nominally Ottoman, was effectively under the control of local Arab, the dey acted largely independently of the Ottoman Emperor, although he was supported by Turkish Janissary troops stationed in Algiers. The territory was bordered to the west by the Sultanate of Morocco, the western border, nominally the Tafna River, was particularly porous since there were shared tribal connections that crossed it. The Regency of Algiers, was one of the bases of the Barbary pirates and Barbary Slave Traders who attacked Christian ships and coastal settlements in the Mediterranean. Like the rest of the Barbary Coast, the Regency of Algiers lived from the trade of slaves or goods captured from Europe, America and sub-Saharan Africa. The European powers bombarded Algiers on different occasions in retaliation and the United States provoked the Barbary Wars in order to put an end to Algerine privateering against Christian shipping and he believed he would bolster patriotic sentiment and turn eyes away from his domestic policies. Algerine slave trade and piracy ceased when the French conquered Algiers. In 1795–96, the French Republic had contracted to purchase wheat for the French army from two Jewish merchants in Algiers, and Charles X was apparently uninterested in paying off the Republics debt. These merchants, who had debts to Hussein Dey, the Ottoman ruler of Algiers, devals nephew Alexandre, the consul in Bône, further angered the dey by fortifying French storehouses in Bône and La Calle against the terms of prior agreements. After a contentious meeting in which Deval refused to provide answers on 29 April 1827. Charles X used this slight against his diplomatic representative to first demand an apology from the dey, and then to initiate a blockade against the port of Algiers. The blockade lasted for three years, and was primarily to the detriment of French merchants who were unable to do business with Algiers, while Barbary pirates were still able to evade the blockade. When France in 1829 sent an ambassador to the dey with a proposal for negotiations, the French then determined that more forceful action was required. Polignac opened negotiations with Muhammad Ali of Egypt to essentially divide up North Africa, Ali, who was strongly under British influence, eventually rejected this idea
12.
Ghazi (warrior)
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The related word ghazwa is a singulative form meaning a battle or military expedition, often one led by the Islamic prophet Muhammad. In English language literature, the word appears as razzia. In pre-Islamic Bedouin culture, ghazw was a form of limited warfare verging on brigandage that avoided head-on confrontations and instead emphasized raiding and looting, usually of livestock. The word was adopted from ġaziya of Algerian Arabic vernacular and later became a name for any act of pillage. The verbal noun of ġazā is ġazw or ġazawān, with the meaning raiding, a derived singulative in ġazwah refers to a single battle or raid. The term ghāzī dates to at least the Samanid period, where he appears as a mercenary and frontier fighter in Khorasan, later, up to 20,000 of them took part in the Indian campaigns of Mahmud of Ghazni. Ghāzī warriors depended upon plunder for their livelihood, and were prone to brigandage, the corporations into which they organized themselves attracted adventurers, zealots and religious and political dissidents of all ethnicities. In the west, Turkic ghāzīs made continual incursions along the Byzantine frontier zone, the height of the organizations would come during the Mongol conquest when many of them fled from Persia and Turkistan into Anatolia. In an inscription of 1337, Orhan, second ruler of the Ottoman line, describes himself as Sultan, son of the Sultan of the Gazis, the Ottoman poet Ahmedi, writing ca. 1402, defines gazis as the instruments of Gods religion, a servant of God who cleanses the earth from the filth of polytheism, the first nine Ottoman chiefs all used Ghazi as part of their full throne name, and often afterwards. When they won victories in the ghazā in the Balkans they used to send accounts of them as well as slaves, some Muslim rulers personally used the subsidiary style Padshah-i-Ghazi. The first Ghazwa he participated in was the Invasion of Waddan in August 623, when performed within the context of Islamic warfare, the ghazws function was to weaken the enemys defenses in preparation for his eventual conquest and subjugation. Non-Muslims acquired the status of dhimmīs, living under its protection, most Christian sources confuse these two stages in the Ottoman conquests. The Ottomans, however, were careful to abide by these rules, peasants in open country in particular lost nothing by this change. One such source is Averroes Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa-Nihāyat al-Muqtasid, in the 19th century, Muslim fighters in North Caucasus who were resisting the Russian military operations declared a gazawat against the Russian Orthodox invasion. Although uncertain, it is believed that Dagestani Islamic scholar Muhammad Yaragskii was the ideologist of this holy war, in 1825, a congress of ulema in the village of Yarag declared gazawat against the Russians. Its first leader was Ghazi Muhammad, after his death, Imam Shamil would eventually continue it, during the Second Chechen War, Chechnya announced gazawat against Russia. After the terrorist attacks on Paris in November 2015, the Islamic State group is said to have referred to its actions as ghazwa, probably the most famous use of the term ghazwa is in the phrase Manhattan Raid, used by Al-Qaeda to refer to the September 11th attacks
13.
Massacre
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A massacre is a specific incident which involves the killing of people, although not necessarily a crime against humanity. Further origins are dubious, though may be related to Latin macellum provisions store, robert Melsons basic working definition, reads, by massacre we shall mean the intentional killing by political actors of a significant number of relatively defenseless people. The motives for massacre need not be rational in order for the killings to be intentional, Mass killings can be carried out for various reasons, including a response to false rumors. Should be distinguished from criminal or pathological mass killings, as political bodies we of course include the state and its agencies, but also nonstate actors. Equally important is that massacres are not carried out by individuals, the use of superior, even overwhelming force. Levene excludes legal, or even some quasi-legal, mass executions and he also points out that it is. most often. When the act is outside the normal bounds of the society witnessing it. List of events named massacres Disaster Ethnic cleansing Genocide Killing spree Mass murder Pogrom Tragedy Tragedy War crime
14.
Unconventional warfare
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Unconventional warfare is the opposite of conventional warfare. The general objective of unconventional warfare is to instill a belief that peace, two original definition are claiming, The intent of U. S. The ultimate goal of this type of warfare is to motivate an enemy to stop attacking or resisting even if it has the ability to continue, failing this, a secondary objective can be to debilitate the enemy before a conventional attack. Limited conventional warfare tactics can be used unconventionally to demonstrate might, in addition to the surgical application of traditional weapons, other armaments that specifically target military can be used are, nuclear weapons, incendiary devices, or other such weapons. Special Forces, inserted deep behind enemy lines, are used unconventionally to train, equip and they can also spread subversion and propaganda, while they aid native resistance fighters, to ultimately cause a hostile government to capitulate. Tactics focus on destroying military targets while avoiding damage to civilian infrastructure, guerrilla Warfare, Counterinsurgency, and Counterterrorism, 1940–1990 Pentagon plans cyber-insect army
15.
Invasion of Algiers in 1830
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The Invasion of Algiers in 1830 was a large-scale military operation by which the Kingdom of France, ruled by Charles X, invaded and conquered the Ottoman Regency of Algiers. Algiers had been a province of the Ottoman Empire since the Capture of Algiers in 1529 by Hayreddin Barbarossa, a diplomatic incident in 1827, the so-called Fan Affair served as a pretext to initiate a blockade against the port of Algiers. Charles X was also in need of diverting attention from turbulent French domestic affairs that culminated with his deposition during the stages of the invasion in the July Revolution. The invasion of Algiers began on 5 July 1830 with a bombardment by a fleet under Admiral Duperré. The French quickly defeated the troops of Hussein Dey, the Ottoman ruler and this resulted in a protracted military campaign, lasting more than 45 years, to root out popular opposition to the colonisation. The so-called pacification was marked by resistance of such as Ahmed Bey, Abd El-Kader. The invasion marked the end of several centuries of Ottoman rule in Algeria, in 1848, the territories conquered around Algiers were organised into three départements, defining the territories of modern Algeria. During the Napoleonic Wars, the Regency of Algiers had greatly benefited from trade in the Mediterranean, the Bourbon Restoration limited trading, while the Mediterranean was completely controlled by the British Royal Navy, and the rebuilding French Navy. This in turn led to the First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War, the wide unpopularity of the Bourbon Restoration also made France unstable. In an attempt to distract his people from domestic affairs, King Charles X decided to engage in a colonial policy. In 1827, Hussein Dey, Algerias Ottoman ruler, demanded that the French pay a 28-year-old debt, the French consul Pierre Deval refused to give answers satisfactory to the dey, and in an outburst of anger, Hussein Dey touched the consul with his fly-whisk. Charles X used this as an excuse to initiate a blockade against the port of Algiers. The blockade lasted for three years, and was primarily to the detriment of French merchants who were unable to do business with Algiers, while Barbary pirates were still able to evade the blockade. When France in 1829 sent an ambassador to the dey with a proposal for negotiations, the French then determined that more forceful action was required. King Charles X decided to organise an expedition on the coasts of Algiers to punish the impudence of the dey. The naval part of the operation was given to Admiral Duperré and he was nevertheless given command of the fleet. The land part was under the orders of Louis Auguste Victor de Ghaisne, on 16 May, a fleet comprising 103 warships and 464 transports departed Toulon, carrying a 37, 612-man strong army. The ground was well-known, thanks to observations made during the First Empire, the vanguard of the fleet arrived off Algiers on 31 May, but it took until 14 June for the entire fleet to arrive
16.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
17.
Ottoman Algeria
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The regency of Algiers, is an ancient state of North Africa which, from 1515 to 1830, preceded the french conquest of Algeria. Each beylik was divided into various outan with at their head the caïds directly under the bey, to administer the interior of the country, the administration relied on the tribes said makhzen. These tribes were responsible for securing order and collect taxes on the regions of the country. It was through this system that, for three centuries, the State of Algiers extended its authority over the north of Algeria, however, society is still divided into tribes and dominated by maraboutics brotherhoods or local djouads. Several regions of the country thus only lightly recognize the authority of Algiers, throughout its history, they have formed or continue many revolts, confederations, tribal fiefs or sultanates on the confines of the regency. Around the same time, the Ottoman privateer brothers Oruç and Hayreddin—both known to Europeans as Barbarossa, or Red Beard—were operating successfully off Tunisia under the Hafsids. In 1516, Oruç moved his base of operations to Algiers and asked for the protection of the Ottoman Empire in 1517, Hayreddin succeeded him as military commander of Algiers. Oruç, Hayreddin Barbarossas brother, captured Algiers in 1516, apart from the Spanish Peñón of Algiers, before Ottoman help could arrive, the Spanish retook the city of Algiers in 1519. Barbarossa recaptured the city definitively in 1525, and in 1529 the Spanish Peñon in the capture of Algiers, Hayreddin Barbarossa established the military basis of the regency. The Ottomans provided a garrison of 2,000 Turkish troops with artillery. He left Hasan Agha in command as his deputy when he had to leave for Constantinople in 1533, the son of Barbarossa, Hasan Pashan was in 1544, when his father retired, the first governor of the Regency to be directly appointed by the Ottoman Empire. He took the title of beylerbey, Algiers became a base in the war against Spain, and also in the Ottoman conflicts with Morocco. Beylerbeys continued to be nominated for unlimited tenures until 1587, at this time, the Ottoman Empire set up a regular Ottoman administration in Algiers and its dependencies, headed by Pashas, with 3 year terms to help considate Ottoman power in the Maghreb. In the early 17th century, Algiers also became, along with other North African ports such as Tunis, there were as many as 8,000 renegades in the city in 1634. Hayreddin Barbarossa is credited with tearing down the Peñón of Algiers, Spain, Denmark, France, England, all led naval bombardments against Algiers. Abraham Duquesne fought the Barbary pirates in 1681 and bombarded Algiers between 1682 and 1683, to help Christian captives, in the mid-1700s Dano-Norwegian trade in the Mediterranean expanded. In order to protect the business against piracy, Denmark-Norway had secured a peace deal with the states of Barbary Coast. It involved paying a tribute to the individual rulers and additionally to the States
18.
French Algeria
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French Algeria began in 1827 with the blockade of Algiers by the French navy and lasted from 1830 to 1962, under a variety of governmental systems. From 1848 until independence, the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria was administered as an part of France. The vast arid interior of Algeria, like the rest of French North Africa, was never considered part of France, one of Frances longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants, known as colons and later, as pieds-noirs. However, indigenous Muslims remained a majority of the population throughout its history. Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population with its lack of political and economic status fueled calls for political autonomy. Tensions between the two groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the Algerian War began. The war concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 Evian agreements, since the 1516 capture of Algiers by the Ottoman admirals, the brothers Oruç and Hayreddin Barbarossa, Algeria had been a base for conflict and piracy in the Mediterranean. In 1681, Louis XIV asked Admiral Abraham Duquesne to fight the Berber pirates, again, dEstrées bombarded Tripoli and Algiers from 1685 to 1688. An ambassador from Algiers visited the Court in Versailles, and a Treaty was signed in 1690 that provided peace throughout the 18th century, however, Bonaparte refused to pay the bill back, claiming it was excessive. In 1820, Louis XVIII paid back half of the Directorys debts, the dey, who had loaned to the Bacri 250,000 francs, requested from France the rest of the money. The Dey of Algiers himself was politically, economically. Algeria was then part of the Barbary States, along with todays Tunisia – which depended on the Ottoman Empire then led by Mahmud II —, the Barbary Coast was then the stronghold of the Berber pirates, which carried out raids against European and American ships. Conflicts between the Barbary States and the newly independent United States of America culminated in the First, an Anglo-Dutch force, led by Admiral Lord Exmouth, carried out a punitive expedition, the August 1816 bombardment of Algiers. The Dey was forced to sign the Barbary treaties, while the advance of U. S. British. The name of Algeria itself came from the French and his intention was to bolster patriotic sentiment, and distract attention from ineptly handled domestic policies by skirmishing against the dey. In the 1790s, France had contracted to purchase wheat for the French army from two merchants in Algiers, Messrs, Bacri and Boushnak, and was in arrears paying them. These merchants, Bacri and Boushnak who had debts to the dey, devals nephew Alexandre, the consul in Bône, further angered the dey by fortifying French storehouses in Bône and La Calle against the terms of prior agreements. After a contentious meeting in which Deval refused to provide answers on 29 April 1827
19.
Colonization
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Colonization is a process by which a central system of power dominates the surrounding land and its components. The term is derived from the Latin word colere, which means to inhabit, Colonization was linked to the spread of tens of millions from Western European states all over the world. In many settled colonies, Western European settlers formed a majority of the population. Examples include the Americas, Australia and New Zealand and these colonies were occasionally called neo-Europes. In other places, Western European settlers formed minority groups, who were dominant in their places of settlement. When Britain started to settle Australia, New Zealand and various smaller islands. Terra nullius meaning empty land in Latin, due to the absence of European farming techniques, the land was deemed unaltered by man and therefore treated as uninhabited, despite the presence of indigenous populations. In the 19th century, laws and ideas such as Mexicos General Colonization Law, in ancient times, maritime nations such as the city-states of Greece and Phoenicia often established colonies to farm what they believed was uninhabited land. Land suitable for farming was often occupied by migratory barbarian tribes who lived by hunting and gathering, to ancient Greeks and Phoenicians, these lands were regarded as simply vacant. However, this did not mean that conflict did not exist between the colonizers and local/native peoples, Greeks and Phoenicians also established colonies with the intent of regulating and expanding trade throughout the Mediterranean and Middle East. Another period of colonization in ancient times was during the Roman Empire, the Roman Empire conquered large parts of Western Europe, North Africa and West Asia. In North Africa and West Asia, the Romans often conquered what they regarded as civilized peoples, as they moved north into Europe, they mostly encountered rural peoples/tribes with very little in the way of cities. In these areas, waves of Roman colonization often followed the conquest of the areas, the decline and collapse of the Roman Empire saw the large-scale movement of people in Eastern Europe and Asia. During this period there were the movements of peoples establishing new colonies all over western Europe. The events of time saw the development of many of the modern day nations of Europe like the Franks in France and Germany. In West Asia, during Sassanid Empire, some Persians established colonies in Yemen, the Vikings of Scandinavia also carried out a large-scale colonization. The Vikings are best known as raiders, setting out from their homelands in Denmark, southern Norway and southern Sweden. In time, the Vikings began trading, and established colonies, the Vikings discovered Iceland and established colonies before moving onto Greenland, where they briefly held some colonies
20.
Mascara, Algeria
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Mascara is the capital city of Mascara Province, Algeria, in northwestern Algeria. It was founded in the 10th century by the Banu Ifran, a Berber tribe and was the city of Emir Abd al-Qadir. Mascara is an administrative, commercial and a market centre and its trade is mostly centered on leather goods, grains, and olive oil, but it is especially famous for its good wine. It has good road and rail connections with other centres of Algeria. Relizane is 65 kilometres northeast, Sidi Bel Abbes 90 km southwest, Oran 105 kkm northwest, Mascara has two parts, a newer French area, and an older Muslim one. Large parts of the town lie inside the ruins of its ancient ramparts, the city is home of Lakhdar Belloumi, the former Algerian football star. 1701, Ottomans built a garrison in the town. Many Muslims with Andalucian origins were settled there by the Ottomans,1708, The Muslim tribes of Mascara led by the bey Mustapha Ben Youcef captured the city of Oran and expelled the Spaniards while they were busy in the War of the Spanish Succession. 1732, Spain regains control of Oran,1790, Famine and sickness had begun to aggravate the situation in Oran when the bey of Mascara appeared before the town with 30,000 men. The Spanish commander held out till August 1791, when the Spanish government, having made terms with the bey of Algiers, was allowed to set sail for Spain with their guns and ammunition. The bey Mohammed took possession of Oran in March 1792,1832, Abd al-Qadir makes Mascara his headquarters. 1835, Mascara is destroyed by the French,1841, The French establish full control over Mascara. August 18,1994, An earthquake measuring 5.7 on the moment magnitude scale, Mascara is twinned with, Bursa, Turkey Elkader, Iowa, United States Tifariti, Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic
21.
Jihad
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Jihad is an Arabic word which literally means striving or struggling, especially with a praiseworthy aim. It can have many shades of meaning in an Islamic context, such as struggle against ones evil inclinations, in classical Islamic law, the term refers to armed struggle against unbelievers, while modernist Islamic scholars generally equate military jihad with defensive warfare. In Sufi and pious circles, spiritual and moral jihad has been traditionally emphasized under the name of greater jihad, the term has gained additional attention in recent decades through its use by terrorist groups. The word jihad appears frequently in the Quran with and without military connotations, Islamic jurists and other ulema of the classical era understood the obligation of jihad predominantly in a military sense. They developed a set of rules pertaining to jihad, including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat. In the modern era, the notion of jihad has lost its jurisprudential relevance, while modernist Islamic scholars have emphasized defensive and non-military aspects of jihad, some Islamists have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical theory. Jihad is classified into inner jihad, which involves a struggle against ones own impulses, and external jihad. Most Western writers consider external jihad to have primacy over inner jihad in the Islamic tradition, gallup analysis of a large survey reveals considerable nuance in the conceptions of jihad held by Muslims around the world. Jihad is sometimes referred to as the pillar of Islam. In Twelver Shia Islam jihad is one of the ten Practices of the Religion, a person engaged in jihad is called a mujahid. The term jihad is often rendered in English as Holy War, in Modern Standard Arabic, the term jihad is used for a struggle for causes, both religious and secular. The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic defines the term as fight, battle, jihad, nonetheless, it is usually used in the religious sense and its beginnings are traced back to the Quran and words and actions of Muhammad. In the Quran and in later Muslim usage, jihad is commonly followed by the expression fi sabil illah, in the path of God. Muhammad Abdel-Haleem states that it indicates the way of truth and justice, including all the teachings it gives on the justifications and it is sometimes used without religious connotation, with a meaning similar to the English word crusade. The context of the Quran is elucidated by Hadith, of the 199 references to jihad in perhaps the most standard collection of hadith—Bukhari—all assume that jihad means warfare. He said, The best jihad is the one in which your horse is slain, Ibn Nuhaas also cited a hadith from Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, where Muhammad states that the highest kind of jihad is The person who is killed whilst spilling the last of his blood. According to another hadith, supporting one’s parents is also an example of jihad and it has also been reported that Muhammad considered well-performing hajj to be the best jihad for Muslim women. The practice of raids by Bedouin against enemy tribes and settlements to collect spoils predates the revelations of the Quran
22.
Mascara
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Mascara is a cosmetic commonly used to enhance the eyelashes. It may darken, thicken, lengthen, and/or define the eyelashes, normally in one of three forms—liquid, cake, or cream—the modern mascara product has various formulas, however, most contain the same basic components of pigments, oils, waxes, and preservatives. The Collins English Dictionary defines mascara as, a substance for darkening, lengthening, curling, coloring. The Oxford English Dictionary adds that mascara is used on the eyebrows as well. The OED also references mascaro from works published in the late 15th century. In 1886, the Peck & Snyder Catalogue advertises, “Mascaro or Water Cosmetique… For darkening the eyebrow and moustaches without greasing them and making them prominent. ”In 1890, the Century Dictionary defined mascara as “a kind of paint used for the eyebrows and eyelashes by actors. ”And in 1894, N. Lynn advises in Lynn’s Practical Hints for Making-up, “to darken eyelashes, paint with mascara, or black paint, with a small brush. The Oxford English Dictionary also cites an alternative Catalan definition that describes soot or a black smear, there is even strong support for a possible source from the Arabic word maskharah or ‘buffoon’. The Hebrew word משקרות as relating to womens eyes is found in Isaiah 3,16, latin treatises sometimes used the word mascara when referring to witches. Aesthetic adornment is a universal and mascara can be documented in ancient Egypt. Records from around 4000 BC refer to a substance called kohl that was used to darken eyelashes, eyes, kohl was used to mask the eyes, believed to ward off evil spirits and protect the soul, by both men and women. Often composed of galena, malachite, and charcoal or soot, crocodile stool, honey, through Egypt’s influence, kohl usage persisted in the subsequent Babylonian, Greek and Roman empires. Makeup was considered unsightly and uncouth in Western culture until the Victorian era, during the Victorian era, social opinion shifted radically towards the promotion of cosmetics, and women were known to spend a majority of their day occupied with beauty regimens. Great efforts were made to create the illusion of long, dark eyelashes, attempting this, Victorian women made a type of mascara in their own homes. They would heat a mixture of ash or lampblack and elderberry juice on a plate, the product that people would recognize as mascara today did not develop until the 19th century. A chemist named Eugene Rimmel developed a cosmetic using the newly invented petroleum jelly, the name Rimmel became synonymous with the substance and still translates to “mascara” in the Portuguese, Spanish, Greek, Turkish, Romanian, and Persian languages today. Across the Atlantic Ocean and at roughly the time, in 1913. Later in 1917, he started a business from the product that grew to become the company Maybelline. The mascara developed by two men consisted of petroleum jelly and coal in a set ratio
23.
Tlemcen
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Tlemcen is a city in north-western Algeria, and the capital of the province of the same name. The city has developed leather, carpet, and textile industries and it had a population of 140,158 at the 2008 census, while the province had 949,135 inhabitants. The origin of the name Tlemcen is uncertain, but the word has a Berber structure, one theory traces the name to the Berber words Tala Imsan, which means the dry spring. The name is sometimes spelled Tlemsen, Tlemsan, or Tilimsen, the town is the ancient capital of central Maghreb, and was founded by the local Berbers. Its centuries of history and culture have made the city a center of a unique blend of music. Its textiles and handcrafts, its elegant blend of Berber and Al-Andalusian cultures and it is home to a beautiful tomb - that of Sidi Boumédiène, whose tomb adjoins to a mosque. The Great Mosque at Tlemcen was completed in 1136 and is said to be the most remarkable remaining example of Almoravid architecture, Tlemcen was founded by the Romans in the 2nd century CE under the name of Pomaria as a military outpost. It was an important city in North Africa see of the Roman Catholic Church in the century in which it was built, where it was the center of a diocese. Its bishop, Victor, was a prominent representative at the Council of Carthage in 411 and it was a center of a large Christian population for many centuries after the citys Arab conquest in 708 AD. In the later eighth century and the century, the city became a Kingdom of Banu Ifran of the Kharijite sufri. In 1082 the Almoravid leader Yusuf ibn Tashfin founded the city of Tagrart, Tlemcen probably passed from Almoravid to Almohad control in the mid-twelfth century. However, in the thirteenth century, Ibn Ghaniya attempted to restore Almoravid control of the Maghreb. In about 1209, the region around Tlemcen was devastated by retreating Almoravid forces, despite the destruction of Tlemcens already-feeble agricultural base, Tlemcen rose to prominence as a major trading and administrative center in the region under the succeeding reign of the Almohads. After the end of Almohad rule during the 1230s, Tlemcen became the capital of one of three states, the Zayyanid Kingdom of Tlemcen. It was thereafter ruled for centuries by successive Ziyyanid sultans and its flag was a white crescent pointing upwards on a blue field. In particular, Tlemcen was one of the points through which African gold entered the European hands, consequently, Tlemcen was partially integrated into the European financial system. So, for example, Genoese bills of exchange circulated there, at the peak of its success, in the first half of the fourteenth century, Tlemcen was a city of perhaps 40,000 inhabitants. It housed several well-known madrasas and numerous wealthy religious foundations, becoming the intellectual center of the central Maghreb
24.
Constantine (Algeria)
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Constantine is the capital of Constantine Province in north-eastern Algeria. During Roman times it was called Cirta and was renamed Constantina in honour of emperor Constantine the Great and it was the capital of the same-named French département until 1962. Slightly inland, it is about 80 kilometres from the Mediterranean coast, regarded as the capital of eastern Algeria and the centre of its region, Constantine has a population of 448,374, making it the third largest city in the country after Algiers and Oran. There are museums and important historical sites around the city and it is often referred to as the City of Bridges due to the numerous picturesque bridges connecting the mountains the city is built on. The city was created by the Phoenicians, who called it Sewa. Later it was renamed Cirta, by the Numidian king Syphax, the city was taken over by Numidia, the country of the Berber people, after the Phoenicians were defeated by Rome in the Third Punic War. In 112 BC the city was occupied by Jugurtha who defeated his half-brother Adherbal, the city later served as the base for Roman generals Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus and Gaius Marius in their war against Jugurtha. Later, with the removal of King Juba I and the supporters of Pompey in Africa, Julius Caesar gave special rights to the citizens of Cirta. In 311, during the war between emperor Maxentius and usurper Domitius Alexander, the city was destroyed. Rebuilt in 313, it was named after emperor Constantine the Great. Captured by the Vandals in 432, Constantine returned to the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa from 534 to 697 and it was conquered by the Arabs in the 7th century, receiving the name of Qusantina. The city recovered in the 12th century and under Almohad and Hafsid rule it was again a market, with links to Pisa, Genoa. Since 1529 it was part of Ottoman Empire, ruled by a Turkish bey subordinate to the dey of Algiers. Salah Bey, who ruled the city in 1770–1792, greatly embellished it, in 1826 the last bey, Ahmed Bey ben Mohamed Chérif, became the new head of state. He led a resistance against French forces, which invaded Algeria four years later. By 13 October 1837, the territory was captured by France, under the French rule, there were Muslim anti-Jewish riots in Constantine in 1934 when 34 Jews were killed. In World War II, during the campaign in North Africa, Constantine, for this, he received the 1907 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. This was the first time that protozoa were shown to be a cause of disease and his work helped inspire researchers and veterinarians today to try to find a cure for malaria in animals
25.
Napoleonic Wars
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The wars resulted from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and the Revolutionary Wars, which had raged on for years before concluding with the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. Napoleon became the First Consul of France in 1799, then Emperor five years later, inheriting the political and military struggles of the Revolution, he created a state with stable finances, a strong central bureaucracy, and a well-trained army. The British frequently financed the European coalitions intended to thwart French ambitions, by 1805, they had managed to convince the Austrians and the Russians to wage another war against France. At sea, the Royal Navy destroyed a combined Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in October 1805, Prussian worries about increasing French power led to the formation of the Fourth Coalition in 1806. France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July, although Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, it did not bring a lasting peace for Europe. Hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia, the Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support. The Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, the Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia. Unwilling to bear the consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse and retreat of the Grand Army along with the destruction of Russian lands. In 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France, a lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813. The Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814 and he was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power. However, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again, the Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June. The Congress of Vienna, which started in 1814 and concluded in 1815, established the new borders of Europe and laid out the terms, Napoleon seized power in 1799, creating a de facto military dictatorship. The Napoleonic Wars began with the War of the Third Coalition, Kagan argues that Britain was irritated in particular by Napoleons assertion of control over Switzerland. Furthermore, Britons felt insulted when Napoleon stated that their country deserved no voice in European affairs, for its part, Russia decided that the intervention in Switzerland indicated that Napoleon was not looking toward a peaceful resolution of his differences with the other European powers. The British quickly enforced a blockade of France to starve it of resources. Napoleon responded with economic embargoes against Britain, and sought to eliminate Britains Continental allies to break the coalitions arrayed against him, the so-called Continental System formed a league of armed neutrality to disrupt the blockade and enforce free trade with France
26.
Scorched earth
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A scorched earth policy is a military strategy that targets anything that might be useful to the enemy while advancing through or withdrawing from an area. Specifically, all of the assets that are used or can be used by the enemy are targeted, such as sources, transportation, communications, industrial resources. The practice can be carried out by the military in enemy territory and it may overlap with, but is not the same as, punitive destruction of the enemys resources, which is done for purely strategic/political reasons rather than strategic/operational reasons. The strategy of destroying the food and water supply of the population in an area of conflict has been banned under Article 54 of Protocol I of the 1977 Geneva Conventions. The Scythians used scorched earth methods against King Darius the Great of Persia, the Scythians, who were nomadic herders, retreated into the depths of the Steppes, destroying food supplies and poisoning wells. Many of Darius troops died from starvation and dehydration, the Greek general Xenophon records in his Anabasis that the Armenians burned their crops and food supplies as they withdrew before the advance of the Ten Thousand. The Greek mercenary general Memnon suggested to the Persian Satraps the use of the scorched earth policy against Alexander as he moved into Asia Minor, the system of punitive destruction of property and subjugation of people when accompanying a military campaign was known as vastatio. Two of the first uses of scorched earth recorded both happened in the Gallic Wars, after the Helvetii were defeated by a combined Roman-Gallic force, the Helvetii were forced to rebuild themselves on the shattered German and Swiss plains they themselves had destroyed. The second case shows actual military value, during the Great Gallic War the Gauls under Vercingetorix planned to lure the Roman armies into Gaul and then trap, to this end, they ravaged the countryside of what are now the Benelux countries and France. This did cause problems for the Romans, but Roman military triumphs over the Gallic alliance showed that this alone was not enough to save Gaul from subjugation by Rome. During the Second Punic War in 218–202 BC, the Carthaginians used this method selectively while storming through Italy, after the end of the Third Punic War in 146 BC, the Roman Senate also elected to use this method to permanently destroy the Carthaginian capital city, Carthage. The buildings were torn down, their stones scattered so not even rubble remained, however, the story that they salted the earth is apocryphal. Julian might expect, that a conqueror, who possessed the two instruments of persuasion, steel and gold, would easily procure a plentiful subsistence from the fears or avarice of the natives. But, on the approach of the Romans, the rich, the Danes left Chester next year and marched into Wales. In the Harrying of the North, William the Conquerors solution to stop a rebellion in 1069 was the brutal conquest, williams men burnt whole villages from the Humber to Tees, and slaughtered the inhabitants. Food stores and livestock were destroyed so that surviving the initial massacre would soon succumb to starvation over the winter. The destruction is depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry, the survivors were reduced to cannibalism, with one report stating that the skulls of the dead were cracked open so that the brains could be eaten. Between 100,000 and 150,000 perished and the area took centuries to recover from the damage, during the Hundred Years War, both the English and the French conducted chevauchée raids over the enemy territory to damage its infrastructure
27.
Battle of the Smala
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The Battle of the Smala was fought in 1843 between France and Algerian resistance fighters during the French conquest of Algeria. The French, led by Henri dOrleans, duke of Aumale, raided the encampment of Algerian resistance leader Abd al-Qadir on 16 May 1843, the 500 French cavalrymen surprised the camp defenders, who fired a single volley before scattering. More than 3,000 of al-Qadirs followers were captured, as were many of his possessions, including his warchest, three days later, another 2,500 followers were captured. Al-Qadir fled to Morocco later that year, triggering French pressure on Morocco and he was eventually captured in 1847, ending major Algerian resistance to the French colonial occupation. The Tricolor on the Atlas The life of Abdel Kader
28.
Franco-Moroccan War
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The Franco-Moroccan War was fought between France and Morocco in 1844. The principal cause of war was the retreat of Algerian resistance leader Abd al-Qādir into Morocco following French victories over many of his supporters during the French conquest of Algeria. Abd Al-Qādir had begun using northeastern Morocco as a refuge and a base as early as 1840. France made repeated demands to Sultan Abd al-Rahman to stop Moroccan support for Abd al-Qādir. Tensions were heightened in 1843, when French forces chased a column of Abd al-Qādir supporters deep into Morocco and these men included Alawī tribesmen from Morocco, and French authorities interpreted their actions as a de facto declaration of war. An attempt to dislodge these troops peacefully in late May 1844 failed when Alawī tribal fighters fired on the French and were driven back to Oujda. Rumors surrounding this incident fanned the flames of jihad in Morocco, the war began on August 6,1844, when a French fleet under the command of the Prince de Joinville conducted a naval bombardment of the city of Tangiers. The conflict peaked on August 14,1844 at the Battle of Isly, a large Moroccan force led by the sultans son Sīdī Mohammed was defeated by a smaller French royal force under Marshal Bugeaud. Essaouira, Moroccos main Atlantic trade port, was attacked in the Bombardment of Mogador, by 1847 the sultans forces were in jihad against Abd al-Qādir, who surrendered to French forces in December 1847. Alaouite sultanate of Morocco Second Franco-Moroccan War Rif War France-Morocco relations Bennison, jihad and its interpretations in pre-colonial Morocco, state-society relations during the French conquest of Algeria. Chronology, The July Monarchy 1830 -1848 Armed Conflict Events Database, Franco-Moroccan War 124 B. C. -1912 A. D
29.
Damascus
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Damascus is the capital and likely the largest city of Syria, following the decline in population of Aleppo due to the ongoing battle for the city. It is commonly known in Syria as ash-Sham and nicknamed as the City of Jasmine, in addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major cultural and religious centre of the Levant. The city has an population of 1,711,000 as of 2009. Located in south-western Syria, Damascus is the centre of a metropolitan area of 2.6 million people. The Barada River flows through Damascus, first settled in the second millennium BC, it was chosen as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate from 661 to 750. After the victory of the Abbasid dynasty, the seat of Islamic power was moved to Baghdad, Damascus saw a political decline throughout the Abbasid era, only to regain significant importance in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods. Today, it is the seat of the government and all of the government ministries. The name of Damascus first appeared in the geographical list of Thutmose III as T-m-ś-q in the 15th century BC, the etymology of the ancient name T-m-ś-q is uncertain, but it is suspected to be pre-Semitic. It is attested as Dimašqa in Akkadian, T-ms-ḳw in Egyptian, Dammaśq in Old Aramaic, the Akkadian spelling is found in the Amarna letters, from the 14th century BC. Later Aramaic spellings of the name include a intrusive resh, perhaps influenced by the root dr. Thus, the English and Latin name of the city is Damascus which was imported from originated from the Qumranic Darmeśeq, and Darmsûq in Syriac, meaning a well-watered land. In Arabic, the city is called Dimašqu š-Šāmi, although this is shortened to either Dimašq or aš-Šām by the citizens of Damascus, of Syria and other Arab neighbours. Aš-Šām is an Arabic term for Levant and for Syria, the latter, the Anti-Lebanon mountains mark the border between Syria and Lebanon. The range has peaks of over 10,000 ft. and blocks precipitation from the Mediterranean sea, however, in ancient times this was mitigated by the Barada River, which originates from mountain streams fed by melting snow. Damascus is surrounded by the Ghouta, irrigated farmland where many vegetables, cereals, maps of Roman Syria indicate that the Barada river emptied into a lake of some size east of Damascus. Today it is called Bahira Atayba, the hesitant lake, because in years of severe drought it does not even exist, the modern city has an area of 105 km2, out of which 77 km2 is urban, while Jabal Qasioun occupies the rest. The old city of Damascus, enclosed by the city walls, to the south-east, north and north-east it is surrounded by suburban areas whose history stretches back to the Middle Ages, Midan in the south-west, Sarouja and Imara in the north and north-west. These neighbourhoods originally arose on roads leading out of the city and these new neighbourhoods were initially settled by Kurdish soldiery and Muslim refugees from the European regions of the Ottoman Empire which had fallen under Christian rule
30.
Tuat
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Tuat or Touat is a natural region of desert in central Algeria that contains a string of small oases. In the past, the oases were important for crossing the Sahara desert. Tuat lies to the south of the Grand Erg Occidental, to the east of the Erg Chech and it contains a string of small oases strung out along the eastern edge of the Wadi Messaoud, a continuation of the Wadi Saoura. The oases extend over a distance of 160 km from the district of Bouda in the north to Reggane in the south, the largest town in the region is Adrar,20 km south east of Bouda. Adrar was established by the French after their conquest in 1900 and had a population of 43,903 in 2002, associated with each oasis are small walled villages called ksour. There are also forts, most of which have been abandoned. The Continental Intercalary is a layer of sandstone deposited between the Moscovian and the Cenomanian periods. It forms the deeper of the two aquifers of the North Western Sahara Aquifer System, Tuat is situated at the south western boundary of the Continental Intercalary where the aquifer lies only 2–6 m below the surface. The oases contain 700, 000-800,000 date palms in an area of 4,500 hectare, the palm groves are irrigated by a system of foggaras. Vertical access holes every 10–20 m along the tunnel ventilation and facilitate the construction. Many of the foggaras are over a kilometre in length and they typically provide flow rates of between 2 L/s and 3 L/s. In 1963 the region of Tuat contained 531 foggaras of which only 358 were functioning, the total combined flow rate was approximately 2000 L/s. Foggaras are expensive to construct and to maintain, as they collapse they are often not repaired. Instead, water is obtained using vertical wells and electric pumps allowing grain to be using a center pivot irrigation system. A single well can provide 30 L/s to 50 L/s of water, in addition to water, the rock beneath Tuat contains pockets of natural gas. Sonatrach, the Algeria state-owned oil company, is collaborating with companies in joint ventures to exploit these gas reserves. Sonatrach and the China National Oil & Gas Exploration & Development Corporation have constructed a refinery near the village of Sbaa,40 km north of Adrar, separate projects led by Gaz de France and Total are both scheduled to start supplying gas in 2013. A pipeline is being built to connect to Hassi RMel, to the north of Tuat is Gourara, a similar region also containing oases with date palms irrigated by foggaras
31.
Morocco
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Morocco, officially known as the Kingdom of Morocco, is a sovereign country located in the Maghreb region of North Africa. Geographically, Morocco is characterized by a mountainous interior, large tracts of desert. Morocco has a population of over 33.8 million and an area of 446,550 km2 and its capital is Rabat, and the largest city is Casablanca. Other major cities include Marrakesh, Tangier, Tetouan, Salé, Fes, Agadir, Meknes, Oujda, Kenitra, a historically prominent regional power, Morocco has a history of independence not shared by its neighbours. Marinid and Saadi dynasties continued the struggle against foreign domination, the Alaouite dynasty, the current ruling dynasty, seized power in 1666. In 1912 Morocco was divided into French and Spanish protectorates, with a zone in Tangier. Moroccan culture is a blend of Arab, indigenous Berber, Sub-Saharan African, Morocco claims the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces. Morocco annexed the territory in 1975, leading to a war with indigenous forces until a cease-fire in 1991. Peace processes have thus far failed to break the political deadlock, Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds vast executive and legislative powers, especially over the military, foreign policy, the king can issue decrees called dahirs which have the force of law. He can also dissolve the parliament after consulting the Prime Minister, Moroccos predominant religion is Islam, and the official languages are Arabic and Tamazight. The Moroccan dialect, referred to as Darija, and French are also widely spoken, Morocco is a member of the Arab League, the Union for the Mediterranean, and the African Union. It has the fifth largest economy of Africa, the full Arabic name al-Mamlakah al-Maghribiyyah translates to Kingdom of the West, although the West in Arabic is الغرب Al-Gharb. The basis of Moroccos English name is Marrakesh, its capital under the Almoravid dynasty, the origin of the name Marrakesh is disputed, but is most likely from the Berber words amur akush or Land of God. The modern Berber name for Marrakesh is Mṛṛakc, in Turkish, Morocco is known as Fas, a name derived from its ancient capital of Fes. The English name Morocco is an anglicisation of the Spanish Marruecos, the area of present-day Morocco has been inhabited since Paleolithic times, sometime between 190,000 and 90,000 BC. During the Upper Paleolithic, the Maghreb was more fertile than it is today, twenty-two thousand years ago, the Aterian was succeeded by the Iberomaurusian culture, which shared similarities with Iberian cultures. Skeletal similarities have been suggested between the Iberomaurusian Mechta-Afalou burials and European Cro-Magnon remains, the Iberomaurusian was succeeded by the Beaker culture in Morocco
32.
Oran
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Oran is an important coastal city that is located in the north-west of Algeria. It is considered the second most important city after the capital Algiers, due to its commercial, industrial and it is 432 km from Algiers. The total population of the city was 759,645 in 2008, the name Wahran is derived from the Berber word uharan that means two lions. A legend says that in 900 AD, lions still lived in the area, the last two lions were hunted on a mountain near Oran and are elsewhere referred to as mountain lions. During the Roman empire, a settlement called Unica Colonia existed in the area of current Oran. Present-day Oran was founded in 903 by Moorish Andalusi traders and it was captured by the Castilians under Cardinal Cisneros in 1509, and Spanish sovereignty lasted until 1708, when the city was conquered by the Ottomans. Spain recaptured the city in 1732, however, its value as a trading post had decreased greatly, so King Charles IV sold the city to the Turks in 1792. Ottoman rule lasted until 1831, when it fell to the French, during French rule over Algeria during the 19th and 20th centuries, Oran was the capital of a département of the same name. The action increased the hatred of the Vichy regime for Britain but convinced the world that the British would fight on alone against Nazi Germany, the Vichy government held Oran during World War II until its capture by the Allies in late 1942, during Operation Torch. Also, during French rule, Jews were encouraged to modernize, Jews In the city were allowed to join the French Army starting October 24,1870 when Algerian Jews were granted citizenship. French Jews would soon be targeted after not choosing to side with the Algerian Muslims who fought for independence against France, before the Algerian War, 1954–1962, Oran had one of the highest proportions of Europeans of any city in North Africa. In July 1962, after a ceasefire and accords with France, a mob attacked pied-noir neighborhoods and massacred thousands of Europeans in Oran,453 have been said to have disappeared. This triggered an exodus of Europeans to France, which was already underway. Shortly after the end of the war, most of the Europeans, in less than three months, Oran lost about half its population. This population lost is similar to the Jews as many fled after siding with France in the Algerian War for Independence, as the war progressed, those who supported independence in Algeria threatened those who sided with Europe causing these people to flee. Before the Spaniards, the Portuguese launched an expedition to capture the city in July 1501. Four years later, the Spanish took Mers-el-Kébir, located just four miles to the west of the Oran, thus began the first organized incursions against the city which, at the time, numbered 25,000 inhabitants and counted 6,000 fueros. Count Pedro Navarro, on the orders of Cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, the occupying forces set fire to the books and archives of the town
33.
Hubert Lyautey
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Louis Hubert Gonzalve Lyautey was a French Army general and colonial administrator. After serving in Indochina and Madagascar, he became the first French Resident-General in Morocco from 1912 to 1925, early in 1917 he served briefly as Minister of War. From 1921 he was a Marshal of France and he was dubbed the Maker of Morocco and the French empire builder, and in 1931 made the cover of Time. Lyautey was born in Nancy, capital of Lorraine and his father was a prosperous engineer, his grandfather a highly decorated Napoleonic general. His mother was a Norman aristocrat, and Lyautey inherited many of her assumptions, monarchism, patriotism, Catholicism, in 1873 he entered the French military academy of Saint-Cyr. He attended the training school in early 1876, and in December 1877 was made a lieutenant. After graduating from St Cyr, two months holiday in Algeria in 1878 left him impressed by the Mahgreb and by Islam and he served in the cavalry, and was to make his career serving in the colonies and not in a more prestigious assignment in metropolitan France. In 1880 he was posted to Algiers, then campaigning in southern Algeria, in 1884, to his disappointment, he was recalled to France. In 1894 he was posted to Indochina, serving under Joseph Gallieni and he helped crush the so-called piracy of the Black Flags rebellion along the Chinese border. Then set up the administration in Tonkin, and was then head of the military office of the Government-General in Indochina. By time he left IndoChina in 1897 he was a lieutenant-colonel and had the Legion of Honour, in Indochina he wrote Here I am like a fish in water, because the manipulation of things and men is power, everything I love. From 1897 to 1902 Lyautey served in Madagascar, again under Gallieni and he pacified northern and western Madagascar, administering a region of 200,000 inhabitants, beginning the construction of a new provincial capital at Ankazobe and a new roadway across the island. He encouraged the cultivation of rice, coffee, tobacco, grain and cotton, in 1900 he became Governor of Southern Madagascar, an area a third the size of France, with a million inhabitants,80 officers and 4,000 soldiers served under him. He was also promoted to colonel in 1900, in Madagascar he wrote to his father I am Louis XIV and that suits me. He believed that he did not crave power for its own sake, in 1903 he was posted to command first a subdivision south of Oran and then the whole Oran district, his official task being to protect a new railway line against attacks from Morocco. French commanders in Algeria moved into Morocco largely on their own initiative, later in the year Lyautey marched west and occupied Bechar, a clear breach of 1840s treaties. The following year he advanced further into Morocco, in disobedience to the Minister of War. Lyautey met Isabelle Eberhardt in 1903, and employed her for intelligence missions, after her death in 1904, he chose her tombstone
34.
French Army
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The French Army, officially the Land Army is the land-based and largest component of the French Armed Forces. Along with the French Air Force, the French Navy and the National Gendarmerie, the current Chief of Staff of the French Army is General Jean-Pierre Bosser, a direct subordinate of the Chief of the Defence Staff. All soldiers are considered professionals following the suspension of conscription, voted in parliament in 1997, as of 2014, the French Army employed 111,628 personnel. In addition, the element of the French Army consisted of 15,453 personnel of the Operational Reserve. The Kings of France needed reliable troops during and after the Hundred Years War and these units of troops were raised by issuing ordonnances to govern their length of service, composition and payment. These Compagnies dordonnance formed the core of the Gendarme Cavalry into the sixteenth century, stationed throughout France and summoned into larger armies as needed. There was also made for Francs-archers units of bowmen and foot soldiers raised from the non-noble classes. The bulk of the infantry for warfare was still provided by urban or provincial militias, raised from an area or city to fight locally and named for their recruiting grounds. Gradually these units became more permanent, and in 1480s Swiss instructors were recruited and these men would be paid and contracted and receive training. Henry II further regularised the French army by forming standing Infantry regiments to replace the Militia structure, the first of these the Régiments de Picardie, Piémont, Navarre and Champagne were called the Les Vieux Corps. It was normal policy to disband regiments after a war was over as a cost saving measure with the Vieux Corps and the Kings own Household Troops the Maison du Roi being the only survivors. Regiments could be raised directly by the King and so called after the region in which they were raised, or by the nobility and so called after the noble or his appointed colonel. In 1684 there was a reorganisation of the French infantry and again in 1701 to fit in with Louis XIVs plans. This reshuffle created many of the regiments of the French Army and standardised their equipment. The army of the Sun King tended to wear coats with coloured linings. There were exceptions and the troops, recruited from outside France. In addition to these regiments of the line the Maison du Roi provided several elite units, the Swiss Guards, French Guards, the revolution split the army with the main mass losing most of its officers to aristocratic flight or guillotine and becoming demoralised and ineffective. The French Guard joined the revolt and the Swiss Guards were massacred during the storming of the Tuileries palace, under Napoleon I, the French Army conquered most of Europe during the Napoleonic Wars
35.
Taghit
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Taghit is a town and commune in Taghit District, Béchar Province, in western Algeria. The town is an oasis watered by the underground Oued Zousfana, according to the 2008 census its population is 6,317, up from 6,047 in 1998, with an annual growth rate of 0. 4%. The commune covers an area of 8,080 square kilometres, the town was the site of the Battle of Taghit in 1903, in which 4000 Zayanes Berbers besieged the French in the town, whom they outnumbered by 10 to 1. The attackers were forced to retreat. Taghit lies on the bank of the Oued Zouzfana. The Grand Erg Occidental, an area of continuous sand dunes, lies to the east. Taghit has a hot climate, with extremely hot summers and cool winters. Agriculture is an important industry in Taghit, the commune has a total of 2,280 hectares of arable land, of which 1,432 hectares is irrigated. There are a total of 137,450 date palms planted in the commune, as of 2009 there were 3,330 sheep,2,995 goats,2,481 camels, and 62 cattle. There were also 24,000 chickens in 2 buildings, tourism is also significant in Taghit due to many Neolithic rock engravings in the area. Other attractions include sand dunes, palm groves, the old ksar, there is one hotel in Taghit, the three-star Taghit. 90% of Taghitss population are connected to drinking water, 96% are connected to the sewerage system, there is one fuel service station in the town. Taghit has a total of 1,551 houses, of which 913 are occupied, a number of small localities lie along the Oued Zouzfana to the south, these are connected by a local road. Taghit is 95 kilometres from the capital, Béchar. There is a length of 146 kilometres of roads in the commune. There are 5 elementary schools, with 39 classrooms including 30 in use, there are a total of 1,310 school students. 5. 9% of the population has an education. The overall literacy rate is 81. 4%, and is 86. 6% among males and 76. 7% among females, Taghit has 4 room care facilities, and a private pharmacy, and a medical operating theatre
36.
Battle of Taghit
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The Battle of Taghit was the siege of a fort held by a contingent of the French Army of Africa against Moroccan tribesmen during the South-Oranese Campaign. An armed conflict opposed French 19th Corps Oran and Algiers divisions to the Aït Khabbash, the conflict ended with the annexation of the Touat-Gourara-Tidikelt complex by France in 1901. Aftermath, France faced numerous incidents, attacks and looting by uncontrolled armed groups in the controlled areas to the south of Oran. Under the command of General Lyautey, the French armys mission was to protect these areas newly occupied in the west of Algeria and this loose boundary, between French Algeria and the Sultanate of Morocco, promoted incursions and attacks by Moroccan tribesmen. On the 17 August 1903, Sharif Mouley Mostepha, at the head of 4,000 tribesmen from the Guir and Tafilalt, followed by 5,000 non-combatants of all ages, lépopée marocaine de la Légion étrangère, 1903-1934, ou, Trente années au Maroc
37.
2e REI
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The 2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment is an infantry regiment of the French Foreign Legion. Quartier Colonel Chabrières is situated in Nimes, a historical Roman city, as a mobile infantry regiment, the 2ème REI may undertake any mission being allocated to. The Regiment has responsibility for testing new equipment for the French Army as a whole. On March 10,1831, the French Foreign Legion was created, from 1841 to 1857, the 2nd Regiment participated at the conquest and campaigns of Algeria. From 1854 to 1855, the 2nd Regiment took part in the Crimean War in the Battle of Alma, on January 17,1855, the 2nd Regiment became the 2nd Regiment of the 1st Foreign Legion In 1856, the 2nd Regiment became the 2nd Foreign Regiment. In 1859, the 2nd Foreign Regiment took part in the Second Italian War of Independence, on June 4,1859, Colonel de Chabrière, the regimental commander, was killed in action leading the charge during the Battle of Magenta. In 1862, the 2nd Foreign Regiment became the Foreign Regiment, from 1863 to 1867, the Foreign Regiment took part in the French intervention in Mexico. When only six of the French-led soldiers remained, and were out of ammunition, from 1864 to 1907, the Foreign Regiment took part in the South-Oranese Campaign. From 1870 to 1871, the Foreign Regiment took part in the Franco-Prussian War, three battalions of the regiment participated in the Battles of Orleans, the Battle of Coulmiers and the Battle of Saint Suzanne. Immediately following the war, the Foreign Regiment was amongst those troops used to suppress the rising of the Paris Commune, on April 10,1875, the 2nd Foreign Regiment became the Foreign Legion. In 1883, the Foreign Legion took part in the Far East in the Sino-French War, notably during the Capture of Sontay, the Bắc Ninh Campaign, the Siege of Tuyên Quang, on January 1,1885, the Foreign Legion became the 2nd Foreign Regiment. From 1892 to 1894, the 2nd Foreign Regiment took part in the Sudan Campaign, in 1903, the 2nd Foreign Regiment took part in the Battle of El-Moungar. From 1895 to 1905, the 2nd Foreign Regiment took part in the Campaigns of Madagascar, from 1907 to 1918, the 2nd Foreign Regiment took part in the Pacification of Morocco, during which combat units of the regiment received 7 citations at the orders of the armed forces. On August 29,1907, the Marching Regiment was created from the 2nd Foreign Regiment in Morocco, from 1841–1907 legionnaires from the 2nd Regiment where deployed in Algeria. In the early century, France faced numerous incidents, attacks and looting by uncontrolled armed groups. Under the command of General Lyautey, the French armys mission was to protect these areas newly controlled in the west of Algeria and this loose boundary, between French Algeria and the Sultanate of Morocco, promotes incursions and attacks perpetrated by Moroccan tribesmen. On 17 August 1903, the first battle of the South-Oranese campaign took place in Taghit, where French Foreign legionnaires were assailed by a contingent of more than 1,000 well-equipped Berbers. For 3 days, the legionnaires repelled repeated attacks of a more than 10 times higher in number
38.
Spahi
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Spahis were light cavalry regiments of the French army recruited primarily from the indigenous populations of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. The modern French Army retains one regiment of Spahis as an armoured unit, Senegal also maintains a mounted unit with spahi origins as a presidential escort, the Red Guard. The name is the French form of the Ottoman Turkish word sipahi, following the French occupation of Algiers in 1830, detachments of locally recruited irregular horsemen were attached to the regiments of light cavalry assigned to North African service. These auxiliaries were designated as chasseurs spahis, in 1834 they were organised into four squadrons of regular spahis. In 1841 the 14 squadrons by then in existence were brought together in a corps of spahis. Finally, in 1845 three separate Spahi regiments were created, the 1st of Algiers, the 2nd of Oran, a detachment of Spahis served as the personal escort of Marshal Jacques Leroy de Saint Arnaud in the Crimean War and were photographed there by Roger Fenton. A contingent of Spahis also participated in the North China campaign of 1860, a serious rising against French rule in Algeria during 1871–72 was sparked off by the mutiny of a squadron of Spahis who had been ordered to France to reinforce those units already there. Prior to 1914 there were four regiments of Spahis in the French Army, during their period as mounted cavalry the Spahis comprised for the most part Arab and Berber troopers commanded by French officers. This division was not absolute however and there were always a number of French volunteers in the ranks. About 20% of the rank and file were French and the remainder Arab or Berber, in addition, a fixed number of commissioned positions up to the level of captain were reserved for Muslim officers. NCOs were both French and Muslim, in contrast to the North African tirailleur units the mounted spahis were drawn from the big tents, i. e. the higher social classes of the Arab and Berber communities. This dated back to the establishment of the corps when Colonel Marey-Monge required that each recruit provide his own horse, as Spahi units were mechanized during World War II, the proportion of Frenchmen in the ranks increased. Spahis were sent to France at the outbreak of war in August 1914 and they saw service during the opening period of mobile warfare but inevitably their role diminished with the advent of trench warfare. During World War I the number of units increased with the creation of Moroccan Spahi regiments, by 1918 there were seven Spahi regiments then in existence, all having seen service on the Western Front, in addition a detached squadron had served in Palestine against the Ottoman Empire. By 1921 the Spahi regiments had been increased to twelve and this became the permanent establishment, during the 1920s mounted Spahi regiments saw extensive active service in the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, as well as in Morocco. They continued to perform policing and garrison duties in Algeria and Tunisia, although mechanisation began in the 1930s of the Chasseurs dAfrique and Foreign Legion cavalry, the Spahis remained an entirely mounted force until after 1942. In 1939 the Spahis comprised three independent brigades, each of two regiments and still horse mounted, each regiment was made up of four sabre squadrons with five officers and 172 troopers in each. Three regiments saw service in France in 1940
39.
Auxiliary Forces
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The Moroccan Auxiliary Forces is a paramilitary force following the command of the Ministry of the Interior, and supplements the military, Gendarmerie and police when needed. It also participated in conflicts like the Western Sahara war. Additionally, they contribute to maintaining order and they are present as border watch. During the Years of Lead, custody facilities such as Tazmamart, the Auxiliary forces are a continuation of a low-rank military unit composed of Senegalese Tirailleurs and Goumiers, used by the French during the protectorate area, to repress Moroccans. Since the official French police patrolled only in the European area and they are known colloquially as the mroud, mkhaznia or as imkhazniyn in Berber. Auxiliary Forces missions are to support security forces and the army, maintain public security and they performed odd jobs and assisted regular troops when needed. Officially named the mokhaznis they are placed under the Ministry of Interior and their missions were to suppress the various demonstrations and riots that have shook newly independent Morocco. In time of peace, the mokhaznis provided security of official buildings, in 1971 and 1972, King Hassan II barely escaped two coup attempts by the Moroccan Army which climate of distrust evident between the monarchy and the army. This climate encouraged the growing strength of the police and the revival of the Auxiliary, the king personally nominated two senior members of the Royal Moroccan Armed Forces to head the Auxiliary Forces in 1974. The Auxiliary Forces were designated to lead in the maintenance of order, the Auxiliary Forces were given a special status and a budget of nine billion centimes. There was no shortage of candidates but they needed to be disciplined, initial recruitment was conducted primarily in the regions of Ouarzazate and Errachidia. The king then created two areas of operation, North and South, in 1975, the Auxiliary Forces was at the front of the Green March. When war broke out in the Sahara in 1976, the Auxiliary Forces are once again first in line, consequently, they were an easy prey for the Polisario fighters and whole companies of them were slaughtered and captured. In fact, Moroccan army supreme command underestimated the strength of the enemy, only then did the Moroccan armed forces commit heavily in the Sahara. But the auxiliary forces, serving under the officers acted as scouts. Almost two thirds of the casualties of the War of the Sahara belong to the Auxiliary Forces, from 1982, the Auxiliary Forces garrisons stationed at the Sahara participated, alongside the army, in the construction of the wall of defense. Later, operated and secured prisons like Kelaat mgoun or Agdz, several years after the 1991 cease-fire the Auxiliary Forces remained essential in the management of the Sahara issue. In the mid-90s, King Hassan II decided to give the region its first football team, founded in 1978, the Auxiliary Forces of Settat is better known as Bir Baouch, named after a village near Settat
40.
Battle of El-Moungar
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The Battle of El-Moungar was a battle fought during the South-Oranese Campaign between a contingent of the French Army of Africa, mainly from the French Foreign Legion, and Moroccan tribesmen. In the early century, France faced numerous incidents, attacks. Under the command of General Lyautey, the French armys mission was to protect these areas newly occupied in the west of Algeria and this loose boundary, between French Algeria and the Sultanate of Morocco, promoted incursions and attacks by Moroccan tribesmen. On 17 August 1903, the first battle of the South-Oranese campaign took place in Taghit when a contingent of the French Foreign Legion was attacked by more than 1,000 well-equipped Berbers, the first volleys wounded or killed half of the detachment. Both officers and most of the officers were killed in the first stage of the fight. At 10,30 am, Quartermaster Sergeant Tisserand, who commanded the survivors, about forty survivors of the French force gathered on a nearby hill and under a scorching sun, on hot sand and without water, fought off the enemy for more than eight hours. Near the end of the battle, Tisserand, wounded, gave over command to Corporal Detz, at 5 pm, they were relieved by Captain de Sulbielle, who rode from Taghit with his Spahis. At the sight of the approaching French cavalry, the Moroccans retreated in small groups, total French losses were 38 dead and 46 wounded. A presidential decree granted to all survivors of the battle the Colonial Medal, the commander of the Ain Sefra military region was replaced and Brigadier General Hubert Lyautey appointed in his place. Jean-Paul Mahuault, Lépopée marocaine de la Légion étrangère, 1903-1934, ou, Trente années au Maroc, LHarmattan,2005
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