1.
City
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A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
2.
Jawi script
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Jawi is an Arabic alphabet for writing the Malay language, Acehnese, Banjarese, Minangkabau, Tausūg and several other languages in Southeast Asia. Jawi is one of the two scripts in Brunei, used as an alternative script in Malaysia and Malay dominated areas in Indonesia. It can be typed with the Jawi keyboard, day-to-day usage of Jawi is maintained in more conservative Malay-populated areas such as Kelantan in Malaysia and Pattani. Jawi is still used on road and building signs, and taught in primary and religious schools in Brunei. The word Jawi is an adjective for the Arabic noun Jawah, both terms may have originated from the term Javadwipa, the ancient name for Java. Prior to the onset of the Islamisation, when Hindu-Buddhist influences were still firmly established in the region and this is evidenced from the discovery of several stone inscriptions in Old Malay, notably the Kedukan Bukit Inscription and Talang Tuwo inscription. The spread of Islam in Southeast Asia and the subsequent introduction of Arabic writing system began with the arrival of Muslim merchants in the region since the seventh century. The conversion of King Phra Ong Mahawangsa of Kedah in 1136, at the early stage of Islamisation, the Arabic script was taught to the people who had newly embraced Islam in the form of religious practices, such as the recitation of Quran as well as salat. Many Arabic characters are never used as they are not pronounced in Malay language and this was the same for the acceptance of Arabic writing in Turkey, Persia and India which had taken place earlier and thus, the Jawi script was then deemed as the writing of the Muslims. The inscription on the stone contains a proclamation issued by the Sri Paduka Tuan of Terengganu, urging his subjects to extend and uphold Islam and this has attested the strong observance of the Muslim faith in the early 14th century Terengganu specifically and the Malay world as a whole. The development of Jawi script was different from that of Pallava writing which was restricted to the nobility. The Jawi script was embraced by the entire Muslim community regardless of class, with the increased intensity in the appreciation of Islam, scriptures originally written in Arabic were translated in Malay and written in the Jawi script. Additionally local religious scholars later began to elucidate the Islamic teachings in the forms of original writings, moreover, there were also individuals of the community who used Jawi for the writing of literature which previously existed and spread orally. With this inclusion of literature, Malay literature took on a more sophisticated form. This was believed to have taken place from the 15th century, other forms of Arabic-based scripts existed in the region, notably the Pegon alphabet of Javanese language in Java and the Serang alphabet of Bugis language in South Sulawesi. Both writing systems applied extensively the Arabic diacritics and added several alphabets other than Jawi alphabets to suit the languages, due to their fairly limited usage, the spelling system of both scripts did not undergo similar advance developments and modifications as experienced by Jawi script. The script became prominent with the spread of Islam, as the Malays found that the earlier Pallava script was totally unsuited as a vehicle to relay religious concepts. The Malays held the script in high esteem as it is the gateway to understanding Islam and its Holy Book, the use of jawi script was a key factor driving the emergence of Malay as the lingua franca of the region, alongside the spread of Islam
3.
West Sumatra
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West Sumatra is a province of Indonesia. It lies on the west coast of the island of Sumatra, the latest official estimate for January 2014 shows a population of 5,098,790. West Sumatra is sub-divided into 12 regencies and seven cities and it has relatively more cities than other provinces in Indonesia, except Java province. It borders the provinces of North Sumatra to the north, Riau and Jambi to the east and it includes the Mentawai Islands off the coast. The history of West Sumatra is related to the history of the Minangkabau people, archaeological evidence indicates that the area surrounding the Limapuluh Koto regency forms the first area inhabited by the Minangkabau. Limapuluh Koto regency covers a number of rivers which meet at the eastern part of the Sumatran coastline. The Minangkabau ancestors were believed to have arrived via this route and they sailed from Asia via the South China Sea, crossing the Malacca Strait and later settled along the Kampar, Siak and Indragiri rivers. Some lived and developed their culture and traits around the Limapuluh Koto regency, the first westerner to reach West Sumatra was the French explorer Jean Parmentier in 1529. However, the westerners who came for economic and political reasons were the Dutch, the Dutch commercial fleet was seen along the southern coast of West Sumatra between 1595 and 1598. Apart from the Dutch, other European nationalities also came to the such as the Portuguese. The integration with migrants in the ensuing periods introduced cultural changes and their settlement area gradually became diminished and eventually they spread to other parts of West Sumatra. A portion of them went to the Agam regency while others went to the now Tanah Datar regency, from those areas onward, further spread of the population occurred north of the Agam regency, in particular, the Lubuk Sikaping. Most of them settled in the area such as the coastline and some in the southern parts in Solok, Selayo. The history of the West Sumatra Province became more accessible at the time of the rule by Adityawarman and this ruler left considerable amount of evidence of himself, although he did not proclaim that he was the Minangkabau King. Adityawarman ruled Pagaruyung, a region believed by the Minangkabau to be the center of its culture, Adityawarman was the most important figure in Minangkabau history. Apart from introducing a government system by a monarch, he also contributed significantly to the Minangkabau world. His most important contribution was the spread of Buddhism and this religion had a very strong influence in the Minangkabau life. The evidence of such influence found in West Sumatra today includes names such as Saruaso, Pariangan, Padang Barhalo, Candi, Biaro, Sumpur, since the death of Adityawarman in the middle of the 17th century the history of West Sumatra seems more complex
4.
Sumatra
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Sumatra is a large island in western Indonesia that is part of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island that is entirely in Indonesia and the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2, Sumatra is an elongated landmass spanning a diagonal northwest-southeast axis. The Indian Ocean borders the west, northwest, and southwest sides of Sumatra with the chain of Simeulue, Nias. On the northeast side the narrow Strait of Malacca separates the island from the Malay Peninsula, on the southeast the narrow Sunda Strait separates Sumatra from Java. The northern tip of Sumatra borders the Andaman Islands, while on the eastern side are the islands of Bangka and Belitung, Karimata Strait. The Bukit Barisan mountains, which several active volcanoes, form the backbone of the island, while the northeast sides are outlying lowlands with swamps, mangrove. The equator crosses the island at its center on West Sumatra, the climate of the island is tropical, hot and humid with lush tropical rain forest once dominating the landscape. Sumatra was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names of Swarnadwīpa and Swarnabhūmi, the first word mentioning the name of Sumatra was the name of Srivijayan Haji Sumatrabhumi, who sent an envoy to China in 1017. Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri in the tenth through thirteenth centuries, late in the 14th century the name Sumatra became popular in reference to the kingdom of Samudra Pasai, which was a rising power until it was replaced by Sultanate of Aceh. Sultan Alauddin Shah of Aceh, on letters written in 1602 addressed to Queen Elizabeth I of England, referred to himself as king of Aceh, the word itself is from Sanskrit Samudra, meaning gathering together of waters, sea or ocean. European writers in the 19th century found that the inhabitants did not have a name for the island. The Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijaya, Srivijaya was a Buddhist monarchy centred in what is now Palembang. Dominating the region trade and conquest throughout the 7th to 9th centuries. The empire was a thalassocracy or maritime power that extended its influence from island to island, Palembang was a center for scholarly learning, and it was there the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim I Ching studied Sanskrit in 671 CE before departing for India. On his journey to China, he spent four years in Palembang translating Buddhist texts, Srivijayan influence waned in the 11th century after it was defeated by the Chola Empire of southern India. At the same time, Islam made its way to Sumatra through Arabs, by the late 13th century, the monarch of the Samudra kingdom had converted to Islam. Marco Polo visited the island in 1292, and Ibn Battuta visited twice during 1345–1346, Samudra was succeeded by the powerful Aceh Sultanate, which survived to the 20th century. With the coming of the Dutch, the many Sumatran princely states fell under their control
5.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
7.
Demonym
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A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
8.
Time in Indonesia
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The Indonesian archipelago geographically stretches across four time zones from UTC+6 in Aceh to UTC+9 in Western Papua. The border between central and eastern time zones runs north from the tip of Timor to the eastern tip of Sulawesi. Daylight saving time is not currently observed in almost all of Indonesia due to its tropical location, the only unofficial exception of this is Muara Teweh and Maurainu, which unofficially uses Western Indonesian Daylight Time. All provinces in the island of Java including major cities such as, Bandung, Surabaya, Jakarta, Semarang, two provinces in Kalimantan island, West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan. Including major cities such as, Pontianak, Palangkaraya, and Sampit, Muara Teweh and Maurainu unofficially uses Western Indonesian Daylight Time, which has the same time as Central Indonesian Time. All provinces in the Lesser Sunda Islands including major cities such as, Denpasar, Mataram, three provinces in Kalimantan island, North Kalimantan, East Kalimantan and South Kalimantan, including major cities such as, Balikpapan, Banjarmasin, Samarinda, and Tarakan. IANA time zone identifier is Asia/Makassar Indonesia Eastern Standard Time is observed in, Maluku Islands including major cities such as, Ambon City, Ternate City. All provinces in West Papua including major cities such as, Jayapura, Biak, all provinces in Papua including all major islands in the province. IANA time zone identifier is Asia/Jayapura It observed since January 1,1988. Central and Southern Sumatra Time, was observed in Bengkulu, Palembang and Lampung, Java, Bali, and Borneo Time, was observed in Java, Bali, Madura and Kalimantan. Celebes Time, was observed in Sulawesi and Lesser Sunda Islands, moluccan Time, was observed in Ternate, Namlea, Ambon, Sofifi and Banda. West Irian Time was observed in West Irian and it observed during November 1,1932 to August 31,1944. Dutch New Guinea Time, was observed in West Irian during named Dutch New Guinea because Netherlands still hold West Irian. It observed from September 1,1944 to December 31,1963, Daylight saving time was observed in Jakarta from May 1,1948 to May 1,1950. Its UTC offset during daylight saving time is UTC+08,00. tab, asia/Jakarta Asia/Pontianak Asia/Makassar Asia/Jayapura ASEAN Common Time Time in Malaysia Time in the Philippines Time in Singapore UTC+8 Indonesian Standard Time
9.
Tropical rainforest climate
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A tropical rainforest climate, also known as an equatorial climate, is a tropical climate usually found along the equator. Regions with this climate typically feature tropical rainforests, and it is designated Af by the Köppen climate classification. One day in an equatorial climate can be similar to the next. A tropical rainforest is found at latitudes within 10 degrees North and South of the equator. The climate is most commonly found in South America, Central Africa, however, tropical rainforest microclimates are found in many other regions, while not everywhere along the equatorial region features a tropical rainforest climate. Additionally, while tropical rainforest climates are located near the equator. For instance, Santos, Brazil and Fort Lauderdale, United States are not only far removed from the equator, yet both of these cities feature a tropical rainforest climate, albeit with noticeably cooler and warmer periods of the year
10.
Dutch East Indies
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The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony. It was formed from the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and hegemony were expanded and this colony was one of the most valuable European colonies under the Dutch Empires rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was based on racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from. The term Indonesia came into use for the location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, Japans World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution, the word Indies comes from Latin, Indus. The original name Dutch Indies was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies, the name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Companys documents of the early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the late 15th century, following disruption of Dutch access to spices in Europe, the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed, recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company. The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, a capital was established in Batavia, which became the centre of the VOCs Asian trading network. Smuggling, the expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century, finally in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including Java, Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula, the resulting borders between British and Dutch possessions remain between Malaysia and Indonesia
11.
Esmeraldas, Ecuador
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Esmeraldas is a coastal city in northwestern Ecuador. It is the seat of the Esmeraldas Canton and capital of the Esmeraldas Province and it has an international sea port and a small airport. Esmeraldas is the seaport of northwestern Ecuador, and it lies on the Pacific coast at the mouth of the Esmeraldas River. It is exactly at the antipodes of Padang, Indonesia, the city is the principal trading hub for the regions agricultural and lumber resources, and is the terminus of the 313-mile Trans-Ecuadorian Pipeline from the oil fields in northeastern Ecuador. Esmeraldas is well known around Latin America given the number of locals that have historically played in the Ecuadorian national football team. The port of Esmeraldas is economically important for the part of Ecuador. Exports from Esmeraldas include wood and wood chips, bananas, the soil allows the production of rice, maize, African Palm, albacá and a variety of tropical fruits. Among the main forest species are, chanul, raft, laurel, sande, guayacán, cattle and pig rearing are also important. The fishing industry is also an important economic indicator of the region, industry in Esmeraldas consists of manufacturing, timber, chemicals and oil. Concerns exist about forest management and deforestation in the Chaco rainforest, the trans-Andean pipeline was completed in August 1972, connecting the Oriente reserves to refining facilities in Esmeraldas, and the oil industry is the largest employer. In 1987, the refinery was expanded for the first time to 90,000 barrels per day, the second expansion, to 110,000 barrels, occurred in 1995. The plant is currently running at 80 percent capacity with hopes to return to full capacity by 2014, the petrol produced there is used for mixtures because of its high aromaticity. Tourist attractions include beaches, virgin forests, the culture of the indigenous Cayapas people, marimba and afro-ecuatoriana music, other attractions include Atacames, famous for the crazy coconut and its handicrafts in black and red coral. The U. S. State Department advises caution when travelling to the border region of Ecuador. The main road runs along the coast by joining La Tola, Lagarto, Montalvo, Rocafuerte, Río Verde, Camarones, other routes are, Esmeraldas - Atacames - Súa - La Unión - Muisne - Esmeraldas - Quinindé that lead to Santo Domingo and Quito. The Quito - San Lorenzo rail network is still in use, the General Rivadeneira International Airport offers both national and international services to Cali, Colombia
12.
Dutch Empire
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The Dutch Empire comprised the overseas colonies, enclaves, and outposts controlled and administered by Dutch chartered companies and subsequently, the Dutch Republic and the modern Netherlands. This was reflective of the fact that the network of the Dutch Empire was commercial exchange as opposed to sovereignty over a homogeneous landmass. The companies brief domination of global commerce contributed greatly to a commercial revolution, in their search for new trade passages between Asia and Europe Dutch navigators explored and charted vast regions such as New Zealand, Tasmania, and parts of the eastern coast of North America. Shortly after reaching its zenith, the Dutch Empire began to decline as a result of the Anglo-Dutch Wars, in which it lost many of its colonial possessions and trade monopolies to the British Empire. Nevertheless, some portions of the empire survived until the advent of global decolonisation following World War II, namely the East Indies, three former colonial territories—Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten—are retained as constituent countries within the Netherlands. In 1566, a Protestant Dutch revolt broke out against rule by Roman Catholic Spain, led by William of Orange, independence was declared in the 1581 Act of Abjuration. The revolt resulted in the establishment of an de facto independent Protestant republic in the north by Treaty of Antwerp, the coastal provinces of Holland and Zeeland had for centuries prior to Spanish rule been important hubs of the European maritime trade network. Their geographical location provided convenient access to the markets of France, Scotland, Germany, England, efficient access to capital enabled the Dutch in the 1580s to extend their trade routes beyond northern Europe to new markets in the Mediterranean and the Levant. In the 1590s, Dutch ships began to trade with Brazil and the Dutch Gold Coast of Africa, and towards the Indian Ocean, by attacking Portuguese overseas possessions, the Dutch forced Spain to divert financial and military resources away from its attempt to quell Dutch independence. Thus began the several decade-long Dutch-Portuguese War, in 1594, the Compagnie van Verre was founded in Amsterdam, with the aim of sending two fleets to the spice islands of Maluku. The first fleet sailed in 1596 and returned in 1597 with a cargo of pepper, the second voyage, returned its investors a 400% profit. The success of these led to the founding of a number of companies competing for the trade. The competition was counterproductive to the interests as it threatened to drive up the price of spices at their source in Indonesia whilst driving them down in Europe. As a result of the caused by inter-company rivalry, the Dutch East India Company was founded in 1602. The directors of the company, the Heeren XVII, were given the authority to establish fortresses and strongholds, to sign treaties. The company itself was founded as a joint stock company, similarly to its English rival that had founded two years earlier, the English East India Company. The Spanish-Dutch War was for the Dutch part of their struggle for independence and religious freedom, the Netherlands became part of the domains of the Spanish branch of the Habsburg dynasty when Emperor Charles V divided the holdings of the Habsburg Empire following his abdication in 1555. From 1517, the port of Lisbon in Portugal was the main European market for products from India that was attended by other nations to purchase their needs
13.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
14.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
15.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
16.
Empire of Japan
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The Empire of Japan was the historical Japanese nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 to the enactment of the 1947 constitution of modern Japan. Imperial Japans rapid industrialization and militarization under the slogan Fukoku Kyōhei led to its emergence as a world power, after several large-scale military successes during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War, the Empire also gained notoriety for its war crimes against the peoples it conquered. A period of occupation by the Allies followed the surrender, Occupation and reconstruction continued well into the 1950s, eventually forming the current nation-state whose full title is the State of Japan or simply rendered Japan in English. The historical state is referred to as the Empire of Japan or the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan in English. In Japanese it is referred to as Dai Nippon Teikoku, which translates to Greater Japanese Empire and this is analogous to Großdeutsches Reich, a term that translates to Greater German Empire in English and Dai Doitsu Teikoku in Japanese. This meaning is significant in terms of geography, encompassing Japan, due to its name in kanji characters and its flag, it was also given the exonym Empire of the Sun. After two centuries, the policy, or Sakoku, under the shoguns of the Edo period came to an end when the country was forced open to trade by the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854. The following years saw increased trade and interaction, commercial treaties between the Tokugawa shogunate and Western countries were signed. In large part due to the terms of these Unequal Treaties, the Shogunate soon faced internal hostility, which materialized into a radical, xenophobic movement. In March 1863, the Emperor issued the order to expel barbarians, although the Shogunate had no intention of enforcing the order, it nevertheless inspired attacks against the Shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan. The Namamugi Incident during 1862 led to the murder of an Englishman, Charles Lennox Richardson, the British demanded reparations but were denied. While attempting to exact payment, the Royal Navy was fired on from coastal batteries near the town of Kagoshima and they responded by bombarding the port of Kagoshima in 1863. For Richardsons death, the Tokugawa government agreed to pay an indemnity, shelling of foreign shipping in Shimonoseki and attacks against foreign property led to the Bombardment of Shimonoseki by a multinational force in 1864. The Chōshū clan also launched the coup known as the Kinmon incident. The Satsuma-Chōshū alliance was established in 1866 to combine their efforts to overthrow the Tokugawa bakufu, in early 1867, Emperor Kōmei died of smallpox and was replaced by his son, Crown Prince Mutsuhito. On November 9,1867, Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned from his post and authorities to the Emperor, however, while Yoshinobus resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. On January 3,1868, Satsuma-Chōshū forces seized the palace in Kyoto. On January 17,1868, Yoshinobu declared that he would not be bound by the proclamation of the Restoration, on January 24, Yoshinobu decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces
17.
Pagaruyung Kingdom
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Pagaruyung was the seat of the Minangkabau kings of Western Sumatra, though little is known about it. Modern Pagaruyung is a village in Tanjung Emas subdistrict, Tanah Datar regency, located near the town of Batusangkar, Adityawarman is believed to have founded the kingdom and presided over the central Sumatra region between 1347 and 1375, most likely to control the local gold trade. The few artefacts recovered from Adityawarman’s reign include a number of stones containing inscriptions, some of these items were found at Bukit Gombak, a hill near modern Pagarruyung, and it is believed a royal palace was located there. By the 16th century, the time of the report after the reign of Adityawarman. They were the King of the World, the King of Adat, collectively they were called the Kings of the Three Seats. The first European to enter the region was Thomas Dias, a Portuguese employed by the Dutch governor of Malacca. He travelled from the east coast to reach the region in 1684 and reported, probably from hearsay, that there was a palace at Pagaruyung, the primary local occupations at the time were gold panning and agriculture, he reported. A civil war started in 1803 with the Padri fundamentalist Islamic group in conflict with the traditional groups, elite families. The original Pagaruyung Palace on Batu Patah Hill was burned down during a riot in Padri War back in 1804, during the conflict most of the Minangkabau royal family were killed in 1815, on the orders of Tuanku Lintau. The British controlled the west coast of Sumatra between 1795 and 1819, stamford Raffles visited Pagarruyung in 1818, reaching it from the west coast, and by then it had been burned to the ground three times. It was rebuilt after the first two fires, but abandoned after the third, and Raffles found little more than waringin trees, the Dutch returned to Padang in May 1819. As a result of a treaty with a number of penghulu and representatives of the murdered Minangkabau royal family, Dutch forces made their first attack on a Padri village in April 1821
18.
Aceh Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Aceh, officially the Kingdom of Aceh Darussalam, was a Sultanate centred in the modern-day Indonesian province of Aceh. It was a regional power in the 16th and 17th centuries. Its capital was Kutaraja, the present-day Banda Aceh, in addition to its considerable military strength, the court of Aceh became a noted centre of Islamic scholarship and trade. Acehs early history is unclear, but in one version it was founded by the Cham people, the Acehnese language is one of the 10 languages of the Aceh-Chamic language group. The ruler of Aceh converted to Islam in the mid-15th century, the Sultanate was founded by Ali Mughayat Syah, who began campaigns to extend his control over northern Sumatra in 1520. His conquests included Deli, Pedir, and Pasai, and he attacked Aru, the Ottoman Empire sent a relief force of 15 Xebecs commanded by Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis. On 21 June 1599 a Dutch captain, Cornelius Houtman arrived at Acheen aboard the Lioness as the first of three planned voyages to the East Indies, the crew stayed for three months acquiring pepper and other spices. British crew member John Davis claims the party was attacked by the local warlord with the loss of 68 dead. After they arrived, they were permitted by the Sultan to purchase pepper The same year and he returned in 1602 bearing a letter from English Queen Elizabeth I. The Sultan from 1589 to 1604 was Alauddin Riayat Shah ibn Firman Shah, internal dissension in the Sultanate prevented another powerful Sultan from appearing until 1607, when Iskandar Muda came to the position. He extended the Sultanates control over most of Sumatra and he also conquered Pahang, a tin-producing region of the Malayan Peninsula, and was able to force the Sultans of Johor to recognise his overlordship, if temporarily. During his reign he created a code of laws known as Adat Meukuta Alam, Acehs forces were not destroyed, however, as Aceh was able to conquer Kedah within the same year and taking many of its citizens to Aceh. The Sultans son in law, Iskandar Thani, former prince of Pahang later became his successor, during his reign Aceh focused on internal consolidation and religious unity. After the reign of Sultan Iskandar Thani, Aceh was ruled by a series of female Sultana, Acehs previous policy of taking hostage from conquered kingdoms population made them eager to seek independence, the results were Acehs control weakened while regional rulers gained effective power. The Sultan ultimately became a symbolic title. Aceh saw itself as heir to Pasai, the first Islamic state in Southeast Asia and it was called the porch of Mecca, and became a centre of Islamic scholarship, where the Quran and other Islamic texts were translated into Malay. Its notable scholars included Hamzah Pansuri, Syamsuddin of Pasai, Abdurrauf of Singkil, Aceh gained wealth from its export of pepper, nutmeg, cloves, betel nuts, and, once it conquered Pahang in 1617, tin. Low interest rates and the use of gold currency strengthened its economy and it was always somewhat fragile economically, however, because of the difficulty in providing enough surplus food to support the military and commercial adventures of the state
19.
Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
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The Fourth Anglo-Dutch War was a conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic. The war, contemporary with the War of American Independence, broke out over British and Dutch disagreements on the legality, in October 1782, a treaty of amity and commerce was concluded as well. Most of the war consisted of a series of British operations against Dutch colonial economic interests, although British, the war ended disastrously for the Dutch and exposed the weakness of the political and economic foundations of the Republic. Near the end of war in 1747 an Orangist revolution restored the stadtholderate with vastly increased powers for the stadtholder. Instead, the Republic remained stubbornly neutral during the Seven Years War which enabled it to neglect both its army and navy. Initially the British considered the Dutch allies in their attempt to out the rebellion in their North American Thirteen Colonies. They attempted to borrow the mercenary Scotch Brigade of the Dutch States Army for use in the Americas, in a manner to the Hessian. More importantly, Dutch merchants, especially those from Amsterdam, became involved in the supply of arms and this trade was mainly conducted via the entrepôt of St. Eustatius, an island colony of the Dutch West India Company in the Caribbean. There American colonial wares, like tobacco and indigo, were imported and re-exported to Europe, for their return cargo the Americans purchased arms, munitions, and naval stores brought to the island by Dutch and French merchants. To add insult to injury, in 1776 the governor of the island, Johannes de Graeff, was the first to salute the Flag of the United States, in 1778 the Dutch refused to be bullied into taking Britains side in the war against France. The British invoked a number of old treaties to have the Republic support them militarily, after the French declared war on Britain, the Amsterdam merchants also became heavily involved in the trade in naval stores with France. The French needed those supplies for their construction, but were prevented from obtaining those themselves. According to the treaty naval stores were not contraband and the Dutch therefore were free to continue their trade with France in these goods, because of the still-important role of the Dutch in the European carrying trade this opened up a large loophole in the British embargo. The British therefore unilaterally declared naval stores to be contraband and enforced their embargo by arresting Dutch ships on the high seas. This led to protests by the affected Dutch merchants, who demanded institution of convoys escorted by the Dutch navy, to protect them against the Royal Navy. According to customary law, such convoys were exempt from the right of Visit. The States General now ordered him to provide the escorts and the first convoy, under command of rear-admiral Lodewijk van Bylandt and this led to the humiliating Affair of Fielding and Bylandt on 31 December 1779, which enraged Dutch public opinion and further undermined the position of the stadtholder. The Dutch hoped to gain the support of the other members of the League to maintain their neutral status
20.
Napoleonic Wars
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The wars resulted from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and the Revolutionary Wars, which had raged on for years before concluding with the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. Napoleon became the First Consul of France in 1799, then Emperor five years later, inheriting the political and military struggles of the Revolution, he created a state with stable finances, a strong central bureaucracy, and a well-trained army. The British frequently financed the European coalitions intended to thwart French ambitions, by 1805, they had managed to convince the Austrians and the Russians to wage another war against France. At sea, the Royal Navy destroyed a combined Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in October 1805, Prussian worries about increasing French power led to the formation of the Fourth Coalition in 1806. France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July, although Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, it did not bring a lasting peace for Europe. Hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia, the Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support. The Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, the Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia. Unwilling to bear the consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse and retreat of the Grand Army along with the destruction of Russian lands. In 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France, a lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813. The Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814 and he was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power. However, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again, the Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June. The Congress of Vienna, which started in 1814 and concluded in 1815, established the new borders of Europe and laid out the terms, Napoleon seized power in 1799, creating a de facto military dictatorship. The Napoleonic Wars began with the War of the Third Coalition, Kagan argues that Britain was irritated in particular by Napoleons assertion of control over Switzerland. Furthermore, Britons felt insulted when Napoleon stated that their country deserved no voice in European affairs, for its part, Russia decided that the intervention in Switzerland indicated that Napoleon was not looking toward a peaceful resolution of his differences with the other European powers. The British quickly enforced a blockade of France to starve it of resources. Napoleon responded with economic embargoes against Britain, and sought to eliminate Britains Continental allies to break the coalitions arrayed against him, the so-called Continental System formed a league of armed neutrality to disrupt the blockade and enforce free trade with France
21.
1797 Sumatra earthquake
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The 1797 Sumatra earthquake was the first in a series of great earthquakes that ruptured part of the Sumatran segment of the Sunda megathrust. It caused a tsunami that was particularly severe near Padang. The island of Sumatra lies on the convergent plate boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate, the major slip events on the subduction zone interface are typically of the megathrust type. Historically, great or giant megathrust earthquakes have been recorded in 1797,1833,1861,2004,2005 and 2007, smaller megathrust events have also occurred in the small gaps between the areas that slip during these larger events, in 1935,1984,2000 and 2002. The earthquake caused the collapse or damage of many houses, the tsunami surge drove an English sailing ship of 150–200 tons, moored in the Arau River, about 1 km inland, destroying several houses as it went. Smaller boats were driven up to 1.8 km upstream, in Air Manis, the whole town was flooded and the bodies of several people who had climbed trees to escape the surge were found the next day in the branches. Only two fatalities were reported from Padang itself but many more from Air Manis, the Batu Islands were also reported to be affected. The shaking at Padang lasted one minute, reports in 1845 and 1847 said either that this was the strongest earthquake in the memory of the residents of Padang or the strongest for forty years. The run-up of the tsunami at Padang and the village of Air Manis is estimated to be in the range of 5–10 m, modelling of tsunami effects using source parameters estimated from the uplift of coral microatolls, provide a reasonable match to the sparse historical records. The tsunami reports for this event are localised around Padang and it has suggested that the tsunami may have been caused by an underwater landslide triggered by the earthquake. List of earthquakes in Indonesia List of historical earthquakes List of historical tsunamis
22.
1833 Sumatra earthquake
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The 1833 Sumatra earthquake occurred on November 25 at about 22,00 local time, with an estimated magnitude in the range of 8. 8–9.2 Mw. It caused a tsunami that flooded the southwestern coast of the island. There are no records of the loss of life, with the casualties being described only as numerous. The magnitude of event has been estimated using records of uplift taken from coral microatolls. The island of Sumatra lies on the convergent plate boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate, the major slip events on the subduction zone interface are typically of megathrust type. Historically, great or giant megathrust earthquakes have been recorded in 1797,1833,1861,2004,2005 and 2007, smaller megathrust events have also occurred in the small gaps between the areas that slip during the larger events, in 1935,1984,2000 and 2002. There is only sparse information available regarding the extent of damage associated with either the earthquake or the subsequent tsunami, however, the tsunami was clearly devastating along the southwest coast of Sumatra from Pariaman to Bengkulu. There is also a report of significant damage in the Seychelles. The earthquake shaking lasted 5 minutes in Bengkulu and 3 minutes in Padang and these microatolls, named for their resemblance to island atolls, can be used to provide a record of sea level change. Microatolls form because the head cannot grow up beyond low tide level as exposure leads to death. The morphology of the microatolls directly reflects changes in HLS, the presence of annual growth banding combined with the Uranium-thorium dating method allows morphological changes to be dated, with an uncertainty of only a few years to a few decades. Modelling of the tsunami suggests that most of the energy would have been radiated out into the Indian Ocean, detailed modelling around Sumatra matches well with limited observations available. List of earthquakes in Indonesia List of historical earthquakes
23.
Bengkulu
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Bengkulu, historically known as Bencoolen or British Bencoolen, is one of the Provinces of Indonesia and is located in the southwest coast of Sumatra. It was formed on 18 November 1968 by separating out the former Bengkulu Residency area from South Sumatra province under Law No.9 of 1967 and was realized by Government Regulation No.20 of 1968. Bengkulu is the 25th largest province by area, it is divided into nine regencies and the city of Bengkulu. Bengkulu is also the 26th largest province by population in Indonesia, according to a release by Badan Pusat Statistik, it has the eleventh highest Human Development Index among the provinces, with a score about 0.744 in 2013. By 2014, the province positions 28th highest in gross domestic product, Bengkulu Province comprises not only land on southwest Sumatra, but also includes Mega Island and Enggano Island in the Indian Ocean. Bengkulu has 525 kilometres of coastline along the Indian Ocean on its western side, Bengkulu is home to many natural resources such as coal and gold, and has big and potential geothermal resources. In addition, it is less developed than other provinces in Sumatra, the name Bencoolen is predicted to be taken from a name of the hill in Cullen, Scotland, Bin of Cullen. Traditional sources mention that the Bengkulu or Bangkahulu derived from the word bangkai, according to the story, there were once a war between small kingdoms in Bengkulu. Awhich resulted in casualties on both sides in the river streams in Bengkulu. These casualties soon became rotten corpses as they are not buried, then comes the name Bangkaihulu which gradually are pronounced Bangkahulu or Bengkulu. The region formed part of the Buddhist Srivijaya empire in the 8th century, there were only few smalls ‘kedatuan’ based on ethnicity such as in Sungai Serut, Selebar, Pat Petulai, Balai Buntar, Sungai Lemau, Sekiris, Gedung Agung and Marau Riang. It was then once a region of Banten Sultanate and since 17th century was ruled by Minangkabau’s Inderapura Sultanate. The first European visitors to the area were the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch in 1596, the English East India Company established a pepper-trading center and garrison at Bengkulu in 1685. In 1714 the British built Fort Marlborough, which still stands, the trading post was never profitable for the British, being hampered by a location which Europeans found unpleasant, and by an inability to find sufficient pepper to buy. It became a port of call for the EICs East Indiamen. So Stamford Raffles was here, as were other British governors, despite their difficulties, the British persisted, maintaining their presence for roughly 140 years before ceding it to the Dutch as part of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 in exchange for Malacca. Bengkulu then remained part of the Dutch East Indies until the Japanese occupation in World War 2, during Sukarnos imprisonment by the Dutch in the early 1930s, the future first president of Indonesia lived briefly in Bengkulu. Here he met his wife, Fatmawati, who bore him children, one of whom, Megawati Sukarnoputri
24.
Proclamation of Indonesian Independence
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The Proclamation of Indonesian Independence was read at 10.00 a. m. on Friday,17 August 1945. In 2005, the Netherlands declared that they had decided to accept de facto 17 August 1945 as Indonesias independence date, in a 2013 interview the Indonesian historian Sukotjo, amongst others, asked the Dutch government to formally acknowledge the date of independence as 17 August 1945. The United Nations, who mediated in the conflict, formally acknowledge the date of independence as 27 December 1949, the document was signed by Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, who were appointed president and vice-president respectively the following day. The draft was prepared only a few hours earlier, on the night of 16 August, by Sukarno, Hatta, the original Indonesian Declaration of Independence was typed by Sayuti Melik. Maeda himself was sleeping in his room upstairs and he was agreeable to the idea of Indonesias independence, and had lent his house for the drafting of the declaration. Marshal Terauchi, the highest-ranking Japanese leader in South East Asia and son of Prime Minister Terauchi Masatake, was however against Indonesias independence, the declaration was to be signed by the 27 members of the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence symbolically representing the new nations diversity. The particular act was inspired by a similar spirit of the United States Declaration of Independence. Instead, the radical activists demanded that the signatures of six of them were to be put on the document. All parties involved in the moment finally agreed on a compromise solution which only included Sukarno. There was no evidence for the growing suspicions, as the Japanese had already surrendered to the Allies. An English translation of the proclamation was broadcast overseas, proklamasi Kami, bangsa Indonesia, dengan ini menjatakan kemerdekaan Indonesia. Hal2 jang mengenai pemindahan kekoeasaan d. l. l, 17-8-45, changed to hari 17, boelan 8, tahoen 05, Wakil-Wakil Bangsa Indonesia, changed to Atas nama bangsa Indonesia. P R O K L A M A S I Kami, bangsa Indonesia, hal-hal jang mengenai pemindahan kekoeasaan d. l. l. Diselenggarakan dengan tjara saksama dan dalam tempo jang sesingkat-singkatnja, djakarta, hari 17 boelan 8 tahoen 05 Atas nama bangsa Indonesia, Soekarno/Hatta. An English translation published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as of October 1948 included the speech as read by Sukarno. It incorporated remarks made immediately prior to and after the actual proclamation, PROCLAMATION WE THE PEOPLE OF INDONESIA HEREBY DECLARE THE INDEPENDENCE OF INDONESIA. MATTERS WHICH CONCERN THE TRANSFER OF POWER AND OTHER THINGS WILL BE EXECUTED BY CAREFUL MEANS AND IN THE SHORTEST POSSIBLE TIME. DJAKARTA,17 AUGUST1945 IN THE NAME OF THE PEOPLE OF INDONESIA SOEKARNO/HATTA This proclamation is printed in the front of the Rp.100,000 Indonesian banknote of the year 1999 and 2004 series, java in a Time of Revolution, Occupation and Resistance, 1944-1946
25.
Ombilin
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The Ombilin Coal Mine is a coal mine near Sawahlunto, West Sumatra, Indonesia. It is located approximately 70 kilometres northeast of Padang, by 2008, the mine had estimated reserves about 90.3 million tonnes of coking coal, of which 43 million tonnes was mineable. The mine is owned by PT Tambang Batubara Bukit Asam and operated by the China National Technology Import-Export Corporation, the mine produces about 500,000 tonnes of coal per year. Coal was discovered in area by Dutch engineer WH. Mining started at the mine in 1892 after the construction of a railway. In the pre-independence period, coal production peaked in 1930, at more than 620,000 tonnes a year, in 1942–1945, the mine was controlled by Japan. In 1945–1958, the mine was managed by the directorate of mining and in 1958–1968, in 1968, it became the Ombilin production unit of the state coal mining company. Production peaked in 1976 at 1,201,846 tonnes per year, until 2002 it operated as an open-pit mine. After that, only underground mine continues operating, in recent times, CNTIC has invested $100 million to the mine. On 2011, the continues to bring benefits to its constituents through reforestation of the former mining location. A well maintenance pit with sufficient lighting and air supply from blower attract local and foreign tourists mainly from Malaysia, seeing the pit cost Rp.30,000 per person
26.
2009 Sumatra earthquakes
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The September 2009 Sumatra earthquake occurred on September 30 off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia with a moment magnitude of 7.6 at 17,16,10 local time. The epicenter was 45 kilometres west-northwest of Padang, Sumatra, and 220 kilometres southwest of Pekanbaru, government reports have to date confirmed 1,115 dead,1,214 severely injured and 1,688 slightly injured. The most deaths occurred in the areas of Padang Pariaman, Padang, Agam, in addition, around 135,000 houses were severely damaged,65,000 houses were moderately damaged and 79,000 houses were slightly damaged. An estimated 250,000 families have been affected by the earthquake through the total or partial loss of their homes and livelihoods. The whole of Indonesia except Borneo, Bangka Belitung, Riau Islands, along the Sunda megathrust, the Indo-Australian Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian plate. The subduction creates regular earthquakes, many of them of megathrust type, specifically the Sumatran segment is currently experiencing a period of increased activity that began with the catastrophic 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. Each earthquake of the sequence adds additional stresses to segments of the boundary that have not moved recently. Although it was in the region, the United States Geological Survey specified that it was not an aftershock. The second earthquake has been linked to movement on the Great Sumatran fault. Tremors from the first earthquakes were felt in the Indonesian capital, Jakarta, Malaysia, the management of some high-rise buildings in Singapore evacuated their staff. A tsunami watch was triggered and there was reports of house damage, hotels in Padang were destroyed, and communications to the city were disrupted. Local news channel Metro TV reported fires in Padang where residents had run onto the streets as the first quake hit, teams of rescuers from nearby branches of the National Search and Rescue Agency have been deployed to Padang. It was also reported that water pipes in Padang were broken. There have also been reports that at least two hospitals and several schools have collapsed, there were landslides and collateral debris flows in the hills surrounding Lake Maninjau. The landslide in Gunung Nan Tigo, Padang Pariaman district completely destroyed some villages, landslides also forced some roads to be closed. Padangs Minangkabau International Airport suffered minor damage, with parts of the ceiling in the area falling down. The airport reopened on 1 October, authorities announced that several disaster management teams were en route to Padang although it took several hours for them to reach more remote areas. Rescue workers pulled dozens of survivors from the rubble and rushed them to Djamil Hospital, the hospital itself was overwhelmed with patients, and many patients were treated in tents set up outside the hospital
27.
TransJakarta
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TransJakarta is a Bus Rapid Transit system in Jakarta, Indonesia. It was the first BRT system in Southern and Southeast Asia, TransJakarta system began operations on January 25,2004. TransJakarta was designed to provide Jakarta citizens with a fast public transportation system to reduce rush hour traffic. The buses run in dedicated lanes and ticket prices are subsidized by the regional government, in 2016, a new record of 123.73 million passengers was achieved. The fare cost has remained Rp 3,500 per passenger since initial operation, TransJakarta has the worlds longest BRT system, with 12 primary routes and 10 cross-corridor routes. A significant increase from 41 routes in 2015, while TransJakarta deploys 1,056 buses in 2016 and also a significant increase from 605 buses in 2015. Following two weeks in which it was free to use, commercial operations started on February 1,2004, TransJakarta was built to provide a fast, comfortable, and affordable mass transportation system. To accomplish those objectives, the buses were given lanes restricted to other traffic, normal operating times are from 5, 00am to 10, 00pm. Some routes have extended hours until 11, 00pm, seven routes have limited overnight services providing 24-hour operation. March 18,2011 Corridor 9 was the only corridor serving until 11.00 pm, followed by Corridor 1, with transit point with Corridor 9 at Semanggi shelter. The night service however, only stops at a certain shelters only, July 1,2011 Corridors 4 to 7 began their late night service, so all corridors now has already deployed late night service except for Corridor 8. September 28,20113 feeder bus routes launched with Route 1 from West Jakarta Municipal Office to Daan Mogot, Route 2 from Tanah Abang to Medan Merdeka Selatan and Route 3 from SCBD to Senayan. The fare will be Rp.6,500, which cover tickets for both the service and TransJakarta buses. But the feeder routes eventually shut down because of low number of riders, december 13,2011, Transjakarta began to separate male and female passengers, in which the commuter rail network has already done the separation earlier. The woman-only areas are located between middle door and driver cabins, december 28,2011, Corridor 11, opened. February 14,2013, Corridor 12, opened, may 19,2014, The extension of Corridor 2, opened. On June 1,2014, 24-hour operation began on three corridors — the Blok M-Kota route, Pinang Ranti-Pluit route and Kalideres-Pasar Baru route, service is provided by 18 buses with 2 buses in reserve and service frequency is between 30 minutes and an hour. On May 6,2015, 24-hour operation began on four corridors - the Harmoni-Pulogadung route, Cililitan-Ancol Route, Harmoni-Lebak Bulus route, service is provided by 28 buses with 2 buses in reserve and frequency is between 30 minutes and 60 minute
28.
Minangkabau International Airport
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Minangkabau International Airport is the principal airport serving the province of West Sumatra on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. It is located about 23 km north-west of Padang, in Ketaping, Padang Pariaman regency, the airport became operational in July 2005, replacing the old Tabing Airport in Padang. The airport is named after the Minangkabau ethnic group who inhabit the region, there is one terminal building for both international flights and domestic flights. The airport has 17 check-in counters,5 baggage conveyors, and 9 ticket sales counters, the architecture of airport terminal adopting bagonjong, Minangkabau vernacular architecture commonly found in rumah gadang traditional house. In late 2013, the runway was lengthened to 250 m that is now compatible with Boeing 747, there was also a plan to connect the airport to the city of Padang with a train service. The terminal expansion is already announced and the rendering is already released in Angkasa Pura 2 website, Minangkabau International Airport is located 23 km from the center of the city of Padang, occupying an area of ±427 hectares as the main gateway to West Sumatra. The airport was built in 2001 replacing Tabing Airport which has been operating for 34 years, the relocation from Tabing Airport to Minangkabau International Airport was done because the old airport could no longer meet the requirements in terms of flight safety. The new airport construction cost approximately 9.4 billion yen, in the form of loan from Japan Bank International Corporation. The constructions were carried out by the main contractors Shimizu and Marubeni of Japan JO, there are a number of flights serving the routes from and to Minangkabau International Airport, similar to the former Tabing Airport. These routes help to connect Padang to Jakarta, Medan, Batam and Pekanbaru domestically, currently there are six national airlines and one foreign airlines operating at Minangkabau International Airport. Minangkabau International Airport is the airport in Indonesia, after Soekarno–Hatta Airport at Cengkareng. According to the Airports Masterplan, this airport would be built in three phases, phase two would begin in 2010, when all phases have been completed, a long runway extended up to 3,600 m would be in place. It will also be equipped with a taxiway along the runway. Other constructions include supporting facilities and main terminal building. Given current favorable growth, the number of passengers has reached 1.3 million per year, along with the development of the airport, the local government has completed a flyover at the intersection of the entrance to the airport which links the Airport with the By-pass arterial road. Another planned upgrade includes widening of a 10 km stretch Tabing – Duku section. The facilities are adequate for a provincial airport. There is ample parking space, a range of stores selling various goods, many international tourists would find the toilet facilities somewhat unsatisfactory
29.
Padang Pariaman
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Padang Pariaman is a regency of West Sumatra, Indonesia. The regency capital is Parit Malintang and it has an area of 1,328.79 km2, and the population was 390,204 at the 2010 Census, by January 2014 the official estimate was 411,378. West Sumatras capital and biggest city, Padang, is surrounded by this regency.79 km ², regions land area is equivalent to 3.15 percent of total land area of West Sumatra Province. Temperatures ranged between 24.4 °C -25.7 °C, so for the maximum temperature of 31.08 °C and average minimum temperature of 21.34 °C. Average rainfall for the district overall Pariaman in 2007 amounted to 368.4 mm, with a days of rain as much as 19 days per month. West Sumatra Province is a district nearly 3,000 meters in elevation made of Paleozoic sedimentary rock. The Great Sumatran Fault divides the center of the province—the fault topography clearly visible—in a North-northwest to South-southeast direction, the stretch of land between the central mountain range and the shore is made of volcanic uplands and pyroclastic flow uplands with a narrow coastal plain distributed along the seacoast. Towering above the side of Padang Pariaman are two large volcanoes, Gunung Tandikat stands at 2, 347m and Gunung Singalang at 2, 877m. Lake Manijau, located at the end of Padang Pariaman, is a caldera lake measuring 20 kilometers north-south and 8 kilometers east-west which formed after a large volcanic burst 52,000 years ago. The volcanic products from this giant eruption are scattered over an area in the north-central area of Padang Pariaman. Today these volcanic products are seen as pyroclastic flow uplands and low relief hills
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Mentawai Islands Regency
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The Mentawai Islands are a chain of about seventy islands and islets off the western coast of Sumatra in Indonesia. Siberut at 4,030 square kilometres is the largest of the islands, the other major islands are Sipura, North Pagai and South Pagai. The islands lie approximately 150 kilometres off the Sumatran coast, across the Mentawai Strait, the indigenous inhabitants of the islands are known as the Mentawai people. The Mentawai Islands have become a destination for surfing. The Mentawai Islands have been administered as a regency within the West Sumatra province since 1999, the regency seat is Tua Pejat, on the island of Sipora. Padang, the capital of the province, lies on the Sumatran mainland opposite Siberut, the regency is divided into ten districts, tabulated below from south to north with their 2010 Census populations. This includes five endemic primates, the Mentawai or kloss gibbon, Mentawai macaque, Siberut macaque, Mentawai leaf monkey and they are highly endangered due to logging, unsustainable hunting, and conversion of rainforest to palm oil plantations. Some areas of the Mentawai Islands rain forest ecoregion are protected, red junglefowl, the Asian palm civet and crab-eating macaque are also native. The Mentawai Islands lie above the Sunda megathrust, an active zone responsible for many great earthquakes. This megathrust runs along the side of Sumatra island, forming the interface between the Eurasian Plate and Indo-Australian Plate. Earthquake and tsunami activity has been high since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, in 1833, the region was hit with an earthquake, possibly similar in size to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, another large earthquake struck in 1797. On October 25,2010, an earthquake in southern Sumatra led to a tsunami that devastated villages in South and North Pagai. Mentawai ethnic group Anthropology of the Mentawai Islands Native Planet, The Mentawai Mentawai Islands rain forests
31.
Siberut
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Siberut is the largest and northernmost of the Mentawai Islands, lying 150 kilometres west of Sumatra in the Indian Ocean. A part of Indonesia, the island is the most important home for the Mentawai people, the western half of the island was set aside as the Siberut National Park in 1993. Much of the island is covered with rainforest, but is subject to commercial logging, smaller islands adjacent to Siberut include Karamajet and Masokut which lie in the Bungalaut strait at the south of the island. The island is known for its range of primates, including the Kloss gibbon, pig-tailed langur, Mentawai langur, Siberut was affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake tsunami, but without any known loss of human life. One report stated that the island may have raised up to two metres by the earthquake. Siberut Island has a hot and humid tropical rainforest climate, with a rainfall of 4,000 mm. Temperatures range from 22 to 31 °C, and humidity averages 81–85%, the east coast has many islets, bays and coral reefs, and is covered with mangrove forest extending up to 2 km wide before giving way to nipah forest. The west coast features mainly Barringtonia forests and is difficult to get to because of rough seas, the hilly interior elevates to 384 metres, with many streams eventually forming rivers in the sago-grove lowlands and swamp forests. There are also areas of primary forest. Siberut has been isolated from the mainland Sunda shelf since the Mid-Pleistocene and this isolation has led to a much biodiversity, with about 900 species of vascular plants and 31 mammal species. Sixty-five percent of mammals and fifteen percent of other animals are endemic at some taxonomic level, of the 134 bird species found on Siberut,19 are endemic at some taxonomic level. There are four endemic primates, the bokkoi, lutung Mentawai/joja, bilou, Siberut was recognized as a biosphere reserve in 1981. In 1993, the part of the island was designated as a national park. About 70% of the remaining forest outside the reserve is subject to logging concessions, some operative, in 2001, UNESCO brought in a new phase of its Siberut Programme, with the intention of protecting the ecosystem through local development. This phase involves creating a partnership of local communities, conservation groups and local government, however, poor governance and corruption has led to substantial illegal logging. Some anthropologists believe that several years ago, the Bataks of North Sumatra may have been the first to settle here. However, there are now substantial differences in culture and language among the inhabitants, the Swiss anthropologist, Reimar Schefold spent years among one of the Siberut groups, the Sakuddei. In the west of the island, there is a tradition of communal long houses known as uma, media related to Siberut at Wikimedia Commons
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Sipora
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Sipora located off Sumatra in Indonesia, is the smallest and most developed of the four Mentawai Islands at only 845 km2. The regency capital of the Mentawai Islands, Tua Pejat, is found on Sipora, an estimated 10-15% of the original rainforest remains on this island. Surf spots Hollow Trees and Lances Left break off the end of the island. Surf spots break in the region of this island including Telescopes, Iceland. The ocean swells are most consistent from April to October, wind conditions can vary by the hour, and are often calm and glassy. For accommodation near Sipura, most surfers stay on yachts that can be chartered in Padang, some visiting surfers choose to stay on the island itself at resorts or with local families in Tua Pajet. The islands of North Pagai and South Pagai are situated to the south, the fourth and largest of the Mentawai Islands - Siberut - is situated to the north of Sipora. Northern, Iceland Telescopes Suicides Western, Arik Seven palm point Southern, Lances left, lonely Planet, Indonesia - page 437 Islands of Indonesia
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South Pagai
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South Pagai is one of the Mentawai Islands off the west coast of Sumatra in Indonesia. It is south of North Pagai Island, the September 2007 Sumatra earthquakes were located near here, producing coastal uplift, enlarging nearby islands and even produced 6 new ones. The 2010 Mentawai earthquake and tsunami also struck of its south-west coast, South Pagai and its surrounding outer islands host overall what many feel are among the highest quality and the most consistent surf breaks of the Mentawai Islands. The surf breaks in this region were the most affected during he 2007 seismic event, where the reefs raised around 6 ft in the southernmost tip of the Mentawais. Due to this, the breaks were altered and subsequently increased or decreased in quality. All but a few of the breaks in the South Pagai region are arguably World Class on a consistent basis
34.
Sibolga
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Sibolga is a city and a port located in the natural harbour of Sibolga Bay on the west coast of North Sumatra province, in Indonesia. It is located on the side of North Sumatra, facing the Indian Ocean and is a transit harbour to the Nias island which was hard hit during the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The City has an area of 10.77 km2 and had a population of 84,444 at the 2010 Census. The city is divided into four districts, tabulated below with their 2010 Census population, british, Dutch, French and American traders passed through here. It is thought Stamford Raffles passed through before he moved to Bengkulu in south Sumatra, from Bengkulu Raffles, after relinquishing the Port to the Dutch, established the trade port that became Singapore. At some point between 1890-1920 there was a fire in the city, which was presumably mostly built from wood from the surrounding mountains. A presumably makeshift prison described as a camp was set up on Taroetoengweg, in the city center. It first housed 10 European men from in and around Sibolga, on May 4 they were taken to the Native Secondary School for Boys in Pearadja, which is located up in the mountains behind Sibolga. Ferries from here service the islands to the west, Simeulue. Sibolga is a step off point for trade and passenger boats to Nias Island, the local airport is Ferdinand Lumban Tobing Airport. This area has a tropical rainforest climate with no dry season. Regions with this climate typically feature tropical rainforests, and are designated by the Köppen climate classification as Af, media related to Sibolga at Wikimedia Commons
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Gunung Sitoli
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Gunungsitoli is the capital city of Nias Regency, North Sumatra province, Indonesia, but is also an independent municipality within the province. It is located at 1°17′N 97°37′E and it is a coastal city located on Nias island. Nias island is located in the Indian Ocean, on the west part of Sumatra, on March 28,2005, the 2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake destroyed parts of the city and caused casualties. The city is divided into six districts, tabulated below with their 2010 Census population
36.
Nias
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Nickeline or niccolite is a mineral consisting of nickel arsenide containing 43. 9% nickel and 56. 1% arsenic. Small quantities of sulfur, iron and cobalt are usually present and this last forms an isomorphous series with breithauptite. They blamed a mischievous sprite of German mythology, Nickel for besetting the copper and this German equivalent of copper-nickel was used as early as 1694. In 1751, Baron Axel Fredrik Cronstedt was attempting to extract copper from kupfernickel mineral, in modern German, Kupfernickel and Kupfer-Nickel designates the alloy Cupronickel. The names subsequently given to the ore, nickeline from F. S. Beudant,1832, in 1971, the International Mineralogical Association recommended use of the name nickeline rather than niccolite. This typically results in mineral assemblaged including millerite, heazelwoodite and metamorphic pentlandite-pyrite via sulfidation, associated minerals include, arsenopyrite, barite, silver, cobaltite, pyrrhotite, pentlandite, chalcopyrite, breithauptite and maucherite. Nickeline alters to annabergite on exposure to moist air, most of these minerals can be found in the areas surrounding Sudbury and Cobalt, Ontario. Other occurrences include within similarly modified nickel mines of the Kambalda area, the unit cell of nickeline is used as the prototype of a class of solids with similar crystal structures. Compounds adopting the NiAs structure are generally the chalcogenides, arsenides, antimonides and bismuthides of transition metals, when nickel sulfide ore deposits have been altered to produce nickeline, often the presence of arsenic renders the ore uneconomic when concentrations of As reach several hundred parts per million. However, arsenic bearing nickel ore may be treated by blending with clean ore sources, to produce a blended feedstock which the mill, the primary problem for treating nickeline in conventionally constructed nickel mills is the specific gravity of nickeline versus that of pentlandite. This renders the ore difficult to treat via the froth flotation technique, within the smelter itself, the nickeline contributes to high arsenic contents which require additional reagents and fluxes to strip from the nickel metal. Danas Manual of Mineralogy ISBN 0-471-03288-3
37.
Pariaman
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Pariaman, is a coastal city in West Sumatra, Indonesia. Pariaman has 83,151 inhabitants in 2014, an area of 73.36 km2, according to the limited early sources available, by the sixteenth century Pariaman was an important port city serving the Minangkabau settlements in the interior highlands of central west Sumatra. Traders from western India and later from Europe visited the port, trading in pepper, gold, in the early seventeenth century the port came under control of the Sultanate of Aceh, to the north, an Acehnese governor was stationed in the town. The port formally came under Dutch control in 1663 by treaty with Aceh, in 1671 the Dutch built a lodge here and later, around 1684, a fort. Continuing clashes with local rulers and competition with other European trading companies resulted in the port being abandoned by the Dutch in 1770. By the early twentieth century the port was less prominent on the coast, as Padang, after Indonesian independence, Pariaman was a naval headquarters for a province called Central Sumatra. It became a city on 11 Apr 2002. The city is divided into four districts, Pariaman Selatan, Pariaman Tengah, Pariaman Timur. The four districts are of similar area, about one-half of the population lives in Pariaman Tengah. The city is surrounded by the regency of Padang Pariaman. The contemporary economy is agricultural with 79% of land in farming. Minangkabau International Airport, West Sumatras major airport, is located near the city, although the population of Pariaman is predominantly Sunni, a famous and popular festival of Shia origin named Tabuik, is held annually in the city every 10 Muharram, the Day of Ashura. This practice was brought to the city in 1818, when soldiers from India settled in Pariaman. They had been disbanded when the British handed the area back to the Netherlands as part of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, the Tabuik festival commemorates the martyrdom of the grandsons of Muhammad, Hasan ibn Ali and Hussein ibn Ali. The Buraq, a winged horse that took Muhammad on his night-long journey to heavens, i. e. the Miraj. It presumably represents the horse of the Imam Hussein at the Battle of Karbala, but is portrayed with a womans head, wings. In the festival, two such effigies or Tabuik, one for Hasan and one for Hussein, are carried through the city, named Tabuik Pasa and Tabuik Subarang, they are swayed accompanied by tambur music and tasa drums. In the afternoon, both Tabuik are moved to the coast and before sunset they are immersed into the sea
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Padangpanjang
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Padang Panjang, is located in the cool highlands of West Sumatra, inland from the provincial capital Padang. It sits on a plateau beneath the volcanoes Mount Marapi and Mount Singgalang and it has an area of 23 km² and a population of about 50,000. It is located at 0°27′S 100°25′E, the main road through Padang Panjang links coastal Padang and the highland capital, Bukittinggi. The town is home to the Minangkabau Cultural Documentation and Information Center. Since 2008, Padangpanjang is the only town/city in Indonesia without cigarette adverts, in public area, public transport and children area, smoking is prohibited. In other area/building smoking can be only in a smoking room. In 2014, some pulmonologist medical doctors want to transfer to other towns, Padang Panjang travel guide from Wikivoyage
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Padang travel guide from Wikivoyage
