1.
City
–
A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
2.
Jawi alphabet
–
Jawi is an Arabic alphabet for writing the Malay language, Acehnese, Banjarese, Minangkabau, Tausūg and several other languages in Southeast Asia. Jawi is one of the two scripts in Brunei, used as an alternative script in Malaysia and Malay dominated areas in Indonesia. It can be typed with the Jawi keyboard, day-to-day usage of Jawi is maintained in more conservative Malay-populated areas such as Kelantan in Malaysia and Pattani. Jawi is still used on road and building signs, and taught in primary and religious schools in Brunei. The word Jawi is an adjective for the Arabic noun Jawah, both terms may have originated from the term Javadwipa, the ancient name for Java. Prior to the onset of the Islamisation, when Hindu-Buddhist influences were still firmly established in the region and this is evidenced from the discovery of several stone inscriptions in Old Malay, notably the Kedukan Bukit Inscription and Talang Tuwo inscription. The spread of Islam in Southeast Asia and the subsequent introduction of Arabic writing system began with the arrival of Muslim merchants in the region since the seventh century. The conversion of King Phra Ong Mahawangsa of Kedah in 1136, at the early stage of Islamisation, the Arabic script was taught to the people who had newly embraced Islam in the form of religious practices, such as the recitation of Quran as well as salat. Many Arabic characters are never used as they are not pronounced in Malay language and this was the same for the acceptance of Arabic writing in Turkey, Persia and India which had taken place earlier and thus, the Jawi script was then deemed as the writing of the Muslims. The inscription on the stone contains a proclamation issued by the Sri Paduka Tuan of Terengganu, urging his subjects to extend and uphold Islam and this has attested the strong observance of the Muslim faith in the early 14th century Terengganu specifically and the Malay world as a whole. The development of Jawi script was different from that of Pallava writing which was restricted to the nobility. The Jawi script was embraced by the entire Muslim community regardless of class, with the increased intensity in the appreciation of Islam, scriptures originally written in Arabic were translated in Malay and written in the Jawi script. Additionally local religious scholars later began to elucidate the Islamic teachings in the forms of original writings, moreover, there were also individuals of the community who used Jawi for the writing of literature which previously existed and spread orally. With this inclusion of literature, Malay literature took on a more sophisticated form. This was believed to have taken place from the 15th century, other forms of Arabic-based scripts existed in the region, notably the Pegon alphabet of Javanese language in Java and the Serang alphabet of Bugis language in South Sulawesi. Both writing systems applied extensively the Arabic diacritics and added several alphabets other than Jawi alphabets to suit the languages, due to their fairly limited usage, the spelling system of both scripts did not undergo similar advance developments and modifications as experienced by Jawi script. The script became prominent with the spread of Islam, as the Malays found that the earlier Pallava script was totally unsuited as a vehicle to relay religious concepts. The Malays held the script in high esteem as it is the gateway to understanding Islam and its Holy Book, the use of jawi script was a key factor driving the emergence of Malay as the lingua franca of the region, alongside the spread of Islam
3.
Minangkabau people
–
Minangkabau people, also known as Minang, is an ethnic group indigenous to the Minangkabau Highlands of West Sumatra, Indonesia. This custom is called Lareh Bodi Caniago and is known as Adat perpatih in Malaysia, today 4.5 million Minangs live in the homeland of West Sumatra, while about 4.5 million more are scattered throughout many Indonesian and Malay Peninsular cities and towns. The Minangkabau are strongly Islamic, but also follow their ethnic traditions, the Minangkabau adat was derived from animist and Hindu-Buddhist beliefs before the arrival of Islam, and remnants of animist beliefs still exist even among some practising Muslims. The present relationship between Islam and adat is described in the tradition founded upon Islamic law, Islamic law founded upon the Quran. As one of the worlds most populous matrilineal ethnicity, Minangkabau gender dynamics have been studied by anthropologists. With the arrival of the Dutch and other Muslim groups, the traditions have gradually influenced by both western and conservative Islamic thought. Based on the Raffles vision, Minangkabau is believed to have been the cradle of the Malay race and their West Sumatran homelands was the seat of the Pagaruyung Kingdom and the location of the Padri War. The name Minangkabau is thought to be a conjunction of two words, minang and kabau, there is a legend that the name is derived from a territorial dispute between the Minangkabau and a neighbouring prince. To avoid a battle, the local people proposed a fight to the death between two water buffalo to settle the dispute, the prince agreed and produced the largest, meanest, most aggressive buffalo. The Minangkabau produced a hungry baby buffalo with its small horns ground to be as sharp as knives, seeing the adult buffalo across the field, the baby ran forward, hoping for milk. The big buffalo saw no threat in the buffalo and paid no attention to it. But when the baby thrust his head under the big belly, looking for an udder, the sharpened horns punctured and killed the bull, and the Minangkabau won the contest. The roofline of traditional houses in West Sumatra, called Rumah Gadang, curve upward from the middle and end in points, until the 20th century the majority of the Sumatran population lived in the highlands. The highlands are well suited for human habitation, with fresh water, fertile soil, a cool climate. It is probable that wet rice cultivation evolved in the Minangkabau Highlands long before it appeared in parts of Sumatra. By the 16th century, the time of the report after the reign of Adityawarman. They were the King of the World, the King of Adat, and the King of Religion, the Minangkabau kings were charismatic or magical figures, but did not have much authority over the conduct of village affairs. It was around the 16th century that Islam started to be adopted by the Minangkabau, the first contact between the Minangkabau and western nations occurred with the 1529 voyage of Jean Parmentier to Sumatra
4.
West Sumatra
–
West Sumatra is a province of Indonesia. It lies on the west coast of the island of Sumatra, the latest official estimate for January 2014 shows a population of 5,098,790. West Sumatra is sub-divided into 12 regencies and seven cities and it has relatively more cities than other provinces in Indonesia, except Java province. It borders the provinces of North Sumatra to the north, Riau and Jambi to the east and it includes the Mentawai Islands off the coast. The history of West Sumatra is related to the history of the Minangkabau people, archaeological evidence indicates that the area surrounding the Limapuluh Koto regency forms the first area inhabited by the Minangkabau. Limapuluh Koto regency covers a number of rivers which meet at the eastern part of the Sumatran coastline. The Minangkabau ancestors were believed to have arrived via this route and they sailed from Asia via the South China Sea, crossing the Malacca Strait and later settled along the Kampar, Siak and Indragiri rivers. Some lived and developed their culture and traits around the Limapuluh Koto regency, the first westerner to reach West Sumatra was the French explorer Jean Parmentier in 1529. However, the westerners who came for economic and political reasons were the Dutch, the Dutch commercial fleet was seen along the southern coast of West Sumatra between 1595 and 1598. Apart from the Dutch, other European nationalities also came to the such as the Portuguese. The integration with migrants in the ensuing periods introduced cultural changes and their settlement area gradually became diminished and eventually they spread to other parts of West Sumatra. A portion of them went to the Agam regency while others went to the now Tanah Datar regency, from those areas onward, further spread of the population occurred north of the Agam regency, in particular, the Lubuk Sikaping. Most of them settled in the area such as the coastline and some in the southern parts in Solok, Selayo. The history of the West Sumatra Province became more accessible at the time of the rule by Adityawarman and this ruler left considerable amount of evidence of himself, although he did not proclaim that he was the Minangkabau King. Adityawarman ruled Pagaruyung, a region believed by the Minangkabau to be the center of its culture, Adityawarman was the most important figure in Minangkabau history. Apart from introducing a government system by a monarch, he also contributed significantly to the Minangkabau world. His most important contribution was the spread of Buddhism and this religion had a very strong influence in the Minangkabau life. The evidence of such influence found in West Sumatra today includes names such as Saruaso, Pariangan, Padang Barhalo, Candi, Biaro, Sumpur, since the death of Adityawarman in the middle of the 17th century the history of West Sumatra seems more complex
5.
Sumatra
–
Sumatra is a large island in western Indonesia that is part of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island that is entirely in Indonesia and the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2, Sumatra is an elongated landmass spanning a diagonal northwest-southeast axis. The Indian Ocean borders the west, northwest, and southwest sides of Sumatra with the chain of Simeulue, Nias. On the northeast side the narrow Strait of Malacca separates the island from the Malay Peninsula, on the southeast the narrow Sunda Strait separates Sumatra from Java. The northern tip of Sumatra borders the Andaman Islands, while on the eastern side are the islands of Bangka and Belitung, Karimata Strait. The Bukit Barisan mountains, which several active volcanoes, form the backbone of the island, while the northeast sides are outlying lowlands with swamps, mangrove. The equator crosses the island at its center on West Sumatra, the climate of the island is tropical, hot and humid with lush tropical rain forest once dominating the landscape. Sumatra was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names of Swarnadwīpa and Swarnabhūmi, the first word mentioning the name of Sumatra was the name of Srivijayan Haji Sumatrabhumi, who sent an envoy to China in 1017. Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri in the tenth through thirteenth centuries, late in the 14th century the name Sumatra became popular in reference to the kingdom of Samudra Pasai, which was a rising power until it was replaced by Sultanate of Aceh. Sultan Alauddin Shah of Aceh, on letters written in 1602 addressed to Queen Elizabeth I of England, referred to himself as king of Aceh, the word itself is from Sanskrit Samudra, meaning gathering together of waters, sea or ocean. European writers in the 19th century found that the inhabitants did not have a name for the island. The Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijaya, Srivijaya was a Buddhist monarchy centred in what is now Palembang. Dominating the region trade and conquest throughout the 7th to 9th centuries. The empire was a thalassocracy or maritime power that extended its influence from island to island, Palembang was a center for scholarly learning, and it was there the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim I Ching studied Sanskrit in 671 CE before departing for India. On his journey to China, he spent four years in Palembang translating Buddhist texts, Srivijayan influence waned in the 11th century after it was defeated by the Chola Empire of southern India. At the same time, Islam made its way to Sumatra through Arabs, by the late 13th century, the monarch of the Samudra kingdom had converted to Islam. Marco Polo visited the island in 1292, and Ibn Battuta visited twice during 1345–1346, Samudra was succeeded by the powerful Aceh Sultanate, which survived to the 20th century. With the coming of the Dutch, the many Sumatran princely states fell under their control
6.
Indonesia
–
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
7.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
Demonym
–
A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
9.
Time in Indonesia
–
The Indonesian archipelago geographically stretches across four time zones from UTC+6 in Aceh to UTC+9 in Western Papua. The border between central and eastern time zones runs north from the tip of Timor to the eastern tip of Sulawesi. Daylight saving time is not currently observed in almost all of Indonesia due to its tropical location, the only unofficial exception of this is Muara Teweh and Maurainu, which unofficially uses Western Indonesian Daylight Time. All provinces in the island of Java including major cities such as, Bandung, Surabaya, Jakarta, Semarang, two provinces in Kalimantan island, West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan. Including major cities such as, Pontianak, Palangkaraya, and Sampit, Muara Teweh and Maurainu unofficially uses Western Indonesian Daylight Time, which has the same time as Central Indonesian Time. All provinces in the Lesser Sunda Islands including major cities such as, Denpasar, Mataram, three provinces in Kalimantan island, North Kalimantan, East Kalimantan and South Kalimantan, including major cities such as, Balikpapan, Banjarmasin, Samarinda, and Tarakan. IANA time zone identifier is Asia/Makassar Indonesia Eastern Standard Time is observed in, Maluku Islands including major cities such as, Ambon City, Ternate City. All provinces in West Papua including major cities such as, Jayapura, Biak, all provinces in Papua including all major islands in the province. IANA time zone identifier is Asia/Jayapura It observed since January 1,1988. Central and Southern Sumatra Time, was observed in Bengkulu, Palembang and Lampung, Java, Bali, and Borneo Time, was observed in Java, Bali, Madura and Kalimantan. Celebes Time, was observed in Sulawesi and Lesser Sunda Islands, moluccan Time, was observed in Ternate, Namlea, Ambon, Sofifi and Banda. West Irian Time was observed in West Irian and it observed during November 1,1932 to August 31,1944. Dutch New Guinea Time, was observed in West Irian during named Dutch New Guinea because Netherlands still hold West Irian. It observed from September 1,1944 to December 31,1963, Daylight saving time was observed in Jakarta from May 1,1948 to May 1,1950. Its UTC offset during daylight saving time is UTC+08,00. tab, asia/Jakarta Asia/Pontianak Asia/Makassar Asia/Jayapura ASEAN Common Time Time in Malaysia Time in the Philippines Time in Singapore UTC+8 Indonesian Standard Time
10.
Tropical rainforest climate
–
A tropical rainforest climate, also known as an equatorial climate, is a tropical climate usually found along the equator. Regions with this climate typically feature tropical rainforests, and it is designated Af by the Köppen climate classification. One day in an equatorial climate can be similar to the next. A tropical rainforest is found at latitudes within 10 degrees North and South of the equator. The climate is most commonly found in South America, Central Africa, however, tropical rainforest microclimates are found in many other regions, while not everywhere along the equatorial region features a tropical rainforest climate. Additionally, while tropical rainforest climates are located near the equator. For instance, Santos, Brazil and Fort Lauderdale, United States are not only far removed from the equator, yet both of these cities feature a tropical rainforest climate, albeit with noticeably cooler and warmer periods of the year
11.
Black pepper
–
Black pepper is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. When dried, the fruit is known as a peppercorn, when fresh and fully mature, it is approximately 5 millimetres in diameter, dark red, and, like all drupes, contains a single seed. Peppercorns, and the ground pepper derived from them, may be described simply as pepper, or more precisely as black pepper, green pepper, black pepper is native to south India and is extensively cultivated there and elsewhere in tropical regions. Currently, Vietnam is the worlds largest producer and exporter of pepper, dried ground pepper has been used since antiquity for both its flavour and as a traditional medicine. Black pepper is the worlds most traded spice and it is one of the most common spices added to cuisines around the world. The spiciness of black pepper is due to the chemical piperine, black pepper is ubiquitous in the modern world as a seasoning and is often paired with salt. The word pepper has its roots in the Tamil word for long pepper, todays pepper derives from the Old English pipor. and from Latin which was the source of Romanian piper, Italian pepe, Dutch peper, German Pfeffer, French poivre, and other similar forms. In the 16th century, pepper started referring to the unrelated New World chili pepper as well, Pepper was used in a figurative sense to mean spirit or energy at least as far back as the 1840s, in the early 20th century, this was shortened to pep. Black pepper is produced from the still-green, unripe drupes of the pepper plant. The drupes are cooked briefly in hot water, both to them and to prepare them for drying, the heat ruptures cell walls in the pepper. The drupes are dried in the sun or by machine for several days, during which the pepper around the seed shrinks and darkens into a thin, once dried, the spice is called black peppercorn. On some estates, the berries are separated from the stem by hand, once the peppercorns are dried, pepper spirit and oil can be extracted from the berries by crushing them. Pepper spirit is used in medicinal and beauty products. Pepper oil is used as an ayurvedic massage oil and used in certain beauty. White pepper consists solely of the seed of the pepper plant and this is usually accomplished by a process known as retting, where fully ripe red pepper berries are soaked in water for about a week, during which the flesh of the pepper softens and decomposes. Rubbing then removes what remains of the fruit, and the seed is dried. Sometimes alternative processes are used for removing the outer pepper from the seed, ground white pepper is used in Chinese and Thai cuisine, but also in salads, cream sauces, light-coloured sauces, and mashed potatoes. White pepper has a different flavour from black pepper, it lacks certain compounds present in the layer of the drupe
12.
Pagaruyung Kingdom
–
Pagaruyung was the seat of the Minangkabau kings of Western Sumatra, though little is known about it. Modern Pagaruyung is a village in Tanjung Emas subdistrict, Tanah Datar regency, located near the town of Batusangkar, Adityawarman is believed to have founded the kingdom and presided over the central Sumatra region between 1347 and 1375, most likely to control the local gold trade. The few artefacts recovered from Adityawarman’s reign include a number of stones containing inscriptions, some of these items were found at Bukit Gombak, a hill near modern Pagarruyung, and it is believed a royal palace was located there. By the 16th century, the time of the report after the reign of Adityawarman. They were the King of the World, the King of Adat, collectively they were called the Kings of the Three Seats. The first European to enter the region was Thomas Dias, a Portuguese employed by the Dutch governor of Malacca. He travelled from the east coast to reach the region in 1684 and reported, probably from hearsay, that there was a palace at Pagaruyung, the primary local occupations at the time were gold panning and agriculture, he reported. A civil war started in 1803 with the Padri fundamentalist Islamic group in conflict with the traditional groups, elite families. The original Pagaruyung Palace on Batu Patah Hill was burned down during a riot in Padri War back in 1804, during the conflict most of the Minangkabau royal family were killed in 1815, on the orders of Tuanku Lintau. The British controlled the west coast of Sumatra between 1795 and 1819, stamford Raffles visited Pagarruyung in 1818, reaching it from the west coast, and by then it had been burned to the ground three times. It was rebuilt after the first two fires, but abandoned after the third, and Raffles found little more than waringin trees, the Dutch returned to Padang in May 1819. As a result of a treaty with a number of penghulu and representatives of the murdered Minangkabau royal family, Dutch forces made their first attack on a Padri village in April 1821
13.
Dutch East Indies
–
The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony. It was formed from the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and hegemony were expanded and this colony was one of the most valuable European colonies under the Dutch Empires rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was based on racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from. The term Indonesia came into use for the location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, Japans World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution, the word Indies comes from Latin, Indus. The original name Dutch Indies was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies, the name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Companys documents of the early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the late 15th century, following disruption of Dutch access to spices in Europe, the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed, recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company. The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, a capital was established in Batavia, which became the centre of the VOCs Asian trading network. Smuggling, the expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century, finally in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including Java, Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula, the resulting borders between British and Dutch possessions remain between Malaysia and Indonesia
14.
Dutch East India Company
–
It is often considered to be the worlds first truly transnational corporation and the first company in history to actually issue bonds and shares of stock to the general public. In other words, the VOC was officially the first publicly traded company of the world, the company was also considered by many to be the very first major and the greatest corporation in history. Statistically, the VOC eclipsed all of its rivals in international trade for almost 200 years of existence. Between 1602 and 1796 the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4,785 ships, the VOC enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the 17th century. Having been set up in 1602, to profit from the Malukan spice trade, in 1619 the VOC established a capital in the city of Jayakarta. Over the next two centuries the Company acquired additional ports as trading bases and safeguarded their interests by taking over surrounding territory and it remained an important trading concern and paid an 18% annual dividend for almost 200 years. Around the world and especially in English-speaking countries, the VOC is widely known as the Dutch East India Company, the name ‘Dutch East India Company’ is used to make a distinction with the East India Company and other East Indian companies. The abbreviation VOC stands for Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie in Dutch, the VOC monogram was possibly the first globally-recognized corporate logo. The logo of the VOC consisted of a large capital V with an O on the left and it appeared on various corporate items, such as cannon and coins. The first letter of the hometown of the conducting the operation was placed on top. An Australian vintner has used the VOC logo since the late 20th century, the flag of the company was orange, white, and blue, with the company logo embroidered on it. Before the Dutch Revolt, Antwerp had played an important role as a centre in northern Europe. At the same time, the Portuguese trade system was unable to supply to satisfy growing demand. Demand for spices was relatively inelastic, and therefore each lag in the supply of pepper caused a rise in pepper prices. These three factors motivated Dutch merchants to enter the spice trade themselves. Further, a number of Dutchmen like Jan Huyghen van Linschoten and Cornelis de Houtman obtained first hand knowledge of the secret Portuguese trade routes and practices, thereby providing opportunity. The stage was set for Houtmans 1595 four-ship exploratory expedition to Banten, the main pepper port of West Java. Houtmans expedition then sailed east along the north coast of Java, losing twelve crew to a Javanese attack at Sidayu, half the crew were lost before the expedition made it back to the Netherlands the following year, but with enough spices to make a considerable profit
15.
British Empire
–
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
16.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
17.
Netherlands
–
The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
18.
Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies
–
The Japanese Empire occupied the Dutch East Indies, now Indonesia, during World War II from March 1942 until after the end of the War in 1945. The period was one of the most critical in Indonesian history, initially, most Indonesians joyfully welcomed the Japanese, as liberators from their Dutch colonial masters. The sentiment changed, as Indonesians were expected to more hardship for the war effort. In 1944–1945, Allied troops largely bypassed Indonesia and did not fight their way into the most populous parts such as Java, as such, most of Indonesia was still under Japanese occupation at the time of their surrender, in August 1945. Unlike the Dutch, the Japanese facilitated the politicisation of Indonesians down to the village level, particularly in Java and, to a lesser extent, Sumatra, the Japanese educated, trained and armed many young Indonesians and gave their nationalist leaders a political voice. Until 1942, Indonesia was colonised by the Netherlands and was known as the Dutch East Indies, the Japanese spread the word that they were the Light of Asia. The Japanese had gradually spread their influence through Asia in the first half of the 20th century and these ranged from small town barbers, photographic studios and salesmen, to large department stores and firms such as Suzuki and Mitsubishi becoming involved in the sugar trade. The Japanese population peaked in 1931, with 6,949 residents before starting a gradual decrease, a number of Japanese had been sent by their government to establish links with Indonesian nationalists, particularly with Muslim parties, while Indonesian nationalists were sponsored to visit Japan. Such encouragement of Indonesian nationalism was part of a broader Japanese plan for an Asia for the Asians, also concerned were members of the Indonesian communist underground who followed the Soviet Unions popular united front against fascism. Japanese aggression in Manchuria and China in the late 1930s caused anxiety amongst the Chinese in Indonesia who set up funds to support the anti-Japanese effort, Dutch intelligence services also monitored Japanese living in Indonesia. The memorandum was refused because the Government did not consider the Madjlis Rakyat Indonesia to be representative of the people, within only four months, the Japanese had occupied the archipelago. On 8 December 1941, the Netherlands declared war on Japan, in January the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command was formed to co-ordinate Allied forces in South East Asia, under the command of General Archibald Wavell. In the weeks leading up to the invasion, senior Dutch government officials went into exile taking political prisoners, family, before the arrival of Japanese troops, there were conflicts between rival Indonesian groups where people were killed, vanished or went into hiding. Chinese- and Dutch-owned properties were ransacked and destroyed, the invasion in early 1942 was swift and complete. By January 1942, parts of Sulawesi and Kalimantan were under Japanese control, by February, the Japanese had landed on Sumatra where they had encouraged the Acehnese to rebel against the Dutch. On 27 February, the Allied navys last effort to contain Japan was swept aside by their defeat in the Battle of the Java Sea, from 28 February to 1 March 1942, Japanese troops landed on four places along the northern coast of Java almost undisturbed. The fiercest fighting had been in invasion points in Ambon, Timor, Kalimantan, in places where there were no Dutch troops, such as Bali, there was no fighting. On 9 March, the Dutch commander surrendered along with Governor General Jonkheer A. W. L, as the Japanese advanced, rebellious Indonesians in virtually every part of the archipelago killed groups of Europeans and informed the Japanese reliably on the whereabouts of larger groups
19.
Aceh Sultanate
–
The Sultanate of Aceh, officially the Kingdom of Aceh Darussalam, was a Sultanate centred in the modern-day Indonesian province of Aceh. It was a regional power in the 16th and 17th centuries. Its capital was Kutaraja, the present-day Banda Aceh, in addition to its considerable military strength, the court of Aceh became a noted centre of Islamic scholarship and trade. Acehs early history is unclear, but in one version it was founded by the Cham people, the Acehnese language is one of the 10 languages of the Aceh-Chamic language group. The ruler of Aceh converted to Islam in the mid-15th century, the Sultanate was founded by Ali Mughayat Syah, who began campaigns to extend his control over northern Sumatra in 1520. His conquests included Deli, Pedir, and Pasai, and he attacked Aru, the Ottoman Empire sent a relief force of 15 Xebecs commanded by Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis. On 21 June 1599 a Dutch captain, Cornelius Houtman arrived at Acheen aboard the Lioness as the first of three planned voyages to the East Indies, the crew stayed for three months acquiring pepper and other spices. British crew member John Davis claims the party was attacked by the local warlord with the loss of 68 dead. After they arrived, they were permitted by the Sultan to purchase pepper The same year and he returned in 1602 bearing a letter from English Queen Elizabeth I. The Sultan from 1589 to 1604 was Alauddin Riayat Shah ibn Firman Shah, internal dissension in the Sultanate prevented another powerful Sultan from appearing until 1607, when Iskandar Muda came to the position. He extended the Sultanates control over most of Sumatra and he also conquered Pahang, a tin-producing region of the Malayan Peninsula, and was able to force the Sultans of Johor to recognise his overlordship, if temporarily. During his reign he created a code of laws known as Adat Meukuta Alam, Acehs forces were not destroyed, however, as Aceh was able to conquer Kedah within the same year and taking many of its citizens to Aceh. The Sultans son in law, Iskandar Thani, former prince of Pahang later became his successor, during his reign Aceh focused on internal consolidation and religious unity. After the reign of Sultan Iskandar Thani, Aceh was ruled by a series of female Sultana, Acehs previous policy of taking hostage from conquered kingdoms population made them eager to seek independence, the results were Acehs control weakened while regional rulers gained effective power. The Sultan ultimately became a symbolic title. Aceh saw itself as heir to Pasai, the first Islamic state in Southeast Asia and it was called the porch of Mecca, and became a centre of Islamic scholarship, where the Quran and other Islamic texts were translated into Malay. Its notable scholars included Hamzah Pansuri, Syamsuddin of Pasai, Abdurrauf of Singkil, Aceh gained wealth from its export of pepper, nutmeg, cloves, betel nuts, and, once it conquered Pahang in 1617, tin. Low interest rates and the use of gold currency strengthened its economy and it was always somewhat fragile economically, however, because of the difficulty in providing enough surplus food to support the military and commercial adventures of the state
20.
Fourth Anglo-Dutch War
–
The Fourth Anglo-Dutch War was a conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic. The war, contemporary with the War of American Independence, broke out over British and Dutch disagreements on the legality, in October 1782, a treaty of amity and commerce was concluded as well. Most of the war consisted of a series of British operations against Dutch colonial economic interests, although British, the war ended disastrously for the Dutch and exposed the weakness of the political and economic foundations of the Republic. Near the end of war in 1747 an Orangist revolution restored the stadtholderate with vastly increased powers for the stadtholder. Instead, the Republic remained stubbornly neutral during the Seven Years War which enabled it to neglect both its army and navy. Initially the British considered the Dutch allies in their attempt to out the rebellion in their North American Thirteen Colonies. They attempted to borrow the mercenary Scotch Brigade of the Dutch States Army for use in the Americas, in a manner to the Hessian. More importantly, Dutch merchants, especially those from Amsterdam, became involved in the supply of arms and this trade was mainly conducted via the entrepôt of St. Eustatius, an island colony of the Dutch West India Company in the Caribbean. There American colonial wares, like tobacco and indigo, were imported and re-exported to Europe, for their return cargo the Americans purchased arms, munitions, and naval stores brought to the island by Dutch and French merchants. To add insult to injury, in 1776 the governor of the island, Johannes de Graeff, was the first to salute the Flag of the United States, in 1778 the Dutch refused to be bullied into taking Britains side in the war against France. The British invoked a number of old treaties to have the Republic support them militarily, after the French declared war on Britain, the Amsterdam merchants also became heavily involved in the trade in naval stores with France. The French needed those supplies for their construction, but were prevented from obtaining those themselves. According to the treaty naval stores were not contraband and the Dutch therefore were free to continue their trade with France in these goods, because of the still-important role of the Dutch in the European carrying trade this opened up a large loophole in the British embargo. The British therefore unilaterally declared naval stores to be contraband and enforced their embargo by arresting Dutch ships on the high seas. This led to protests by the affected Dutch merchants, who demanded institution of convoys escorted by the Dutch navy, to protect them against the Royal Navy. According to customary law, such convoys were exempt from the right of Visit. The States General now ordered him to provide the escorts and the first convoy, under command of rear-admiral Lodewijk van Bylandt and this led to the humiliating Affair of Fielding and Bylandt on 31 December 1779, which enraged Dutch public opinion and further undermined the position of the stadtholder. The Dutch hoped to gain the support of the other members of the League to maintain their neutral status
21.
Napoleonic Wars
–
The wars resulted from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and the Revolutionary Wars, which had raged on for years before concluding with the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. Napoleon became the First Consul of France in 1799, then Emperor five years later, inheriting the political and military struggles of the Revolution, he created a state with stable finances, a strong central bureaucracy, and a well-trained army. The British frequently financed the European coalitions intended to thwart French ambitions, by 1805, they had managed to convince the Austrians and the Russians to wage another war against France. At sea, the Royal Navy destroyed a combined Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in October 1805, Prussian worries about increasing French power led to the formation of the Fourth Coalition in 1806. France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July, although Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, it did not bring a lasting peace for Europe. Hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia, the Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support. The Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, the Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia. Unwilling to bear the consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse and retreat of the Grand Army along with the destruction of Russian lands. In 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France, a lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813. The Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814 and he was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power. However, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again, the Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June. The Congress of Vienna, which started in 1814 and concluded in 1815, established the new borders of Europe and laid out the terms, Napoleon seized power in 1799, creating a de facto military dictatorship. The Napoleonic Wars began with the War of the Third Coalition, Kagan argues that Britain was irritated in particular by Napoleons assertion of control over Switzerland. Furthermore, Britons felt insulted when Napoleon stated that their country deserved no voice in European affairs, for its part, Russia decided that the intervention in Switzerland indicated that Napoleon was not looking toward a peaceful resolution of his differences with the other European powers. The British quickly enforced a blockade of France to starve it of resources. Napoleon responded with economic embargoes against Britain, and sought to eliminate Britains Continental allies to break the coalitions arrayed against him, the so-called Continental System formed a league of armed neutrality to disrupt the blockade and enforce free trade with France
22.
1797 Sumatra earthquake
–
The 1797 Sumatra earthquake was the first in a series of great earthquakes that ruptured part of the Sumatran segment of the Sunda megathrust. It caused a tsunami that was particularly severe near Padang. The island of Sumatra lies on the convergent plate boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate, the major slip events on the subduction zone interface are typically of the megathrust type. Historically, great or giant megathrust earthquakes have been recorded in 1797,1833,1861,2004,2005 and 2007, smaller megathrust events have also occurred in the small gaps between the areas that slip during these larger events, in 1935,1984,2000 and 2002. The earthquake caused the collapse or damage of many houses, the tsunami surge drove an English sailing ship of 150–200 tons, moored in the Arau River, about 1 km inland, destroying several houses as it went. Smaller boats were driven up to 1.8 km upstream, in Air Manis, the whole town was flooded and the bodies of several people who had climbed trees to escape the surge were found the next day in the branches. Only two fatalities were reported from Padang itself but many more from Air Manis, the Batu Islands were also reported to be affected. The shaking at Padang lasted one minute, reports in 1845 and 1847 said either that this was the strongest earthquake in the memory of the residents of Padang or the strongest for forty years. The run-up of the tsunami at Padang and the village of Air Manis is estimated to be in the range of 5–10 m, modelling of tsunami effects using source parameters estimated from the uplift of coral microatolls, provide a reasonable match to the sparse historical records. The tsunami reports for this event are localised around Padang and it has suggested that the tsunami may have been caused by an underwater landslide triggered by the earthquake. List of earthquakes in Indonesia List of historical earthquakes List of historical tsunamis
23.
1833 Sumatra earthquake
–
The 1833 Sumatra earthquake occurred on November 25 at about 22,00 local time, with an estimated magnitude in the range of 8. 8–9.2 Mw. It caused a tsunami that flooded the southwestern coast of the island. There are no records of the loss of life, with the casualties being described only as numerous. The magnitude of event has been estimated using records of uplift taken from coral microatolls. The island of Sumatra lies on the convergent plate boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate, the major slip events on the subduction zone interface are typically of megathrust type. Historically, great or giant megathrust earthquakes have been recorded in 1797,1833,1861,2004,2005 and 2007, smaller megathrust events have also occurred in the small gaps between the areas that slip during the larger events, in 1935,1984,2000 and 2002. There is only sparse information available regarding the extent of damage associated with either the earthquake or the subsequent tsunami, however, the tsunami was clearly devastating along the southwest coast of Sumatra from Pariaman to Bengkulu. There is also a report of significant damage in the Seychelles. The earthquake shaking lasted 5 minutes in Bengkulu and 3 minutes in Padang and these microatolls, named for their resemblance to island atolls, can be used to provide a record of sea level change. Microatolls form because the head cannot grow up beyond low tide level as exposure leads to death. The morphology of the microatolls directly reflects changes in HLS, the presence of annual growth banding combined with the Uranium-thorium dating method allows morphological changes to be dated, with an uncertainty of only a few years to a few decades. Modelling of the tsunami suggests that most of the energy would have been radiated out into the Indian Ocean, detailed modelling around Sumatra matches well with limited observations available. List of earthquakes in Indonesia List of historical earthquakes
24.
Bengkulu
–
Bengkulu, historically known as Bencoolen or British Bencoolen, is one of the Provinces of Indonesia and is located in the southwest coast of Sumatra. It was formed on 18 November 1968 by separating out the former Bengkulu Residency area from South Sumatra province under Law No.9 of 1967 and was realized by Government Regulation No.20 of 1968. Bengkulu is the 25th largest province by area, it is divided into nine regencies and the city of Bengkulu. Bengkulu is also the 26th largest province by population in Indonesia, according to a release by Badan Pusat Statistik, it has the eleventh highest Human Development Index among the provinces, with a score about 0.744 in 2013. By 2014, the province positions 28th highest in gross domestic product, Bengkulu Province comprises not only land on southwest Sumatra, but also includes Mega Island and Enggano Island in the Indian Ocean. Bengkulu has 525 kilometres of coastline along the Indian Ocean on its western side, Bengkulu is home to many natural resources such as coal and gold, and has big and potential geothermal resources. In addition, it is less developed than other provinces in Sumatra, the name Bencoolen is predicted to be taken from a name of the hill in Cullen, Scotland, Bin of Cullen. Traditional sources mention that the Bengkulu or Bangkahulu derived from the word bangkai, according to the story, there were once a war between small kingdoms in Bengkulu. Awhich resulted in casualties on both sides in the river streams in Bengkulu. These casualties soon became rotten corpses as they are not buried, then comes the name Bangkaihulu which gradually are pronounced Bangkahulu or Bengkulu. The region formed part of the Buddhist Srivijaya empire in the 8th century, there were only few smalls ‘kedatuan’ based on ethnicity such as in Sungai Serut, Selebar, Pat Petulai, Balai Buntar, Sungai Lemau, Sekiris, Gedung Agung and Marau Riang. It was then once a region of Banten Sultanate and since 17th century was ruled by Minangkabau’s Inderapura Sultanate. The first European visitors to the area were the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch in 1596, the English East India Company established a pepper-trading center and garrison at Bengkulu in 1685. In 1714 the British built Fort Marlborough, which still stands, the trading post was never profitable for the British, being hampered by a location which Europeans found unpleasant, and by an inability to find sufficient pepper to buy. It became a port of call for the EICs East Indiamen. So Stamford Raffles was here, as were other British governors, despite their difficulties, the British persisted, maintaining their presence for roughly 140 years before ceding it to the Dutch as part of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 in exchange for Malacca. Bengkulu then remained part of the Dutch East Indies until the Japanese occupation in World War 2, during Sukarnos imprisonment by the Dutch in the early 1930s, the future first president of Indonesia lived briefly in Bengkulu. Here he met his wife, Fatmawati, who bore him children, one of whom, Megawati Sukarnoputri
25.
Proclamation of Indonesian Independence
–
The Proclamation of Indonesian Independence was read at 10.00 a. m. on Friday,17 August 1945. In 2005, the Netherlands declared that they had decided to accept de facto 17 August 1945 as Indonesias independence date, in a 2013 interview the Indonesian historian Sukotjo, amongst others, asked the Dutch government to formally acknowledge the date of independence as 17 August 1945. The United Nations, who mediated in the conflict, formally acknowledge the date of independence as 27 December 1949, the document was signed by Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, who were appointed president and vice-president respectively the following day. The draft was prepared only a few hours earlier, on the night of 16 August, by Sukarno, Hatta, the original Indonesian Declaration of Independence was typed by Sayuti Melik. Maeda himself was sleeping in his room upstairs and he was agreeable to the idea of Indonesias independence, and had lent his house for the drafting of the declaration. Marshal Terauchi, the highest-ranking Japanese leader in South East Asia and son of Prime Minister Terauchi Masatake, was however against Indonesias independence, the declaration was to be signed by the 27 members of the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence symbolically representing the new nations diversity. The particular act was inspired by a similar spirit of the United States Declaration of Independence. Instead, the radical activists demanded that the signatures of six of them were to be put on the document. All parties involved in the moment finally agreed on a compromise solution which only included Sukarno. There was no evidence for the growing suspicions, as the Japanese had already surrendered to the Allies. An English translation of the proclamation was broadcast overseas, proklamasi Kami, bangsa Indonesia, dengan ini menjatakan kemerdekaan Indonesia. Hal2 jang mengenai pemindahan kekoeasaan d. l. l, 17-8-45, changed to hari 17, boelan 8, tahoen 05, Wakil-Wakil Bangsa Indonesia, changed to Atas nama bangsa Indonesia. P R O K L A M A S I Kami, bangsa Indonesia, hal-hal jang mengenai pemindahan kekoeasaan d. l. l. Diselenggarakan dengan tjara saksama dan dalam tempo jang sesingkat-singkatnja, djakarta, hari 17 boelan 8 tahoen 05 Atas nama bangsa Indonesia, Soekarno/Hatta. An English translation published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as of October 1948 included the speech as read by Sukarno. It incorporated remarks made immediately prior to and after the actual proclamation, PROCLAMATION WE THE PEOPLE OF INDONESIA HEREBY DECLARE THE INDEPENDENCE OF INDONESIA. MATTERS WHICH CONCERN THE TRANSFER OF POWER AND OTHER THINGS WILL BE EXECUTED BY CAREFUL MEANS AND IN THE SHORTEST POSSIBLE TIME. DJAKARTA,17 AUGUST1945 IN THE NAME OF THE PEOPLE OF INDONESIA SOEKARNO/HATTA This proclamation is printed in the front of the Rp.100,000 Indonesian banknote of the year 1999 and 2004 series, java in a Time of Revolution, Occupation and Resistance, 1944-1946
26.
Ombilin Coal Mine
–
The Ombilin Coal Mine is a coal mine near Sawahlunto, West Sumatra, Indonesia. It is located approximately 70 kilometres northeast of Padang, by 2008, the mine had estimated reserves about 90.3 million tonnes of coking coal, of which 43 million tonnes was mineable. The mine is owned by PT Tambang Batubara Bukit Asam and operated by the China National Technology Import-Export Corporation, the mine produces about 500,000 tonnes of coal per year. Coal was discovered in area by Dutch engineer WH. Mining started at the mine in 1892 after the construction of a railway. In the pre-independence period, coal production peaked in 1930, at more than 620,000 tonnes a year, in 1942–1945, the mine was controlled by Japan. In 1945–1958, the mine was managed by the directorate of mining and in 1958–1968, in 1968, it became the Ombilin production unit of the state coal mining company. Production peaked in 1976 at 1,201,846 tonnes per year, until 2002 it operated as an open-pit mine. After that, only underground mine continues operating, in recent times, CNTIC has invested $100 million to the mine. On 2011, the continues to bring benefits to its constituents through reforestation of the former mining location. A well maintenance pit with sufficient lighting and air supply from blower attract local and foreign tourists mainly from Malaysia, seeing the pit cost Rp.30,000 per person
27.
2009 Sumatra earthquakes
–
The September 2009 Sumatra earthquake occurred on September 30 off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia with a moment magnitude of 7.6 at 17,16,10 local time. The epicenter was 45 kilometres west-northwest of Padang, Sumatra, and 220 kilometres southwest of Pekanbaru, government reports have to date confirmed 1,115 dead,1,214 severely injured and 1,688 slightly injured. The most deaths occurred in the areas of Padang Pariaman, Padang, Agam, in addition, around 135,000 houses were severely damaged,65,000 houses were moderately damaged and 79,000 houses were slightly damaged. An estimated 250,000 families have been affected by the earthquake through the total or partial loss of their homes and livelihoods. The whole of Indonesia except Borneo, Bangka Belitung, Riau Islands, along the Sunda megathrust, the Indo-Australian Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian plate. The subduction creates regular earthquakes, many of them of megathrust type, specifically the Sumatran segment is currently experiencing a period of increased activity that began with the catastrophic 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. Each earthquake of the sequence adds additional stresses to segments of the boundary that have not moved recently. Although it was in the region, the United States Geological Survey specified that it was not an aftershock. The second earthquake has been linked to movement on the Great Sumatran fault. Tremors from the first earthquakes were felt in the Indonesian capital, Jakarta, Malaysia, the management of some high-rise buildings in Singapore evacuated their staff. A tsunami watch was triggered and there was reports of house damage, hotels in Padang were destroyed, and communications to the city were disrupted. Local news channel Metro TV reported fires in Padang where residents had run onto the streets as the first quake hit, teams of rescuers from nearby branches of the National Search and Rescue Agency have been deployed to Padang. It was also reported that water pipes in Padang were broken. There have also been reports that at least two hospitals and several schools have collapsed, there were landslides and collateral debris flows in the hills surrounding Lake Maninjau. The landslide in Gunung Nan Tigo, Padang Pariaman district completely destroyed some villages, landslides also forced some roads to be closed. Padangs Minangkabau International Airport suffered minor damage, with parts of the ceiling in the area falling down. The airport reopened on 1 October, authorities announced that several disaster management teams were en route to Padang although it took several hours for them to reach more remote areas. Rescue workers pulled dozens of survivors from the rubble and rushed them to Djamil Hospital, the hospital itself was overwhelmed with patients, and many patients were treated in tents set up outside the hospital
28.
Esmeraldas, Ecuador
–
Esmeraldas is a coastal city in northwestern Ecuador. It is the seat of the Esmeraldas Canton and capital of the Esmeraldas Province and it has an international sea port and a small airport. Esmeraldas is the seaport of northwestern Ecuador, and it lies on the Pacific coast at the mouth of the Esmeraldas River. It is exactly at the antipodes of Padang, Indonesia, the city is the principal trading hub for the regions agricultural and lumber resources, and is the terminus of the 313-mile Trans-Ecuadorian Pipeline from the oil fields in northeastern Ecuador. Esmeraldas is well known around Latin America given the number of locals that have historically played in the Ecuadorian national football team. The port of Esmeraldas is economically important for the part of Ecuador. Exports from Esmeraldas include wood and wood chips, bananas, the soil allows the production of rice, maize, African Palm, albacá and a variety of tropical fruits. Among the main forest species are, chanul, raft, laurel, sande, guayacán, cattle and pig rearing are also important. The fishing industry is also an important economic indicator of the region, industry in Esmeraldas consists of manufacturing, timber, chemicals and oil. Concerns exist about forest management and deforestation in the Chaco rainforest, the trans-Andean pipeline was completed in August 1972, connecting the Oriente reserves to refining facilities in Esmeraldas, and the oil industry is the largest employer. In 1987, the refinery was expanded for the first time to 90,000 barrels per day, the second expansion, to 110,000 barrels, occurred in 1995. The plant is currently running at 80 percent capacity with hopes to return to full capacity by 2014, the petrol produced there is used for mixtures because of its high aromaticity. Tourist attractions include beaches, virgin forests, the culture of the indigenous Cayapas people, marimba and afro-ecuatoriana music, other attractions include Atacames, famous for the crazy coconut and its handicrafts in black and red coral. The U. S. State Department advises caution when travelling to the border region of Ecuador. The main road runs along the coast by joining La Tola, Lagarto, Montalvo, Rocafuerte, Río Verde, Camarones, other routes are, Esmeraldas - Atacames - Súa - La Unión - Muisne - Esmeraldas - Quinindé that lead to Santo Domingo and Quito. The Quito - San Lorenzo rail network is still in use, the General Rivadeneira International Airport offers both national and international services to Cali, Colombia
29.
Precipitation
–
In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
30.
Sunshine duration
–
It is a general indicator of cloudiness of a location, and thus differs from insolation, which measures the total energy delivered by sunlight over a given period. Sunshine duration is usually expressed in hours per year, or in hours per day, the first measure indicates the general sunniness of a location compared with other places, while the latter allows for comparison of sunshine in various seasons in the same location. Another often-used measure is percentage ratio of recorded bright sunshine duration, an important use of sunshine duration data is to characterize the climate of sites, especially of health resorts. This also takes account the psychological effect of strong solar light on human well-being. It is often used to promote tourist destinations, if the Sun were to be above the horizon 50% of the time for a standard year consisting of 8,760 hours, apparent maximal daytime duration would be 4,380 hours for any point on Earth. However, there are physical and astronomical effects that change that picture, namely, atmospheric refraction allows the Sun to be still visible even when it physically sets below the horizon. For that reason, average daytime is longest in polar areas, places on the Arctic Circle have the longest total annual daytime,4,647 hours, while the North Pole receives 4,575. Because of elliptic nature of the Earths orbit, the Southern Hemisphere is not symmetrical, the Equator has a total daytime of 4,422 hours per year. Given the theoretical maximum of daytime duration for a given location, bright sunshine hours represent the total hours when the sunlight is stronger than a specified threshold, as opposed to just visible hours. Visible sunshine, for example, occurs around sunrise and sunset, measurement is performed by instruments called sunshine recorders. For the specific purpose of sunshine duration recording, Campbell–Stokes recorders are used, when the intensity exceeds a pre-determined threshold, the tape burns. The total length of the trace is proportional to the number of bright hours. Another type of recorder is the Jordan sunshine recorder, newer, electronic recorders have more stable sensitivity than that of the paper tape. In 2003, the duration was finally defined as the period during which direct solar irradiance exceeds a threshold value of 120 W/m². The sky is clear in these regions, and fair weather is virtually perpetual, the descending branch of the Hadley cell and the long-term lack of atmospheric disturbances helps to explain the seemingly endless supply of sunny, cloud-free days in the deserts. Low clouding conditions are associated with rainfall shortage, as seen in these dry regions. In the belt encompassing northern Chad and the Tibesti Mountains, northern Sudan, southern Libya, some places in the interior of the Arabian Peninsula receive 3, 600–3,800 hours of bright sunshine annually. The largest sun-baked region in the world is North Africa, the sunniest month in the world is December in Eastern Antarctica, with almost 23 hours of bright sun daily
31.
Deutscher Wetterdienst
–
It is attached to the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure. The DWDs principal tasks include warning against weather-related dangers and monitoring and rating climate changes affecting Germany, the organization runs atmospheric models on their supercomputer for precise weather forecasting. The DWD also manages the national archive and one of the largest specialized libraries on weather. The DWD was formed in 1952 when the services of the western occupation zones were merged. In 1954, the Federal Republic of Germany joined the World Meteorological Organization, in 1975 the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts was formed for numerical weather prediction up to ten days in advance. In 1990, following the reunification, the services of the German Democratic Republic were incorporated in the DWD. Since the 1990s, the DWD has continuously reduced the number of manned weather stations, the DWD does not expect a reduction in forecast quality, given techniques like weather radar or satellites, which have significantly improved weather data collection. The German Meteorological Office runs a global model of its own. They developed the High Resolution Regional Model in 1999, which is run within the operational and research meteorological communities. The German non-hydrostatic Lokal-Modell for Europe has been run since 2002, since March 2009, the DWD operates a NEC SX-9 with a peak performance of 109 teraFLOPS to help in the weather forecasting process. Since 2005, the DWD has been publishing regional warnings against heat with the aim to reduce heat related fatalities and this decision was made because of the hot summer in 2003, when estimated 7000 people died from direct or indirect effects of the heat. Additionally it sends out sea weather reports as radioteletype and faxes, since 2006, the pollen warnings can be subscribed to for free on the DWD web site. Within its duty of primary meteorological information, the DWD offers a daily weather report for Germany which can be subscribed to by email on their official website. DWD offers free access to its climate data and its work is based on the German Meteorological Office Act. Currently, the DWD consists of roughly 2600 occupants, besides the DWD central in Offenbach, there are regional centers in Hamburg, Potsdam, Leipzig, Essen, Stuttgart and Munich
32.
Quran
–
The Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God. It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature, the Quran is divided into chapters, which are then divided into verses. The word Quran occurs some 70 times in the text of the Quran, although different names, according to the traditional narrative, several companions of Muhammad served as scribes and were responsible for writing down the revelations. Shortly after Muhammads death, the Quran was compiled by his companions who wrote down and these codices had differences that motivated the Caliph Uthman to establish a standard version now known as Uthmans codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with minor differences in meaning. The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical scriptures and it summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance and it sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. The Quran is used along with the hadith to interpret sharia law, during prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic. Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz, some Muslims read Quranic ayah with elocution, which is often called tajwid. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers, in order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, most Muslims rely on the tafsir. The word qurʼān appears about 70 times in the Quran itself and it is a verbal noun of the Arabic verb qaraʼa, meaning he read or he recited. The Syriac equivalent is qeryānā, which refers to reading or lesson. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammads lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the act of reciting, as reflected in an early Quranic passage, It is for Us to collect it, in other verses, the word refers to an individual passage recited. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example, So when al-qurʼān is recited, listen to it, the word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel. The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran, each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of qurʼān in certain contexts. Such terms include kitāb, āyah, and sūrah, the latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with an article, the word is referred to as the revelation
33.
Padang cuisine
–
Padang food is the cuisine of the Minangkabau people of West Sumatra, Indonesia. It is among the most popular food in Maritime Southeast Asia and it is known across Indonesia as Masakan Padang after the city of Padang the capital city of West Sumatra province. It is served in restaurants mostly owned by perantauan Minangkabau people in Indonesian cities, Padang food is ubiquitous in Indonesian cities and is popular in neighboring Malaysia and Singapore. The term Padang food is used to designate the whole culinary traditions of Minangkabau people. Padang food is famous for its taste of succulent coconut milk. Minang cuisine put much emphasis in three elements, gulai, lado and bareh, no traditional Padang meal is complete without the three — spicy chili sauce, thick curry and perfect steamed rice. Because most Minangkabau people are Muslims, Minangkabau cuisine follows halal dietary law rigorously, protein intake are mostly taken from beef, water buffalo, goat, lamb meat, and poultry and fish. Minangkabau people are known for their fondness of cattle meat products including offal. Almost all the parts of a cattle, such as meat, ribs, tongue, tail, liver, tripe, brain, bone marrow, spleen, intestine, cartilage, tendon, and skin are made to be Minangkabau delicacies. Seafood is popular in coastal West Sumatran cities, and most are grilled or fried with chili sauce or in curry gravy. Fish, shrimp, and cuttlefish are cooked in similar fashion, most of Minangkabau food is eaten with hot steamed rice or compressed rice such as katupek. Vegetables are mostly boiled such as boiled cassava leaf, or simmered in thin curry as side dishes, in Padang food establishments, it is common to eat with ones hands. They usually provide kobokan, a bowl of tap water with a slice of lime in it to give a fresh scent and this water is used to wash ones hands before and after eating. If a customer does not wish to eat with bare hands, it is acceptable to ask for a spoon, the cuisine is usually cooked once per day. To have Nasi Padang in restaurants customers choose from those dishes, during a dine-in hidang style Padang restaurant, after the customers are seated, they do not have to order. Customers take — and pay for — only what they want from this array, the best known Padang dish is rendang, a spicy meat stew. Soto Padang is local residents breakfast favorite, meanwhile sate is a treat in the evening, the serving style is different in Nasi Kapau food stalls, a Minangkabau Bukittinggi style. After the customer is seated, he or she is asked which dishes they desire, the chosen dishes will be put directly upon the steamed rice or in separate small plates
34.
Rendang
–
Rendang is a spicy meat dish which originated from the Minangkabau ethnic group of Indonesia, and is now commonly served across the country. One of the foods of Minangkabau culture, it is served at ceremonial occasions. Rendang is also served among the Malay community in Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Rendang is traditionally prepared by the Minangkabau community during festive occasions such as traditional ceremonies, wedding feasts and Hari Raya. Although culinary experts often describe rendang as a curry, rendang is usually not considered a curry in Indonesia since it is richer and contains less liquid than is normal for Indonesian curries. In 2011 an online poll of 35,000 people by CNN International chose rendang as the one dish of their Worlds 50 Most Delicious Foods list. The cooking technique flourished because of its role in preserving meat in a tropical climate, prior to refrigeration technology, this style of cooking enabled preservation of the large amount of meat. This spice mixture is called pemasak in Minangkabau, the spices, garlic, shallot, ginger, and galangal used in rendang have antimicrobial properties and serve as natural organic preservatives. If cooked properly, dry rendang can last for as long as four weeks, traditionally the term rendang in Minangkabau language does not refer to a certain type of dish. Traditional Padang rendang takes hours to cook, cooking rendang involves pounding and grinding ingredients as well as slow cooking, and so is time-consuming and requires patience. The meat pieces are cooked in coconut milk and spices until almost all the liquid is gone. The cooking process changes from boiling to frying as the liquid evaporates, the slow cooking process allows the meat to absorb all the spices and become tender. To cook the meat until tender with almost all the liquid evaporated requires great care, because of its generous use of numerous spices, rendang is known for having a complex and unique taste. Rendang is often served with steamed rice, ketupat or lemang, accompanied with side dishes such as boiled cassava leaf, cubadak, cabbage gulai. Rendang is revered in Minangkabau culture as an embodiment of the philosophy of musyawarah, the coconut milk symbolises the Cadiak Pandai, intellectuals, teachers, poets and writers. The chilli symbolises the Alim Ulama, clerics, ulama and religious leaders, the hotness of the chilli symbolises Sharia. The spice mixture symbolises the rest of Minangkabau society, Rendang originates from the Sumatran Minangkabau region. One of the earliest written records of rendang is from the early 16th century Hikayat Amir Hamzah, the making of rendang spreads from Minangkabau region to Mandailing, Riau, Jambi, across the strait to Malacca and Negeri Sembilan, resulting in a variety of rendang traditions. The popularity of rendang has spread widely from its original domain because of the culture of Minangkabau people
35.
Satay
–
Satay, or sate in Indonesian and Malaysian spelling, is a dish of seasoned, skewered and grilled meat, served with a sauce. These are grilled or barbecued over a wood or charcoal fire, Satay can be served in various sauces, however most often they are served in a combination of soy and peanut sauce. Hence, peanut sauce are called as satay sauce. Satay originated in the Indonesian island of Java and it is available almost anywhere in Indonesia, where it has become a national dish. Satay is a popular delicacy in Indonesia, the countrys diverse ethnic groups culinary arts have produced a wide variety of satays. In Malaysia, satay is a popular dish—especially during celebrations—and can be throughout the country. In Southern Philippines it is known as satti, close analogues are yakitori from Japan, chuanr from China, shish kebab from Turkey and the Middle East, shashlik from the Caucasus and sosatie from South Africa. It is listed at number 14 on Worlds 50 most delicious foods readers poll compiled by CNN Go in 2011, although both Thailand and Malaysia claim it as their own, its Southeast Asian origin was in Java, Indonesia. There satay was developed from the Indian kebab brought by the Muslim traders, even India cannot claim its origin, for there it was a legacy of Middle Eastern influence. A dish with widespread popularity, the origins of satay are unclear, the word satay itself is thought to have been derived from Indonesian, sate and Malay, saté or satai, both perhaps of Tamil origin. Satay was supposedly invented by Javanese street vendors as an adaptation of Indian kebabs and this theory is based on the fact that satay has become popular in Java after the influx of Muslim Indian and Arabs immigrants to Dutch East Indies in the early 19th century. The satay meats used by Indonesians and Malaysians — mutton and beef — are also favoured by Arabs and are not as popular in China as are pork, during the same period, other goat-based food such as tongseng and gulai kambing spicy goat soup were also appeared in Java. Another theory states that the word satay is derived from the Southern Min words sa tae bak and this theory is discounted, however, as traditional satay often consists of four pieces of meat and the fact that four is considered to be an inauspicious number in Chinese culture. From Java, satay spread through the Malay Archipelago and, as a consequence, numerous variations of the dish have been developed, by the late 19th century, satay has crossed the Strait of Malacca into neighbouring Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. In the 19th century, the migrated, presumably with Malay immigrants from the Dutch East Indies, to South Africa. The Dutch also brought this dish as well as many other Indonesian specialties to the Netherlands, turmeric is a necessary ingredient used to marinate satay, which gives the dish its characteristic yellow color. Meat commonly used includes beef, lamb, goat, mutton, pork, venison, fish, shrimp, squid, chicken, rabbit, some have also used more exotic varieties of meat, such as turtle, crocodile, horse, lizard and snake meat. Mutton satay is served with kecap manis instead of peanut sauce
36.
Curry
–
Curry is a dish originating in the cuisine of the Indian subcontinent. The common feature is the use of combinations of spices or herbs. The use of the term is limited to dishes prepared in a sauce. Curry dishes prepared in the states of India may be spiced with leaves from the curry tree. There are many varieties of dishes called curries, such dishes are called by specific names that refer to their ingredients, spicing, and cooking methods. Traditionally, spices are used whole and ground, cooked or raw, and they may be added at different times during the cooking process to produce different results. Curry powder, a commercially prepared mixture of spices, is largely a Western creation, such mixtures are commonly thought to have first been prepared by Indian merchants for sale to members of the British Colonial government and army returning to Britain. Dishes called curry may contain fish, meat, poultry, or shellfish, additionally, many instead are entirely vegetarian, eaten especially among those who hold ethical or religious proscriptions against eating meat or seafood. Curries may be dry or wet. Dry curries are cooked with very little liquid which is allowed to evaporate, wet curries contain significant amounts of sauce or gravy based on yoghurt, cream, coconut milk, coconut cream, legume purée, or broth. The first curry recipe in English was published in 1747 by Hannah Glasse, archaeological evidence dating to 2600 BCE from Mohenjo-daro suggests the use of mortar and pestle to pound spices including mustard, fennel, cumin, and tamarind pods with which they flavoured food. Black pepper is native to South Asia and Southeast Asia and has known to Indian cooking since at least 2000 BCE. The establishment of the Mughal Empire, in the early 16th century, influenced some curries, Curry was introduced to English cuisine starting with Anglo-Indian cooking in the 17th century as spicy sauces were added to bland boiled and cooked meats. The 1758 edition of Hannah Glasses The Art of Cookery contains a recipe To make a currey the Indian way, Curry was first served in coffee houses in Britain from 1809, and has been increasingly popular in Great Britain, with major jumps in the 1940s and the 1970s. During the 19th century, curry was also carried to the Caribbean by Indian indentured workers in the British sugar industry, since the mid-20th century, curries of many national styles have become popular far from their origins, and increasingly become part of international fusion cuisine. It is usual to distinguish broadly between northern and southern styles of Indian cuisine, recognising that within those categories are innumerable sub-styles and variations. The distinction is made with reference to the staple starch, wheat in the form of unleavened breads in the north, rice in the east, rice. Bengali cuisine, which refers to the cuisine of Bangladesh and the West Bengal state of India, includes curries, including seafood, Mustard seeds and mustard oil are added to many recipes, as are poppy seeds
37.
Ketupat
–
Ketupat, Kupat or Tipat is a type of dumpling made from rice packed inside a diamond-shaped container of woven palm leaf pouch. It is commonly found in Brunei, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and it is commonly described as packed rice, although there are other types of similar packed rices such as lontong and bakchang. Ketupat is cut open, its skin being removed, the rice cake is cut in pieces. It usually eaten with rendang, opor ayam, sayur labu, Ketupat is also the main element of certain dishes such as ketupat sayur and kupat tahu. The use of young palm leaves fronds as a pouch to cook food is widespread in Maritime Southeast Asia, from Indonesia and Malaysia. Ketupat is made from rice that has wrapped in a woven palm leaf pouch. As the rice cooks, the grains expand to fill the pouch and this method of cooking gives the ketupat its characteristic form and texture of a rice dumpling. Local stories passed down through the generations have attributed the creation of style of rice preparation to the seafarers need to keep cooked rice from spoiling during long sea voyages. The coco leaves used in wrapping the rice are always shaped into a triangular or diamond form and stored hanging in bunches in the open air. The shape of the package facilitates moisture to drip away from the rice while the coco leaves allow the rice to be aerated and at the same time prevent flies. In Java and most of Indonesia, ketupat is linked to Islamic tradition of lebaran, the earliest connection of ketupat with Islamic lebaran tradition is believed to be originated in 15th-century Sultanate of Demak. Nevertheless, ketupat is also known in non-Muslim communities, such as Hindu Balinese and people of the Philippines and it was linked to the local Hindu ritual on venerating Dewi Sri, the Javanese goddess of rice. The Balinese Hindus still weaved the Cili fronds effigy of Dewi Sri as an offering, sunan Kalijaga introduced the lebaran ketupat ritual on 8 Shawwal, a week after Eid ul-Fitr and a day after a six-day Shawwal fast. It is believed that it contains appropriate symbolism, kupat means ngaku lepat or admitting ones mistakes in Javanese language, other than Java, the tradition on consuming ketupat during Eid ul-Fitr is also can be found throughout Indonesia, from Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara. In various places in Indonesia, there is a ceremony called Lebaran Ketupat, side dishes at the events varied, ranging from plecing kangkung to the local dish of Ayam Taliwang. In Central Java, Lebaran Ketupat is called Bada Kupat, and was celebrated by cooking and serving ketupat, among Hindu communities in Bali and Banyuwangi in East Java, ketupat is part of the offering and ritual of Kuningan festive celebration to conclude the Galungan holy days. During Galungan, Hindu families create and erect a pole made of janur. Ten days after Galungan, the ceremony of Kuningan is observed to conclude the religious holy days, to celebrate Kuningan, Balinese Hindu families make tipat or ketupat first as offering, and then they consume some ketupat afterwards
38.
Surfing
–
Surfing is a surface water sport in which the wave rider, referred to as a surfer, rides on the forward or deep face of a moving wave, which is usually carrying the surfer towards the shore. Waves suitable for surfing are primarily found in the ocean, however, surfers can also utilize artificial waves such as those from boat wakes and the waves created in artificial wave pools. The term surfing refers to the act of riding a wave, regardless of whether the wave is ridden with a board or without a board, and regardless of the stance used. The native peoples of the Pacific, for instance, surfed waves on alaia, paipo, and other such craft, and did so on their belly and knees. The modern-day definition of surfing, however, most often refers to a riding a wave standing up on a surfboard. Another prominent form of surfing is body boarding, when a surfer rides a wave on a bodyboard, either lying on their belly, drop knee, other types of surfing include knee boarding, surf matting, and using foils. Body surfing, where the wave is surfed without a board, using the surfers own body to catch, recently with the use of V-drive boats, Wakesurfing, in which one surfs on the wake of a boat, has emerged. For centuries, surfing was a part of ancient Polynesian culture. Surfing may have first been observed by British explorers at Tahiti in 1767, samuel Wallis and the crew members of the Dolphin who were the first Britons to visit the island in June of that year. Another candidate is the botanist Joseph Banks being part of the first voyage of James Cook on the HMS Endeavour, who arrived on Tahiti on 10 April 1769. Lieutenant James King was the first person to write about the art of surfing on Hawaii when he was completing the journals of Captain James Cook upon Cooks death in 1779. When Mark Twain visited Hawaii in 1866 he wrote, In one place we came upon a company of naked natives. In July 1885, three teenage Hawaiian princes took a break from their school, St. Mathew’s Hall in San Mateo. George Freeth is often credited as being the Father of Modern Surfing and he is thought to have been the first modern surfer. In 1907, the interests of the land baron Henry E. Huntington brought the ancient art of surfing to the California coast. While on vacation, Huntington had seen Hawaiian boys surfing the island waves, looking for a way to entice visitors to the area of Redondo Beach, where he had heavily invested in real estate, he hired a young Hawaiian to ride surfboards. George Freeth decided to revive the art of surfing, but had success with the huge 16-foot hardwood boards that were popular at that time. When he cut them in half to them more manageable, he created the original Long board
Indonesia
West Sumatra
Dutch East India 1663-1781.svg){kind=small}
British Empire 1781-1784
British Empire 1795-1819
Dutch East Indies 1819-1942.svg){kind=small}
Japanese occupation 1942-1945
_Kota_Padang.svg)
Germany
Vietnam
Palestine
Thailand
Australia
United Arab Emirates
Padang travel guide from Wikivoyage