1.
Pakistan
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Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The new constitution stipulated that all laws were to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran. Pakistan has an economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule, the country continues to face challenging problems such as illiteracy, healthcare, and corruption, but has substantially reduced poverty and terrorism and expanded per capita income. It is also a member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid
2.
Pakistan Army
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Pakistan Army is the land-based service branch of the Pakistan Armed Forces. It came into existence after the independence of Pakistan in 1947, according to the International Institute for Strategic Studies it had an active force of approximately 620,000 active personnel as of 2017. In Pakistan, there is 16–23 years of age for military service. Pakistan Army has started inducting women as commissioned officers, Pakistani Air Force and Pakistani Navy have inducted their first female pilots and sailors in 2012 see details at Women in the Pakistan Armed Forces. Since its establishment in 1947, the Army has been involved in four wars with neighbouring India, since 1947, it has also maintained a strong presence along with its inter-services in the Arab states during the past Arab-Israeli Wars, and aided the coalition in the first Gulf War. Recently, major joint-operations undertaken by the Army include Operation Zarb-e-Azb, Operation Toar-e-Tander, the Army has also been an active participant in United Nations peacekeeping missions, including playing a major role in rescuing trapped US soldiers in Operation Gothic Serpent in 1993. Under Article 243 of the Constitution of Pakistan, the President is appointed the civilian Commander-in-Chief, the Chief of Army Staff, by statute a four-star general, is appointed by the President with the consultation and confirmation needed from the Prime Minister. The Pakistan Army is currently commanded by General Qamar Javed Bajwa, the Pakistan Army was created on the 30th of June of the year 1947 from the division of the British Indian Army. Fearing that India would take over the state of Kashmir, irregulars, scouts, in response to this, the Maharaja acceded to India. The Indian Armed Forces were then deployed to Kashmir and this led to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. A ceasefire followed on UN intervention with Pakistan occupying the northwestern part of Kashmir and this aid greatly expanded the Pakistan Army from its modest beginnings. The Pakistan Army took over from politicians for the first time when General Ayub Khan came to power through a coup in 1958. He formed Convention Muslim League which included Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who would later become Pakistans first democratically elected Prime Minister, tensions with India flared in the 1960s and a brief border skirmish was fought near the Rann of Kutch area during April 1965. The War began after the failure of Operation Gibraltar on 5 August 1965, on the night of 6 September 1965, the Indian Army opened the war front to the Province of Punjab of Pakistan, the Indian Army almost reached the Pakistani city of Lahore. The Indian Army conquered around 360 square kilometres square kilometres of Pakistani territory on the outskirts of Lahore. Indian forces halted their assault on Lahore once they had reached the village of Burki, the rationale for this was that a ceasefire was to be signed soon, and had India captured Lahore it would likely have been returned in ceasefire negotiations. The War eventually ended with a United Nations backed ceasefire and was followed by the Tashkent Declaration, losses were relatively heavy—on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft,200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistans army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses, at the time of ceasefire declaration, India reported casualties of about 3,000 killed
3.
Military aviation
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Airpower includes the national means of conducting such warfare, including the intersection of transport and war craft. Military aircraft include bombers, fighters, transports, trainer aircraft, the first military uses of aviation involved lighter-than-air balloons. During the Battle of Fleurus in 1794, the French observation balloon lEntreprenant was used to monitor Austrian troop movements, the use of lighter-than-air aircraft in warfare became prevalent in the 19th century, including regular use in the American Civil War. Lighter-than-air military aviation persisted until shortly after World War II, gradually being withdrawn from various roles as heavier-than-air aircraft improved, heavier-than-air aircraft were recognized as having military applications early on, despite resistance from traditionalists and the severe limitations of early aircraft. The U. S. Army Signal Corps purchased a Wright Model A on 2 August 1909 which became the first military aircraft in history, in 1911, the Italians used a variety of aircraft types in reconnaissance, photo-reconnaissance, and bombing roles during the Italo-Turkish War. The Turks, lacking anti-aircraft weapons, were the first to shoot down an aeroplane by rifle fire, technological improvements were made at a frenzied pace, and the first all-metal cantilevered airplanes were going into service as the war ended. The Allies would later use rocket-equipped fighters in the role, immobilizing German armored divisions during the Battle of Normandy. This played a role in winning the Battle of the Atlantic. The introduction of the jet engine, radar, early missiles, helicopters, post World War II, the development of military aviation was spurred by the Cold War stand-off between the super-powers. In the early 1960s, missiles were expected to replace manned interceptors, missiles were also expensive, especially against low-value ground targets. The 1970s saw the return of the fighter, and a greater emphasis on maneuverability. The 1980s through to the present day were characterized by stealth technology, airborne Early Warning provides advance warning of enemy activities to reduce the chance of being surprised. Many also have functions that allow them to direct or vector friendly fighters onto incoming bogeys. Bombers are capable of carrying payloads of bombs and may sacrifice speed or maneuverability to maximize payload. Experimental aircraft are designed to test advanced aerodynamic, structural, avionic and these are usually well instrumented, with performance data telemetered on radio-frequency data links to ground stations located at the test ranges where they are flown. Fighters establish and maintain air superiority, speed and maneuverability are usually requirements and they carry a variety of weapons, including machine guns and guided missiles, to do this. Forward Air Control directs close air support aircraft to ensure that the targets are nullified. Ground-attack aircraft support ground troops by weakening or nullifying enemy defenses, helicopter gunships and specialized ground attack aircraft attack enemy armor or troops and provide close air support for ground troops
4.
Military history of Pakistan
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The military history of Pakistan encompasses an immense panorama of conflicts and struggles extending for more than 2,000 years across areas constituting modern Pakistan, and the greater South Asia. The history of the military of Pakistan begins from post-1947. Many of the leaders of the military had fought in both world wars. Since the time of independence, the military has fought three wars with India. It has also fought a limited conflict at Kargil with India after acquiring nuclear capabilities, in addition, there have been several minor border skirmishes with neighbouring Afghanistan. In addition, Pakistani troops have participated in various foreign conflicts usually acting as United Nations peacekeepers. At present, Pakistan has the largest number of its personnel acting under the United Nations with the standing at 10,173 as of 31 March 2007. The region of modern-day Pakistan formed the most easternmost, populous, the first major conflict erupted when Alexander the Great overthrew the Achaemenid empire in 334 BCE, and marched eastwards. Eventually, after defeating King Porus in the fierce Battle of the Hydaspes, but, his battle weary troops refused to advance further into India to engage the formidable army of Nanda Dynasty and its vanguard of trampling elephants, new monstorities to the invaders. Therefore, Alexander proceeded southwest along the Indus valley, along the way, he engaged in several battles with smaller kingdoms before marching his army westward across the Makran desert towards modern Iran. Alexander founded several new Macedonian/Greek settlements in Gandhara and Punjab, the Mauryas Empire was itself conquered by the Shunga Empire, which ruled the region from 185 to 73 BCE. Other regions such as the Khyber Pass was left unguarded, the Greco-Bactrian king, Demetrius, capitalized and he conquered southern Afghanistan and Pakistan around 180 BC, forming the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greek Kingdom ultimately disappeared as a political entity around 10 AD following the invasions of the Central Asian Indo-Scythians and their empire morphed into the Kushan Empire who ruled until 375 AD. The region was conquered by the Persian Indo-Sassanid empire who ruled large parts of it until 565 AD. In 712 CE, a Syrian Muslim chieftain called Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region for the Umayyad empire. In 997 CE, Mahmud of Ghazni conquered the bulk of Khorasan, marched on Peshawar in 1005, by the end of his reign in 1030, Mahmuds empire extended from Kurdistan in the west to the Yamuna river in the east, and the Ghaznavid dynasty lasted until 1187. In 1160, Muhammad Ghori conquered Ghazni from the Ghaznavids and became its governor in 1173 and he marched eastwards into the remaining Ghaznavid territory and Gujarat in the 1180s, but was rebuffed by Gujarats Solanki rulers. In 1186-7, he conquered Lahore, bringing the last of Ghaznevid territory under his control, Muhammad Ghori returned to Lahore after 1200 to deal with a revolt of the Rajput Ghakkar tribe in the Punjab
5.
Sitara-e-Jurat
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Sitara-e-Jurat is the third highest military award of Pakistan. It was established in 1957 after Pakistan became a Republic, however and it may be considered to be roughly equivalent to the Military Cross and the Silver Star. Pakistan Army Frontier Force Regiment,1965 Major Shabbir Sharif Shaheed, Punjab Regiment,1965 PA-882 Major General Muhammad Jamshed, lieutenant Colonel Sahibzad Gul Shaheed 6 Lancers, Armed Corps. Col. Abdul Hanan Bajwa Lt. Col. com Decorations and Medals of Pakistan Pakistans Medals
6.
Battle honour
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In European military tradition, military units may be acknowledged for their achievements in specific wars or operations of a military campaign. These honours usually take the form of a place and a date, theatre honours could be listed and displayed on regimental property but not emblazoned on the colours. Since battle honours are emblazoned on colours, artillery units. These honour titles were permitted to be used as part of their official nomenclature, similar honours in the same tenor include unit citations. Battle honours, theatre honours, honour titles and their ilk form a part of the variety of distinctions which serve to distinguish military units from each other. For the British Army, the need to adopt a system to recognise military units battlefield accomplishments was apparent since its formation as an army in the later part of the 17th century. Although the granting of battle honours had already been in place at the time, before then, a regiments colours were practical tools for rallying troops in the battlefield and not quite something for displaying the units past distinctions. The first battle honour to be awarded in the British Army was granted to the 15th Hussars for the Battle of Emsdorf in 1760, thereafter, other regiments received battle honours for some of their previous engagements. The battle honour is held by the successor regiment, the Princess of Waless Royal Regiment. During these early years of the British standing army, a regiment needed only to engage the enemy with musketry before it was eligible for a battle honour, thus in 1882, a committee was formed to adjudicate applications of battle honour claims. This committee, later called the Battles Nomenclature Committee, still maintains its function in the British Army today. A battle honour may be granted to infantry/cavalry regiments or battalions, as well as ships and squadrons, they are granted to sub-units such as companies. Battle honours are presented in the form of a name of a country, region, or city where the units distinguished act took place. Not every battle fought will automatically result in the granting of a battle honour, conversely, a regiment or a battalion might obtain more than one battle honour over the course of a larger operation. Similarly, while in Korea, Princess Patricias Canadian Light Infantry earned both Kapyong and Korea 1951–1953, supporting corps/branches such as medical, service, ordnance, or transport do not currently receive battle honours. However and uniquely the Royal Logistic Corps has five battle honours inherited from its previous transport elements, Commonwealth artillery does not maintain battle honours as they carry neither colours nor guidons—though their guns by tradition are afforded many of the same respects and courtesies. However, both the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers were in 1832 granted by King William IV the right to use the Latin Ubique, meaning everywhere and this is worn on the cap badge of both the Corps of Royal Engineers and the Royal Regiment of Artillery. The practice was extended to these same regiments and corps in the successor Commonwealth armed forces
7.
Attack helicopter
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An attack helicopter is an armed helicopter with the primary role of an attack aircraft, with the capability of engaging targets on the ground, such as enemy infantry and armored fighting vehicles. Due to their heavy armament they are sometimes called helicopter gunships, weapons used on attack helicopters can include autocannons, machine guns, rockets, and guided anti-tank missiles such as the Hellfire. Many attack helicopters are capable of carrying air-to-air missiles, though mostly for purposes of self-defense. Todays attack helicopter has two roles, first, to provide direct and accurate close air support for ground troops. Attack helicopters are used to supplement lighter helicopters in the armed scout role. In combat, a helicopter is projected to destroy around 17 times its own production cost before it is destroyed. S. Army artillery spotter units over France, these aircraft were field-outfitted with either two or four bazooka rocket launchers attached to the struts, against German armored fighting vehicles. During the summer of 1944, U. S. Army Major Charles Carpenter managed to take on an anti-armor role with his rocket-armed Piper L-4. The only American helicopter in use during the war years, the Sikorsky R-4, was only being used for rescue and were very much experimental in nature. In the early 1950s, various countries around the world started to make increased use of helicopters in their operations in transport and liaison roles. Later on it was realised that these helicopters, successors to the World War II-era Sikorsky R-4, early examples include armed Sikorsky H-34s in service with the US Air Force and armed Mil Mi-4 in service with the Soviet Air Forces. This trend continued into the 1960s with the deployment of armed Bell UH-1s and Mil Mi-8s during the Vietnam War, by the 1990s, the missile-armed attack helicopter evolved into a primary anti-tank weapon. Able to quickly move about the battlefield and launch fleeting pop-up attacks, the helicopter gunship became a major tool against tank warfare, and most attack helicopters became more and more optimized for the antitank mission. Based on this realization, and with the involvement in Vietnam, the U. S. Army developed the requirements for a dedicated attack helicopter. The aircraft design selected for this program in 1965, was Lockheeds AH-56 Cheyenne, as the Army began its acquisition of a dedicated attack helicopter, it sought options to improve performance over the continued use of improvised interim aircraft. The three highest-ranked aircraft, the Sikorsky S-61, Kaman H-2 Tomahawk, and the Bell AH-1 Cobra, were selected to compete in trials conducted by the Armys Aviation Test Activity. Upon completion of the evaluations, the Test Activity recommended Bells Huey Cobra to be an interim armed helicopter until the Cheyenne was fielded. On 13 April 1966, the U. S. Army awarded Bell Helicopter Company a production contract for 110 AH-1G Cobras, the Cobra had a tandem cockpit seating arrangement to make the aircraft a smaller frontal target, increased armor protection, and greater speed
8.
Bell AH-1 Cobra
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The Bell AH-1 Cobra is a two-blade, single-engine attack helicopter manufactured by Bell Helicopter. It was developed using the engine, transmission and rotor system of the Bell UH-1 Iroquois, a member of the prolific Huey family, the AH-1 is also referred to as the HueyCobra or Snake. The AH-1 was the backbone of the United States Armys attack helicopter fleet, upgraded versions continue to fly with the militaries of several other nations. The AH-1 twin engine versions remain in service with United States Marine Corps as the primary attack helicopter. Surplus AH-1 helicopters have been converted for fighting forest fires, closely related to the development of the Bell AH-1 is the story of the Bell UH-1 Iroquois—icon of the Vietnam War and one of the most numerous helicopter types built. The UH-1 made the theory of air cavalry practical, as the new tactics called for US forces to be highly mobile across a wide area, unlike before, they would not stand and fight long battles, and they would not stay and hold positions. Instead, the plan was that the troops carried by fleets of UH-1 Hueys would range across the country, by 1962 a small number of armed UH-1As were used as escorts, armed with multiple machine guns and rocket mounts. The massive expansion of American military presence in Vietnam opened a new era of war from the air, the linchpin of US Army tactics was the helicopters, and the protection of those helicopters became a vital role. Bell had been investigating helicopter gunships since the late 1950s, and had created a mockup of its D-255 helicopter gunship concept, in June 1962, Bell displayed the mockup to Army officials, hoping to solicit funding for further development. The Iroquois Warrior was planned to be an attack aircraft based on UH-1B components with a new, slender airframe. It featured a grenade launcher in a turret on the nose, a 20 mm belly-mounted gun pod. The Army was interested and awarded Bell a proof-of-concept contract in December 1962, Bell modified a Model 47 into the Model 207 Sioux Scout which first flew in July 1963. The Sioux Scout had all the key features of an attack helicopter, a tandem cockpit, stub wings for weapons. After evaluating the Sioux Scout in early 1964, the Army was impressed, but also felt the Sioux Scout was undersized, underpowered, the armys solution to the shortcomings of the Sioux Scout was to launch the Advanced Aerial Fire Support System competition. The AAFSS requirement gave birth to the Lockheed AH-56 Cheyenne, an attack helicopter with high speed capability. It proved to be too sophisticated, and was canceled in 1972, the Army sought greater survivability in a conventional attack helicopter. At the same time, despite the Armys preference for the AAFSS–for which Bell Helicopter was not selected to compete–Bell stuck with their own idea of a smaller and lighter gunship, in January 1965 Bell invested $1 million to proceed with a new design. Bells Model 209 largely resembled the Iroquois Warrior mockup, in Vietnam, events were also advancing in favor of the Model 209
9.
Bell AH-1Z Viper
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The Bell AH-1Z Viper is an American twin-engine attack helicopter, based on the AH-1W SuperCobra, that was developed for the United States Marine Corps as part of the H-1 upgrade program. The AH-1Z features a four-blade, bearingless, composite rotor system, uprated transmission. The AH-1Z, one of the latest members of the prolific Huey family, is also called Zulu Cobra, aspects of the AH-1Z date back to the Bell 249 in 1979, which was basically an AH-1S equipped with the four-blade main rotor system from the Bell 412. This helicopter demonstrated Bells Cobra II design at the Farnborough Airshow in 1980, the Cobra II was to be equipped with Hellfire missiles, a new targeting system and improved engines. Later came the Cobra 2000 proposal which included General Electric T700 engines and this design drew interest from the US Marine Corps, but funding was not available. In 1993, Bell proposed an AH-1W-based version for the UKs new attack helicopter program, the derivative design, named CobraVenom, featured a modern digital cockpit and could carry TOWs, Hellfire or Brimstone missiles. The CobraVenom design was altered in 1995 by changing to a rotor system. The design lost to the AH-64D later that year however, in 1996, the USMC launched the H-1 upgrade program by signing a contract with Bell Helicopter for upgrading 180 AH-1Ws into AH-1Zs and upgrading 100 UH-1Ns into UH-1Ys. The H-1 program created completely modernized attack and utility helicopters with considerable design commonality to reduce operating costs, the AH-1Z and UH-1Y share a common tailboom, engines, rotor system, drivetrain, avionics architecture, software, controls and displays for over 84% identical components. Bell participated in a joint Bell-Government integrated test team during the engineering manufacturing development phase of the H-1 program, the AH-1Z program progressed slowly from 1996 to 2003 largely as a research and development operation. The existing two-blade semi-rigid, teetering rotor system is being replaced with a four-blade, the four-blade configuration provides improvements in flight characteristics including increased flight envelope, maximum speed, vertical rate of climb, payload and reduced rotor vibration level. The AH-1Z first flew on 8 December 2000, Bell delivered three prototype aircraft to the United States Navys Naval Air Systems Command at Naval Air Station Patuxent River in July 2002, for the flight test phase of the program. Low-rate initial production began in October 2003, with deliveries to run through 2018, in late 2006 NAVAIR awarded a contract to Meggitt Defense Systems to develop a new linkless 20 mm ammunition handling system to improve on the gun feed reliability of the existing linked feed system. These systems are now being retrofitted into the AH-1W and AH-1Z fleets with good results during combat in Afghanistan, in February 2008, the U. S. Navy adjusted the contract so the last 40 AH-1Zs are built as new airframes instead of the previously planned rebuild of AH-1Ws. In September 2008, the Navy requested an additional 46 airframes for the Marine Corps, in 2010, the Marine Corps planned to order 189 AH-1Zs with 58 of them being new airframes, with deliveries to continue until 2019. On 10 December 2010, the Department of the Navy approved the AH-1Z for full-rate production, the AH-1Z incorporates new rotor technology with upgraded military avionics, weapons systems, and electro-optical sensors in an integrated weapons platform. It has improved survivability and can find targets at longer ranges, the AH-1Zs new bearingless, hingeless rotor system has 75% fewer parts than that of four-bladed articulated systems. The blades are made of composites, which have an increased ballistic survivability and its two redesigned wing stubs are longer, with each adding a wingtip station for a missile such as the AIM-9 Sidewinder
10.
Mil Mi-24
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The Mil Mi-24 is a large helicopter gunship, attack helicopter and low-capacity troop transport with room for eight passengers. It is produced by Mil Moscow Helicopter Plant and has operated since 1972 by the Soviet Air Force and its successors. In NATO circles, the versions, Mi-25 and Mi-35, are denoted with a letter suffix as Hind D. Soviet pilots called the Mi-24 the flying tank, a term used historically with the famous World War II Soviet Il-2 Shturmovik armored ground attack aircraft. More common unofficial nicknames were Crocodile, due to the camouflage scheme and Drinking Glass. The first expression of this concept was a mock-up unveiled in 1966 in the shop of the Ministry of Aircrafts factory number 329. The mock-up designated V-24 was based on project, the V-22 utility helicopter. Mil proposed the design to the heads of the Soviet armed forces, while he had the support of a number of strategists, he was opposed by several more senior members of the armed forces, who believed that conventional weapons were a better use of resources. Despite the opposition, Mil managed to persuade the defence ministers first deputy, Marshal Andrey A. Grechko, while the panels opinions were mixed, supporters of the project eventually held sway and a request for design proposals for a battlefield support helicopter was issued. Mil engineers prepared two basic designs, a 7-ton single-engine design and a 10. 5-ton twin-engine design, both based on the 1,700 hp Izotov TV3-177A turboshaft. Later, three complete mock-ups were produced, along with five cockpit mock-ups to allow the pilot and weapon station operator positions to be fine-tuned, the Kamov design bureau suggested an army version of their Ka-25 ASW helicopter as a low-cost option. This was considered but later dropped in favor of the new Mil twin-engine design, a directive was issued on 6 May 1968 to proceed with the development of the twin-engine design. Work proceeded under Mil until his death in 1970, detailed design work began in August 1968 under the codename Yellow 24. A full-scale mock-up of the design was reviewed and approved in February 1969, flight tests with a prototype began on 15 September 1969 with a tethered hover, and four days later the first free flight was conducted. A second prototype was built, followed by a test batch of ten helicopters, acceptance testing for the design began in June 1970, continuing for 18 months. Changes made in the design addressed structural strength, fatigue problems, the tail rotor was moved from the right to the left side of the tail, and the rotation direction reversed. The tail rotor now rotated up on the side towards the front of the aircraft, into the downwash of the rotor, in 1972, following completion of the Mi-24, development began on a unique attack helicopter with transport capability. In October 2007, the Russian Air Force announced it would replace its Mi-24 fleet with Mi-28Ns, the core of the aircraft was derived from the Mil Mi-8 with two top-mounted turboshaft engines driving a mid-mounted 17.3 m five-blade main rotor and a three-blade tail rotor
11.
TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK
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The TAI/AgustaWestland T129 is a twin-engine, tandem seat, multi-role, all-weather attack helicopter based on the Agusta A129 Mangusta platform. The T129 was developed by Turkish Aerospace Industries, with partner AgustaWestland, the helicopter is designed for advanced attack and reconnaissance in hot and high environments and rough geography in both day and night conditions. The ATAK programme was begun to meet the Turkish Armed Forces requirements for an attack and it is in use by the Turkish Army, and is being offered to other services. The ATAK programme was begun to meet the Turkish Armed Forces requirements for an attack, Turkey announced on 30 March 2007 that it had decided to negotiate with AgustaWestland to co-develop and produce 51 attack helicopters based on the Agusta A129 Mangusta. It is to be assembled in Turkey by Turkish Aerospace Industries as the T129, on 7 September 2007, a $1.2 billion contract was signed. On 22 June 2008, the agreement between TUSAS Aerospace Industries and AgustaWestland formally entered into force, under the agreement, TAI will develop an indigenous mission computer, avionics, weapons systems, self-protection suites and the helmet-mounting cuing systems. Tusaş Engine Industries will manufacture the LHTEC CTS800-4N engines under licence, however, the T129s LHTEC CTS800-4N gives the United States a veto over any prospective export sales. The T129 was optimized for hot and high conditions and it has several key improvements over the original A129 inline with the requirements of the Turkish Army. The T129 will carry 12 Roketsan-developed UMTAS anti-tank missiles, the T129 features a 20 mm gatling-style cannon in a nose turret. It can carry a combination of 70 mm rocket pods, Stinger air-air missile pods, MILDAR was successfully completed in February 2012. In 2007, it was reported that one helicopter will be kept by the Turkish Ministry of Defense, the remaining 50 helicopters will be delivered to the Turkish Army. An optional 40 further T129 helicopters will be produced if necessary and these 50 T129s are to be designated T129B. In November 2010, Turkey ordered an additional nine T129 helicopters to increase its total ordered to 60 and these T129s were for an urgent Turkish Army operational requirement and was built by TAI for delivery in 2012, one year prior to the delivery of the previously ordered 51 helicopters. These T129s are designated T129A, lacking advanced anti-tank missiles, as a result of delays, the T129As entered service in 2014. On 28 September 2009, the T129s maiden flight took place when P1 prototype flew at AgustaWestlands facilities in Vergiate, on 19 March 2010, the first T129 prototype conducted high altitude hover tests near Verbania, Italy following the completion of several successful test flights. During the hover test, T129 P1 lost its tail rotor at 15,000 feet, test pilot Cassioli regained enough control to steer away from residential area before crashing, the crew escaped without serious injuries. On 17 August 2011, TIA announced the first successful flight of the T129 prototype P6, the T129 was nose-heavy, to resolve this,137 kg was added to the tail, causing the total weight to exceed the specified requirement. The higher weight may decrease the T129s service ceiling, which is detrimental for operating under hot and high conditions, the Undersecretariat for Defense Industries will adjust the contract in accordance
12.
Mil Mi-17
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The Mil Mi-17 is a Russian helicopter in production at two factories in Kazan and Ulan-Ude. It is known as the Mi-8M series in Russian service and it is a medium twin-turbine transport helicopter. There are also armed gunship versions, optional engines for hot and high conditions are the 1545 kW Isotov TV3-117VM. Recent exports to China and Venezuela for use in high mountains have the new Klimov VK-2500 version of the Klimov TV3-117 engine with FADEC control, the designation Mi-17 is for export, Russian armed forces call it Mi-8MT. The Mi-17 can be recognized because it has the rotor on the port side instead of the starboard side. Engine cowls are shorter than on the TV2-powered Mi-8, not extending as far over the cockpit, actual model numbers vary by builder, engine type, and other options. As an example, the sixteen new Ulan-Ude-built machines delivered to the Czech Air Force in 2005 with –VM model engines were designated as Mi-171Sh, modifications include a new large door on the right side, improved Czech-built APU, Kevlar armor plates around the cockpit area and engines. Eight have a ramp in place of the usual clamshell doors. The plant built 20 helicopters in 2008, using Russian Ulan-Ude-supplied kits, the variants to be built by Lantian will include Mi-171, Mi-17V5, and Mi-17V7. In May 1999, during Operation Safed Sagar, the Mi-17 was used in the first air phase of the Kargil War by 129HU of the Indian Air Force against Pakistani regular, one Mi-17 was downed by a shoulder-fired missile, and a fighter aircraft was lost in combat. This led the withdrawal of armed helicopters and attacks by fixed-wing aircraft began, the Mi-17 was used extensively by the Sri Lanka Air Force in the Sri Lankan Civil War. Seven of them were lost in combat and attacks on airports, the Mi-17 was used by the Colombian Army in Operation Jaque. In 2001, the Macedonian Air Force used the Mi-17 against Albanian insurgents, the Mi-17 is also used by search and rescue teams such as the Malaysian Fire and Rescue Department. Executive Outcomes used them extensively in its operations in the Angolan Civil War, the Mi-17 is used as a commercial passenger aircraft by Air Koryo, national airline of North Korea. Previous flights include those between Pyongyang and Kaesong and Pyongyang and Haeju, the Mexican Navy uses its Mi-17s for anti-narcotic operations such as locating marijuana fields and dispatching marines to eradicate the plantations. The Slovak Air Force and Croatian Air Force operate Mi-17s in Kosovo as part of KFOR, both the pro-Gaddafi and anti-Gaddafi forces in the 2011 Libyan civil war have operated Mi-17s. Mi-17s are operated by the Afghan Air Force, in July 2010 two Mi-17 were flown by a mixed crew of United States Air Force and Afghan Air Force personnel in a 13-hour mission that rescued 2,080 civilians from flood waters. This was the largest rescue by two helicopters in USAF history, USAF pilot Lt Col Gregory Roberts received the Distinguished Flying Cross for the mission
13.
IAR 330
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The IAR330 is the Romanian-built version of Aérospatiales SA330 Puma helicopter, manufactured by IAR Brașov. Twenty-four helicopters were upgraded to IAR330 SOCAT in cooperation with Elbit Systems, despite being a COMECON and Warsaw Pact member, Romania strove for some measure of independence from the USSR. Instead of buying popular Soviet designs, Romania bought a licence to manufacture the French Aérospatiale SA330 Puma on 30 July 1974, the first licensed helicopter was flown on 22 October 1975 under the designation IAR-330L. At least 163 of these helicopters have been built, out of which 104 were assigned to Romanias military,2 were retained by the manufacturer and 57 were produced for export. There is also a search and rescue version, fitted with floats for emergency landing at sea. Production is still ongoing at the Industria Aeronautică Română plant at Ghimbav near Brașov, in the 1990s, the Romanian Air Force decided to enhance the combat capabilities of the IAR 330L, making it a universal anti-tank and support helicopter. At that time, Romania started to cooperate with Israel on some military programs, the Israeli company Elbit Systems was chosen, and in September 1995 the Romanian Air Force signed a contract to upgrade 24 helicopters with the SOCAT system. The first IAR 330L SOCAT was flown on 26 May 1998, from IARs airfield in Ghimbav, on 23 October 1999, the second prototype flew. The first IAR 330L SOCAT was delivered to a unit in 2001. In all,25 SOCATs were made, including the prototype, the IAR 330M NATO is a modernized transport version with the SOCAT versions avionics, but without weapons and optronic systems. Among others, it has a weather radar, twelve IAR 330Ls were modernized to 330M standard between 2005 and 2008. The first IAR330 NAVAL helicopter was unveiled at Ghimbav on 30 January 2007. The Romanian Naval Forces ordered three of this variant and they are operated from Navy frigates for search and rescue, medevac and maritime surveillance missions. IAR 330L SOCAT - attack helicopter, IAR330 NAVAL - naval helicopter. IAR330 SM - export configuration for UAE, an IAR330 was presumably shot at and crash-landed on December 23,1989 during a transport flight near Alba Iulia, killing the crew of three and two passengers. An IAR330 SOCAT crashed on August 16,2001 during a training flight shortly after take-off from Titu Air Base, the crash occurred at an altitude of 50 meters, wounding the crew. An IAR330 SOCAT crashed on March 7,2013 in Berești-Bistrița, near Bacău, during a training flight, Romanian Air Force and Navy grounded the entire IAR330 SOCAT fleet pending an investigation into the crash. An IAR-330 MEDEVAC crashed on November 21,2014 in Mălâncrav, near Sibiu, during a flight, killing eight military personnel
14.
AgustaWestland AW139
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The AgustaWestland AW139 is a 15-seat medium-sized twin-engined helicopter developed and produced principally by AgustaWestland. The AW139 was originally designed and developed jointly by Agusta and Bell Helicopters and marketed as the Agusta-Bell AB139, in 1997, the Italian helicopter manufacturer Agusta launched a programme to develop a replacement for the Bell Huey family of helicopters with a potential market of 900 aircraft being predicted. In 1998, Bell and Agusta entered into an agreement, setting up a joint venture, Bell/Agusta Aerospace Company, on 26 September 2000, the first order for the type was placed by Bristow Helicopters. The first preproduction helicopter flew on 3 February 2001 at Vergiate in Italy, the first production AW139 made its first flight on 24 June 2002. European JAA certification was received in June 2003, and its FAA type certificate followed in December 2004, by May 2005, the AW139 had received in excess of 100 orders worldwide. In the US, the type was marketed under the designation US139, one key market for the AW139 was the oil & gas industry, which required helicopters of increased endurance for offshore operations. In 2005, AgustaWestland bought out Bells 25% share in the program, production was intended to reach 40 units per year in the near future. By 2011, AgustaWestland was producing 90 AW139s a year, the type was being attributed as responsible for 9. 5% of the companys overall revenue in 2010. By 2013, a total of 720 AW139s had been sold to over 200 operators in 60 different countries. In 2011, a variant, the AW139M, was revealed by AgustaWestland. It was promoted at the US market, including for the U. S. Air Forces Common Vertical Lift Support Program, options offered include an external stores system including various armaments, armored seats, self-sealing fuel tanks, and a full ice-protection system for all-weather operations. The AW139 serves as the basis for AgustaWestlands wider business strategy, the sharing of components and design philosophies is intended to simplify maintenance and training for operators, commonality also lowers the production costs. The AW139 was the first of this group, and as of 2014 it was to be joined by the larger AW149 and AW189, aimed at military and civilian customers respectively. Advances made in the development of new models are intended to be transferrable onto existing family members, in June 2010, it was announced that AgustaWestland and Rostvertol would build a manufacturing plant in Tomilino, Moscow Region, where it was initially planned to produce AW139s by 2012. The first AW139 to be assembled in Russia made its first flight in December 2012, in January 2013, the Russian Defense Ministry was reportedly considering placing an order for seven AW139s. In January 2014, HeliVert, received a Certificate of Approval from the Aviation Register of the Interstate Aviation Committee to commence production of commercial AW139s, in September 2014, a certificate was granted to perform comprehensive maintenance and servicing of the type at the Tomilino facility. The heavier airframe comes at the expense of decreased hot and high performance however, in November 2015, AgustaWestland demonstrated a 60-minute run-dry test of an AW139s main gearbox,30 minutes greater than any other certified rotorcraft at the time. The AW139 is a conventional twin-engine multi-role helicopter and it has a five-bladed fully articulated main rotor with a titanium hub and composite blades and a four-bladed articulated tail rotor
15.
Bell 412
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The Bell 412 is a twin-engine utility helicopter of the Huey family manufactured by Bell Helicopter. It is a development of the Bell 212, with the difference being the composite four-blade main rotor. Development began in the late 1970s with two Bell 212s being converted into 412 prototypes, an advanced four-blade main rotor with a smaller diameter replaced the 212s two-blade rotor. A Bell 412 prototype first flew in August 1979, the initial model was certified in January 1981 with deliveries commencing in the same month. The 412 model was followed by the 412SP version featuring larger fuel capacity, higher takeoff weight, in 1991, the 412HP variant with improved transmission replaced the SP version in production. The current production version, 412EP, is equipped with a digital automatic flight control system. In 2013 Bell introduced the 412EPI which includes an engine control for a PT6T-9 engine upgrade. Also featured is a Garmin touchscreen navigation system, and the BLR Strake, over 700 Model 412s have been built. Operated by the Defence Helicopter Flying School at RAF Shawbury and the Search, Bell Griffin HAR2 Search and Rescue helicopter based on the Bell 412EP, operated by No.84 Squadron RAF since 2003 at RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus. Agusta-Bell AB412 Civil utility transport version, built under license in Italy by Agusta, agusta-Bell AB 412EP Italian-built version of the Bell 412EP. Agusta-Bell AB412 Grifone Military utility transport version, built under licence in Italy by Agusta, agusta-Bell AB412 CRESO Italian-built version, fitted with a ground surveillance radar. NBell 412 IPTNs licensed product of Bell 412 Panha 412EP Iranian domestically reverse-engineered version of AB 412EP,4 of these variant were introduced at October 8,2016 by Red Crescent of Iran. The Bell 412 is used by private and commercial operators and it is particularly popular in the oil industries, military and for law enforcement use. John Heinz III, which killed the senator, on December 10,2006, a Bell 412 medical helicopter Mercy Air 2 crashed in mountainous terrain near Hesperia, California. All three crew members on board died, all eight on board the helicopter died, including four key aides of President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. On November 22,2010, a Bell 412 belonging to the Cameroon defense forces crashed en route from Douala to the countrys capital Yaounde, according to government sources, the aircraft had three crew and two passengers. Witnesses reported a dense fog with reduced visibility in the area, the aircraft was undertaking anti-drug operations against drug lords and was in pursuit of a high speed boat when it crashed in the jungle. On April 13,2014, an Augusta-Bell 412 military helicopter slammed into a hangar and crashed as it took off at Julius Nyerere International Airport, in Dar es Salaam, occupants including Tanzanian Vice President Mohamed Gharib Bilal and other top government officials narrowly survived the crash
16.
Bell 206
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The Bell 206 is a family of two-bladed, single- or twin-engined helicopters, manufactured by Bell Helicopter at its Mirabel, Quebec plant. Originally developed as the Bell YOH-4 for the United States Armys Light Observation Helicopter program, Bell redesigned the airframe and successfully marketed the aircraft commercially as the five-place Bell 206A JetRanger. The new design was selected by the Army as the OH-58 Kiowa. The ICAO-assigned model designation B06 is used on plans for the JetRanger and LongRanger. On October 14,1960, the United States Navy solicited response from 25 aircraft manufacturers to a request for proposals on behalf of the Army for the Light Observation Helicopter, Bell entered the competition along with 12 other manufacturers, including Hiller Aircraft and Hughes Tool Co. Bell submitted the D-250 design, which would be designated as the YHO-4, on May 19,1961, Bell and Hiller were announced as winners of the design competition. Bell developed the D-250 design into the Bell 206 aircraft, redesignated as YOH-4A in 1962, the first prototype flew on December 8,1962. The YOH-4A also became known as the Ugly Duckling in comparison to the other contending aircraft, following a flyoff of the Bell, Hughes and Fairchild-Hiller prototypes, the Hughes OH-6 was selected in May 1965. When the YOH-4A was eliminated by the Army, Bell went about solving the problem of marketing the aircraft, in addition to the image problem, the helicopter lacked cargo space and only provided cramped quarters for the planned three passengers. The solution was a fuselage, sleeker and aesthetically appealing, adding 16 ft3 of cargo space in the process. A Bell executive contributed to this redesign by drawing on a sketch two lines extending the fuselage to where it meets the tail. The redesign was designated Bell 206A, and Bell President Edwin J. Ducayet named it the JetRanger, the 206L LongRanger is a stretched variant with seating for seven. The fuselage, stretched a total of 30 inches, adds two rear-facing seats between the front and rear seats, since 1975, Bell has produced more than 1,700 LongRangers across all variant types. In 1981, a version was released, the 206L TexasRanger. In both applications, the 250-C30P is derated from 650 hp for takeoff and 501 hp continuous, the 206L-3 is transmission–limited to 435 hp for take-off, and the 206L-4 is transmission-limited to 495 hp. The 206L-3 and L-4 have not been offered in a twin configuration under those model designations, in 2007, Bell announced an upgrade program for the 206L-1 and 206L-3 which is designed to modify the aircraft to the 206L-4 configuration, modified aircraft are designated 206L-1+ and 206L-3+. On January 24,2008, Bell Helicopter announced plans to end production of the Bell 206B-3 version after current order commitments were fulfilled in 2010, in 2011, used 206B-3s sold for around $1.4 million depending upon the equipment and configuration. However, production of the 206L-4 is ongoing as of 2016, the TwinRanger name dates from the mid-1980s when Bell developed the Bell 400 TwinRanger, but it never entered production
17.
Bell UH-1 Iroquois
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The Bell UH-1 Iroquois is a utility military helicopter powered by a single turboshaft engine, with two-blade main and tail rotors. The UH-1 was the first turbine-powered helicopter to enter production in 1960 for the United States military, the Iroquois was originally designated HU-1, hence the Huey nickname, which has remained in common use, despite the official redesignation to UH-1 in 1962. The UH-1 first saw service in operations during the Vietnam War. The Bell 204 and 205 are Iroquois versions developed for the civil market, in 1952, the U. S. Army identified a requirement for a new helicopter to serve as medical evacuation, instrument trainer, and general utility aircraft. The Army determined that current helicopters were too large, underpowered, in November 1953, revised military requirements were submitted to the Department of the Army. Twenty companies submitted designs in their bid for the contract, including Bell Helicopter with the Model 204, on 23 February 1955, the Army announced its decision, selecting Bell to build three copies of the Model 204 for evaluation with the designatation XH-40. Powered by a prototype Lycoming YT53-L-1 engine producing 700 shp, the XH-40 first flew on 20 October 1956 at Fort Worth, Texas, with Bells chief test pilot, Floyd Carlson, at the controls. Two more prototypes were built in 1957, and the Army had previously ordered six YH-40 service test aircraft, in March 1960, the Army awarded Bell a production contract for 100 aircraft, which was designated as the HU-1A and officially named Iroquois after the Native American nations. The helicopter quickly developed a nickname derived from its designation of HU-1, the reference became so popular that Bell began casting the name on the helicopters anti-torque pedals. The official U. S. Army name was almost never used in practice, after September 1962, the designation for all models was changed to UH-1 under a unified Department of Defense designation system, but the nickname remained. The Army indicated the need for improved follow-on models even as the first UH-1As were being delivered, Army testing of the UH-1B started in November 1960, with the first production aircraft delivered in March 1961. Bell commenced development of the UH-1C in 1960 in order to correct deficiencies of the armed UH-1B. Bell fitted the UH-1C with a 1,100 shp T53-L-11 engine to provide the power needed to all weapons systems in use or under development. The Army would eventually refit all UH-1B aircraft with the same engine, a new rotor system was developed for the UH-1C to allow higher air speeds and reduce the incidence of retreating blade stall during diving engagements. The improved rotor resulted in better maneuverability and a speed increase. The increased power and a larger diameter rotor required Bells engineers to design a new boom for the UH-1C. The longer tail boom incorporated a wider chord fin on the tail rotor pylon. Bell also introduced a hydraulic control system for redundancy as well as an improved inlet filter system for the dusty conditions found in southeast Asia
18.
Eurocopter Fennec
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The Eurocopter AS550 Fennec and AS555 Fennec 2 are lightweight, multipurpose military helicopters manufactured by Eurocopter Group. Based on the AS350 Ecureuil and AS355 Ecureuil 2 series, they are named after the fennec fox, the armed versions of the AS550 and AS555 can be fitted with coaxial weapons, rockets, torpedoes and various other munitions. As a result of the Vienna Treaty, military variants of the Écureuil were marketed under a separate designation, in February 2007, India selected the AS550 C3 Fennec over the Bell 407 helicopter in a deal for 197 helicopters worth 500 million USD. This deal was suspended in June 2007 because of concerns of alleged corruption in the bidding process, the contract is now being re-competed, and the AS550 C3 is among the helicopters competing for the deal. However India chose Kamov Ka-226T over AS550 C3 in the refreshed tender, on 20 January 2011, Royal Malaysian Navy PASKAL commandos rescued a hijacked Malaysian chemical tanker and its crew from Somali pirates. A Fennec helicopter provided reconnaissance and aerial gunfire to keep the mother ship at bay while commandos boarded the tanker. Single engine AS350 L1/L2 Ecureuil – Original military variants of AS350, AS550 C2 Fennec – Armed version based on AS350 B2. AS550 U2 Fennec – Unarmed version based on AS350 B2, AS550 C3 Fennec – Armed version based on AS350 B3. AS555 AR Fennec 2 – Armed with cannon and rockets, AS555 MN Fennec 2 – Unarmed naval version. AS555 MR Fennec 2 – Naval version, AS555 SN Fennec 2 – Armed naval version. AS555 SR Fennec 2 – Armed naval version, AS555 UN Fennec 2 – Training and utility version. AS555 UR Fennec 2 – Utility version, janes All The Worlds Aircraft 2003–2004. Official webpage Danish AS550 Fennec
19.
Cargo aircraft
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A cargo aircraft is a fixed-wing aircraft that is designed or converted for the carriage of cargo rather than passengers. Such aircraft usually do not incorporate passenger amenities and generally one or more large doors for loading cargo. Freighters may be operated by passenger or cargo airlines, by private individuals or by the armed forces of individual countries. Cargo aircraft represent a small proportion of the air freight market. The majority is carried in special ULD containers in the holds of normal passenger aircraft. Aircraft were put to use carrying cargo in the form of air mail as early as 1911, although the earliest aircraft were not designed primarily as cargo carriers, by the mid-1920s aircraft manufacturers were designing and building dedicated cargo aircraft. The Vickers Vernon, a development of the Vickers Vimy Commercial, in February 1923 this was put to use by the RAFs Iraq Command who flew nearly 500 Sikh troops from Kingarban to Kirkuk in the first ever strategic airlift of troops. The Victorians also helped to pioneer air routes for Imperial Airways Handley Page HP.42 airliners, the World War II German design, the Arado Ar 232 was the first purpose built cargo aircraft. The Ar 232 was intended to supplant the earlier Junkers Ju 52 freighter conversions, most other forces used freighter versions of airliners in the cargo role as well, most notably the C-47 Skytrain version of the Douglas DC-3, which served with practically every Allied nation. This aircraft, like most of its era, used tail-dragger landing gear caused the aircraft to have a decided rearward tilt when landed. A similar rear loading ramp even appeared in a different form on the nosewheel gear-equipped. Postwar Europe also served to play a role in the development of the modern air cargo. To rapidly supply the numbers of aircraft, many older types. In operation it was found that it took as long or longer to unload these older designs as the much larger tricycle landing gear Douglas C-54 Skymaster which was easier to move about in when landed. The C-47s were quickly removed from service, and from then on flat-decks were a requirement of all new cargo designs, in the years following the war era a number of new custom-built cargo aircraft were introduced, often including some experimental features. For instance, the USs C-82 Packet featured a cargo area. Although larger, smaller and faster designs have been proposed for many years and these designs offer the ability to carry the heaviest loads, even main battle tanks, at global ranges. The Boeing 747 was originally designed to the specification as the C-5
20.
Beechcraft Super King Air
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The Beechcraft Super King Air family is part of a line of twin-turboprop aircraft produced by Beechcraft. The King Air line comprises a number of series that fall into four families. The latter two models were marketed as the Super King Air family, but the Super was dropped in 1996. The Super King Air family has been in production since 1974. It has outlasted all of its previous competitors and as of 2009 the only aircraft in its class is the Piaggio P.180 Avanti. At the present, the B200GT, B200CGT and the larger B300, special mission derivative versions of these models are also available for order. The Beechcraft 1900 regional airliner was derived from the Model B200 King Air, the Model 200 was originally conceived as the Model 101 in 1969, and was a development of the Model 100 King Air. The Model 200 had essentially the same fuselage as the Model 100, with changes to the fuselage to accommodate a new T-tail. Overall, the 200 was 3 ft 10 in longer than the A100, with wingspan 4 ft 3 in greater, maximum Take-Off Weight was increased by 1,000 lb. The 200 received civil certification in December 1973 and the first civil delivery took place in February 1974, in 1976, Beechcraft developed the Model 200T, a version configured for aerial surveying or reconnaissance. Customers could specify any combination of these modifications when ordering a 200T, all 200Ts were Model 200s modified at the factory and given new constructors numbers. The next model to appear was the Model 200C in 1979, the door opening was 4 ft 4 in high and 4 ft 4 in wide, allowing a large range of items to be loaded into the cabin. The Model 200C found favour with many operators who fitted them out internally as Air Ambulances, the 200C was built from scratch rather than as a modification of the Model 200. The Model A200C military version was developed concurrently and this updated and improved version was the Model B200, which entered production in 1981. It was fitted with PT6A-42 engines, still rated at 850 shp, other changes included increased maximum pressurization and changes to the cockpit layout. The Model 200C gave way to the Model B200C the same year, with the first Model B200T and Model B200CT being modified from a B200 and B200C respectively, the following year. Commencing in 1984 the B200, B200C and their derivatives were fitted with a landing gear retraction mechanism. This replaced the earlier electro-mechanical retraction system of gearboxes, driveshafts and chains, at the same time the propellers fitted were changed from 3-bladed Hartzells to 3-bladed McCauleys
21.
Bombardier Challenger 600 series
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The Bombardier Challenger 600 series is a family of business jets. It was first produced by Canadair as an independent company and then produced from 1986 by Canadair as a division of Bombardier Aerospace. Including the Challenger 300 and Challenger 850,1,600 Bombardier Challengers are in-service, the origin of the Challenger 600 lies in Canadair’s purchase of a concept for a business jet aircraft, the LearStar 600 from the American inventor and aircraft developer Bill Lear. However, Lear had practically no influence on the ensuing development, even the name LearStar was not new to this concept, since Lear had long before used the name for his conversion of Lockheed Lodestars into business transports. Thus, Canadair quickly abandoned the name LearStar and adopted the name Challenger, canadairs top management was of the opinion that Lear’s concept was sketchy at best. Lear did not have a grasp of aeronautical engineering. He was also at a low point, with a skeleton staff. Thus, he had only been able to pay a California aeronautical consultant to do some preliminary design explorations. However, Canadair planned to use Lear’s name and skills at self-promotion to secure extensive financial guarantees for a business jet project from the Canadian Federal government. At the time of events, Chrétien was successively President of the Treasury Board, Minister of Industry, Trade and Commerce. Due to the use of letters of comfort, the extent of the Ministrys financial commitments for Canadair could be kept from parliament and these financial guarantees were later used as an academic example of insufficient monitoring and lax controls in government support of industry. The Challenger was also one of the first bizjets designed with a supercritical wing, on 8 November 1978, the prototype aircraft took off at Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The second and third prototypes flew in 1979, a program to reduce the aircrafts weight was then implemented to improve the aircrafts range. Challengers can be identified visually by their distinctive double slotted hinged flap design, where the fairings can be seen below the wings, cL-600 Original production version, powered by Avco Lycoming ALF 502L turbofans of 7500 lbf thrust each. Built from 1978 to 1982 CL-600S Three CL-600s retrofitted with the winglets introduced on the CL-601-1A, Canadair CC-14412 aircraft purchased by the Royal Canadian Air Force, including the CE-144 and CX-144 Canadair CE-144 Three Electronic warfare / EW trainers converted to/from basic CC-144. Canadair CX-144 Second prototype, a CL-600-1A11, c/n 1002, allocated to the RCAF after finishing test programme, used at the Aerospace Engineering and Test Establishment, CFB Cold Lake until retirement in 1993, now preserved at the CFB Winnipeg. This was the first version marketed by Bombardier, indeed, cL-601-3A/ER 601-3A with an additional, optional fuel tank in the tail CL-601-3R The tail tank was made standard, CF34-3A1 Engines were introduced. CL-604 MMA, militarized version, developed by Field Aviation, in Danish service, the aircraft are employed on maritime patrol and search and rescue missions. They are capable of landing on the short, rough, gravel airstrips common in the Arctic
22.
Cessna Citation II
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The Cessna Citation II was the first of the Model 550 series of Citation jets, which are light corporate jet built by Cessna. A direct development of the Citation I, the Citation II led to the development of the Citation II/SP, the S550 Citation S/II. The Citation II was also used by the United States Navy under the designation T-47A for radar system training, the Citation II, Model 550, was a direct development from the Citation I. The earlier aircrafts success in the market led Cessna to believe there was demand for an aircraft that utilized the same design philosophy. The result was the Citation II, which had a seating capacity of 10. In addition to more seats, the plane had more powerful JT15D-4 engines, increase of capacity to approximately 5000 lb, faster speeds. First flight was on 31 January 1977, and the aircraft was certified for operation in March 1978. A total of 603 aircraft were built before the Citation II was replaced by the Bravo in the production line, the US Customs & Border Protection purchased ten Citation IIs configured with fire control radar and the WF-360TL imaging system. The Model 552 T-47A was the designation given by the U. S. Navy to the Citation II, the T-47A was modified by incorporating JT15D5 engines, shortened wings, multiple radar consoles and the AN/APQ-167 radar system. The T-47As were operated by Training Air Squadron Eighty Six, which was based at Naval Air Station Pensacola, the S/II could seat a maximum of 11 people. The aircraft utilized a version of the engine, JT15D-4B. The main benefit of the percent increase provided more thrust at higher altitudes, fuel capacity was increased to a total of 5820 lbs. The rest of the improvements were aerodynamic in nature, the wing was replaced with one using a supercritical airfoil, which had been developed for the Citation III. The leading edges of the wing and tail used TKS type anti-icing fluid in addition to bleed air used for the engines, once certification was in hand, the S/II replaced the II in the product line in late 1984. However, due to demands, the II was returned to production in 1987. The S/II was discontinued after the 1988 production year, the number of S/IIs produced is approximately 160. The II continued in production until 1994, and was replaced by the Bravo in 1997, by 1994, the Citation II and S/II had been in production for 10 years, and it was time to integrate new technology. Cessna thus announced the development of the Citation Bravo, while it was built on the basic II airframe, the new aircraft was powered by Pratt & Whitney Canada PW530A engines
23.
Cessna 208 Caravan
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The Cessna 208 Caravan is an American single-engined turboprop, fixed-tricycle landing gear, short-haul regional airliner and utility aircraft that is built in the United States by Cessna. The airplane typically seats nine passengers with a pilot, although with a FAR Part 23 waiver it can seat up to fourteen passengers. The aircraft is used for cargo feederliner operations. The Cessna 208 is a high-wing braced cabin monoplane powered by a single Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A turboprop in tractor configuration and it has a fixed tricycle landing gear but can also be fitted with floats or skis. The cabin has room for nine passengers and two crew when used as an aircraft with four doors, one for each crew member and an airstair door on right-side. The aircraft can be fitted with an underslung cargo pod. The basic 208 airframe can be outfitted with various types of landing gear, some common adaptations include skis, enlarged tires for unprepared runways, and floats on the Caravan Amphibian model. The Caravan interior can be outfitted with seats or as cargo holds, the standard high-density airline configuration has four rows of 1-2 seating behind the two seats in the cockpit. This variant is capable of holding up to thirteen passengers, although it is marketed as being able to make a profit carrying just four. The cabin can be configured in a low density passenger configuration, with 1-1 seating, as a combination of passengers and cargo, many variants include an underbelly cargo pod, which can be used for additional freight capacity, or for passenger baggage. A number of Caravans are operated as skydiving aircraft with the cargo hatch converted to a roll-up door. The prototype first flew in December 1982, the production model was certified by the FAA in October 1984. Since then, the Caravan has undergone a number of design evolutions, working with FedEx, Cessna produced first the Cargomaster and followed that with the stretched and upgraded Super Cargomaster. The passenger model, the Grand Caravan, was derived from the Super Cargomaster, in January 2013 a higher-powered version, the Grand Caravan EX, received FAA certification. This higher-powered version will be produced by a Cessna-AVIC joint venture in China, on April 28,2008, Cessna announced that the Garmin G1000 glass cockpit will be standard equipment on all new Caravans. In May 2012 Cessna announced that a line for the 208 would be established in China. The government-owned China Aviation Industry General Aircraft will conduct final assembly of Caravans at its plant in Shijiazhuang for the Chinese market, the move was made to make room for the Citation Longitude and Cessna Denali in Wichita. 208 Caravan I First production variant with a PT6A-114 turboprop engine, official named Caravan it is sometimes known as Caravan I to distinguish it from later variants
24.
Harbin Y-12
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The Harbin Y-12 is a high wing twin-engine turboprop utility aircraft built by Harbin Aircraft Industry Group. The Y-12 started as a development of the Harbin Y-11 airframe called Y-11T in 1980, the design featured numerous improvements including a redesigned wing with a new low drag section, a larger fuselage and bonded rather than riveted construction. The first prototype, followed by about 30 production Y-12 aircraft before a version was produced. The power plants are two Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-27 turboprops with Hartzell propellers, the Y-12 has a maximum takeoff weight of 5,700 kg with seating for 17 passengers and two crew. The aircraft is operated as a commuter and transport aircraft. The Y-12F made its flight on December 29,2010, received the CAAC type certification on December 10,2015. In 2015 Kenmore Air announced that they would begin development of EDO floats for the Y-12 for FAA certification, Y-12, Twin-engined STOL utility transport aircraft, powered by two 500-shp Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-11 turboprop engines. Y-12, Fitted with more powerful PT6A-27 engines, Y-12, Planned version to be fitted with WJ-9 turboprop. Evolved to Y-12C because of IVs success when WJ-9 development was completed, revised wingtips and increased takeoff weight. This version is the first aircraft in the series certified by the FAA in 1995, Y-12C, Basically a version with WJ-9 turboprop, now used by PLAAF for aerial survey. Y-12D, Domestically deployed military version with upgraded engines driving four-bladed propellers, y-12E, Variant with 18 passenger seats. PT6A-135A engines of equal horsepower but increased torque driving four-bladed propellers and this version was certified by the FAA in 2006. Y-12F, The latest development with almost everything redesigned, wider fuselage, new wings, retractable landing gear, the turbine engines are more powerful PT6A-65B. Due to all the improvement, Y-12F has high speed and long range. The design started at April 2005 and maiden flight on December 29,2010 and it received the CAAC type certification on December 10,2015, and the FAA type certification on February 22,2016. It has been demonstrated during the 2012 Zhuhai Airshow. Y-12G, Proposed cargo version of Y-12F, turbo Panda, Export name for version, marketed by England and Japanese companies. No real order due to airworthiness certification, twin Panda, Originally version for export
25.
Cessna 206
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The family was originally developed from the popular retractable-gear Cessna 210 and is produced by Cessna. The lines combination of an engine, rugged construction and a large cabin has made these aircraft popular bush planes. Cessna describes the 206 as the sport-utility vehicle of the air and these airplanes are also used for aerial photography, skydiving and other utility purposes. They can also be equipped with floats, amphibious floats and skis, alternatively, they can be fitted with luxury appointments for use as a personal air transport. From 1962 to 2006 Cessna produced 8,509 aircraft in the 205,206 and 207 variants, the Cessna 205 was introduced late in 1962 as a 1963 model year. The six-seat aircraft was essentially a Cessna 210 with fixed landing gear and with changes to the crew and passenger door arrangement, the 205 retained the early 210’s engine cowling bulge, originally where the 210 stowed its nosewheel on retraction. This distinctive cowling was more streamlined on the later Cessna 206. The 205 is powered by a Continental IO-470-S engine producing 260 hp, the 205 was produced in only two model years -1963 and 1964 before being replaced in production by the Cessna 206. A total of 576 Cessna 205s were produced, the six-seat Model 206 was introduced as a 1964 model and was built until 1986, when Cessna halted production of its single-engined product line. It was then re-introduced in 1998 and remains in production in 2013, there were many sub-variants, including the U206, P206 all certified to CAR3 standards and later 206H certified to FAR Part 23. The total Model 206 production between 1964 and 2004 was 6,581 aircraft, the original 1964 model was the U206, powered by a 285 hp Continental IO-520-A. The “U” designation indicated “utility” and this model was equipped with a side door. There was a TU206 turbocharged version powered by the Continental TSIO-520-C engine producing 285 hp, after 1967 the turbo TU206 was powered by a TSIO-520-F of 300 hp. The extra 15 hp was obtained by turning the engine at a higher rpm, due to the large propeller diameter, the additional engine speed meant that the propeller tips were pushed to transonic speeds, which required much more power. From 1964 to 1969 the U206 was known as the “Super Skywagon”, from 1970 it was named the “Stationair”, a contraction of “Station Wagon of the Air”, which is a good description of the aircrafts intended role. Sub-variants were designated U206 to U206G, in 1977 the U206 had its engine upgraded to a Continental IO-520-F of 300 hp and the TU206 powerplant was changed to the TSIO-520-M producing 310 hp. Production of all versions of the U206 was halted in 1986 when Cessna stopped manufacturing all piston-engined aircraft, a total of 5,208 U206s had been produced. The P206 was added to the line in 1965, in this case the “P” stood for “people”, as the P206 had passenger doors similar to the Cessna 210 from which it was derived, on both sides
26.
Aero Commander 500 family
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The initial production version was the Aero Commander 520. Piston-engined versions manufactured after 1967 are known as the Shrike Commander, the idea for the Commander light business twin was conceived by Ted Smith, a project engineer at the Douglas Aircraft Company. Originally, the new company was going to build three pre-production aircraft, but as the first aircraft was being built, they decided to build just one prototype, the final configuration was completed in July 1946 and was designated the Model L3805. Registered NX1946, the prototype first flew on 23 April 1948, the L3805 accommodated up to five people and was powered by two Lycoming O-435-A piston engines. It was an all-metal high-wing monoplane with retractable undercarriage using components from a Vultee BT-13 Valiant, walter Beech test flew the aircraft in 1949 and expressed interest in buying the project, but passed on to develop the Beechcraft Twin Bonanza. Fairchild Aircraft also evaluated the prototype at its Hagerstown, Maryland, the prototype flew successfully and the company leased, at no cost, a new 26,000 square-foot factory at Bethany near Oklahoma City to build a production version, certified on 30 June 1950. Nearly 10,000 hours of work went into the model, including more powerful Lycoming GO-435-C2 engines. The production model was named the Commander 520, the first Commander 520 was rolled out of the new factory in August 1951. Serial number 1 was used as a demonstrator, then sold in October 1952 to the Asahi Shimbun Press Company of Tokyo. In military service, it was designated the L-26, though in 1962 this was changed to U-4 for the United States Air Force. His Shrike Commander is displayed in the colors of his last sponsor, Evergreen International Aviation, at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the Smithsonian Air, Bob Odegaard continued the tradition in 2012, flying a 1975 Shrike 500S in a Bob Hoover tribute routine. One U-4B became a transport aircraft for Dwight D. Eisenhower between 1956 and 1960. This was the smallest Air Force One, and the first to wear the now-familiar blue-and-white livery, as of 2004, Shrike Commanders remained in service with the United States Coast Guard and United States Customs Service. A single 560F was operated by the Belgian Air Force as the transport of the late king Boudewijn from 1961 to 1973. The unpressurized, long-fuselage 680FL was operated as a package freighter by Combs Freightair in the 1970s and 1980s. The aircraft was popular with pilots, because it was extremely pilot friendly, a number are still operated on contracts for cargo and fire control applications, as their piston engines offer good fuel specifics at low altitudes and longer loiter times. C. on one engine. There they met with CAA personnel, then replaced the propeller, the flight received nationwide coverage in the press. From approximately 1961 to 1993,24 aircraft crashed when spar failures caused the loss of the wing in flight, thirty-five more spars were found cracked during inspections
27.
Urdu
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Urdu is a persianized standard register of the Hindustani language. It is the language and lingua franca of Pakistan. It is also one of the 22 official languages recognized in the Constitution of India, hyderabad, Rampur, Bhopal and Lucknow are noted Urdu-speaking cities of India. Urdu is historically associated with the Muslims of the northern Indian subcontinent, apart from specialized vocabulary, Urdu is mutually intelligible with Standard Hindi, another recognized register of Hindustani. Urdu, like Hindi, is a form of Hindustani, Urdu developed under the influence of the Persian and Arabic languages, both of which have contributed a significant amount of vocabulary to formal speech. Around 99% of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit, Urdu words originating from Chagatai and Arabic were borrowed through Persian and hence are Persianized versions of the original words. For instance, the Arabic ta marbuta changes to he or te, nevertheless, contrary to popular belief, Urdu did not borrow from the Turkish language, but from Chagatai. Urdu and Turkish borrowed from Arabic and Persian, hence the similarity in pronunciation of many Urdu, Arabic influence in the region began with the late first-millennium Arab invasion of India in the 7th century. The Persian language was introduced into the subcontinent a few centuries later by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties including that of the Delhi Sultanate. With the advent of the British Raj, Persian was no longer the language of administration but Hindustani, still written in the Persian script, the name Urdu was first used by the poet Ghulam Hamadani Mushafi around 1780. From the 13th century until the end of the 18th century Urdu was commonly known as Hindi, the language was also known by various other names such as Hindavi and Dehlavi. The communal nature of the language lasted until it replaced Persian as the language in 1837 and was made co-official. Urdu was promoted in British India by British policies to counter the previous emphasis on Persian and this triggered a Brahman backlash in northwestern India, which argued that the language should be written in the native Devanagari script. At independence, Pakistan established a highly Persianized literary form of Urdu as its national language, English has exerted a heavy influence on both as a co-official language. Owing to interaction with other languages, Urdu has become localized wherever it is spoken, similarly, the Urdu spoken in India can also be distinguished into many dialects like Dakhni of South India, and Khariboli of the Punjab region since recent times. Because of Urdus similarity to Hindi, speakers of the two languages can understand one another if both sides refrain from using specialized vocabulary. The syntax, morphology, and the vocabulary are essentially identical. Thus linguists usually count them as one language and contend that they are considered as two different languages for socio-political reasons
28.
Army Air Corps (United Kingdom)
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The Army Air Corps is a component of the British Army, first formed in 1942 during the Second World War. There are eight regiments of the AAC as well as four Independent Flights and they are located in Britain, Brunei, Canada, and Germany. The AAC provides the air elements of 16 Air Assault Brigade through Joint Helicopter Command. The British Army first took to the sky during the 19th century with the use of observation balloons, in 1911 the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers was the first heavier-than-air British military aviation unit. Between the wars, the Army used RAF co-operation squadrons, at the beginning of the Second World War, Royal Artillery officers, with the assistance of RAF technicians, flew Auster observation aircraft under RAF-owned Air Observation Post Squadrons. Twelve such squadrons were raised —three of which belonged to the RCAF—, early in the war, Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, announced the establishment of a new branch of army aviation, the Army Air Corps, formed in 1942. The corps initially comprised the Glider Pilot Regiment and the Parachute Battalions, in 1944, the SAS Regiment was added to the Corps. One of their most successful exploits during the war was Operation Deadstick, including the attack on Pegasus Bridge, once the three gliders landed, some roughly which incurred casualties, the pilots joined the glider-borne troops to act as infantry. The bridge was taken within ten minutes of the battle commencing and they were soon reinforced and relieved by soldiers from Lord Lovats 1 Special Service Brigade, famously led by piper Bill Millin. It was subsequently reinforced by units of the British 3rd Division. The pilots who had flown the gliders soon had to transfer to flying powered aircraft, becoming part of the RAF Air Observation Post Squadrons. In 1957 the Glider Pilot and Parachute Corps was renamed to The Parachute Regiment, while the Glider Pilot Regiment and the Air Observation Squadrons amalgamated into a new unit, from 1970, nearly every army brigade had at least one Aviation Squadron that usually numbered twelve aircraft. The main rotor aircraft during the 1970s were the Westland Scout, the Sioux was replaced from 1973 by the Westland Gazelle used for Airborne recce, initially unarmed, they were converted to carry 68mm SNEB rocket pods in 1982, during the Falklands War. The Scout was replaced from 1978 by the Westland Lynx, which was capable of carrying additional firepower in the form of door gunners. Basic rotary flying training was carried out on the Bell Sioux in the 1970s, fixed-wing types in AAC service have included the Auster AOP.6 and AOP.9 and DHC-2 Beaver AL.1 in the observation and liaison roles. Since 1989, the AAC have operated a number of Britten-Norman Islander and Defender aircraft for surveillance, the corps operated the DHC-1 Chipmunk T.10 in the training role until its replacement by the Slingsby T67 Firefly in the 1990s. The Firefly was replaced by the Grob Tutor in 2010, a further boost in the Army Air Corps capability came in the form of the Westland Apache AH.1 attack helicopter. In 2006, British Apaches deployed to Afghanistan as part of the NATO International Security Assistance Force, the strength of the Army Air Corps is believed to be some 2,000 Regular personnel, of which 500 are officers
29.
PAF Base Nur Khan
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PAF Base Nur Khan is an active Pakistan Air Force airbase located in Chaklala, Rawalpindi, Punjab province, Pakistan. It also forms part of the Benazir Bhutto International Airport, fazaia Intermediate College, Nur Khan is also located in the base. The base was operated by the Royal Air Force as R. A. F. Chaklala and, during World War 2, parachute training operations were conducted there, once transferred to the then Royal Pakistan Air Force the base came into use as a transport hub, with the PAFs fleet of various transport aircraft operating from it. During the Pakistani earthquake of 2005,300 troops of the United States as well as U. S. aircraft were deployed to Chaklala to aid in relief efforts. According to a source, the U. S. has a permanent military presence at Chaklala since late 2001 for handling logistics efforts. In 2009 the PAFs first of four Il-78 aerial refuelling aircraft was delivered to PAF Base Chaklala. The name of the base was changed in 2012 from PAF Base Chaklala to PAF Base Nur Khan in remembrance of its first Base Commander, Nur Khan was also the second Pakistani chief of the Pakistan Air Force and a veteran of several conflicts fought by Pakistan. The squadron was formed without any aircraft or equipment on 14 August 1947 at Maripur, Karachi, under its first commanding officer, on 16 August 1947, Air Officer Commanding Air Vice Marshal visited the squadron and commissioned it for heavy airlifting and airborne operations. The PAF acquired a Douglas DC-3 Dakota aircraft on 22 October 1947 and later obtained Bristol Freighter, Tiger Moth, on 29 June 1948, a detachment of the squadron provided a guard of honour at Mauripur for Governor-General Muhammad Ali Jinnah on his arrival from Quetta. Support missions for troops in the Northern Areas were continued after the war, with the unstable political situation at the end of 1970 and the resulting civil unrest, the Antelopes moved a large number of troops to East Pakistan and assisted in flood relief operations there. India stopped the PAF flying over its territory in 1971, two of the units C-130 transports were deployed to Dhaka from March 71 until the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War began on 3 December 1971. They were used to evacuate soldiers and civilians from areas of East Pakistan – in one sortie a single C-130 evacuated 365 people from Sylhet to Dhaka. Established as the No.10 Multi-Role Tanker Transport Squadron with delivery of the PAFs first Il-78 in December 2009, the squadron consists of Cessna, Beech, Y-12 amongst other planes which also play role in operational aspects. PAF Base Nur Khan has had many achievements since 1947, amongst these some worth mentioning are the outstanding performances at the Royal International Air Tattoo. The base is located in a populated area. Surrounding facilities include the Frontier Works Organization Headquarters, Chaklala Railway Station, list of Pakistan Air Force Bases
30.
Partition of India
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The Partition of India was the division of British India in 1947 which accompanied the creation of two independent dominions, India and Pakistan. The Dominion of India is today the Republic of India and Dominion of Pakistan, the partition involved the division of two provinces, Bengal and the Punjab, based on district-wise Hindu or Muslim majorities. It also involved the division of the British Indian Army, the Royal Indian Navy, the Indian Civil Service, the railways, and the central treasury, between the two new dominions. The partition was set forth in the Indian Independence Act 1947 and resulted in the dissolution of the British Raj, the two self-governing countries of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at midnight on 14–15 August 1947. The violent nature of the created an atmosphere of hostility. The term partition of India does not cover the secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971, nor the earlier separations of Burma and Ceylon from the administration of British India. It does not cover the incorporation of the enclaves of French India into India during the period 1947–1954, nor the annexation of Goa, other contemporaneous political entities in the region in 1947, Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, and The Maldives were unaffected by the partition. The Hindu elite of Bengal, among many who owned land in East Bengal that was leased out to Muslim peasants. The pervasive protests against Curzons decision took the form predominantly of the Swadeshi campaign led by two-time Congress president, Surendranath Banerjee, sporadically—but flagrantly—the protesters also took to political violence that involved attacks on civilians. The violence, however, was not effective, as most planned attacks were either preempted by the British or failed, the unrest spread from Calcutta to the surrounding regions of Bengal when Calcuttas English-educated students returned home to their villages and towns. Since Calcutta was the capital, both the outrage and the slogan soon became nationally known. In conjunction, they demanded proportional legislative representation reflecting both their status as rulers and their record of cooperating with the British. This led, in December 1906, to the founding of the All-India Muslim League in Dacca, although Curzon, by now, had resigned his position over a dispute with his military chief Lord Kitchener and returned to England, the League was in favour of his partition plan. In the three decades since that census, Muslim leaders across northern India, had intermittently experienced public animosity from some of the new Hindu political and social groups. In 1905, when Tilak and Lajpat Rai attempted to rise to positions in the Congress. It was not lost on many Muslims, for example, that the rallying cry, World War I would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. Indias international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s, back in India, especially among the leaders of the Indian National Congress, it would lead to calls for greater self-government for Indians. Secretary of State for India, Montagu and Viceroy Lord Chelmsford presented a report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter
31.
Pakistan Air Force
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The PAF also has a tertiary role of providing strategic air transport and logistics capability to Pakistan. The PAF employs approximately 65,000 full-time personnel and currently operates 1,032 aircraft and its primary mandate and mission is to provide, in synergy with other inter-services, the most efficient, assured and cost effective aerial Defence of Pakistan. Since its establishment in 1947, the PAF has been involved in combat operations, providing aerial support to Inter–Servicess operations. Under the Article 243, the Constitution of Pakistan appoints the President of Pakistan as the civilian Commander-in-Chief, the Chief of Air Staff, by statute a four-star air chief marshal, is appointed by the President with the consultation and confirmation needed from the Prime Minister of Pakistan. The Pakistan Air Force is currently commanded by Air Chief Marshal Sohail Aman, two PAF F-86F Sabres of No.15 Squadron on Air Defence Alert were scrambled from Sargodha Air Base to intercept the IAF aircraft. Butt attempted to bring down the Canberra by firing his Sabres machine guns, when Yunis took over from his leader, the Canberra suddenly lost height while executing a turn over Rawalpindi. Yunis fired a burst that struck the Canberra at an altitude of 47,500 feet and brought it down over Rawat, marking the first aerial victory of the PAF. Both crew members of the IAF Canberra, ejected and were captured by Pakistani authorities and were released after remaining in detention for some time. The PAF fleet at the time consisted of 12 F-104 Starfighters, some 120 F-86 Sabres, the PAF claims to have had complete air superiority over the battle area from the second day of operations. S. Equipment, claiming it to be superior to the operated by the IAF. However some Pakistanis refute this argument, as per them, the IAFs MiG-21, Hawker Hunter and Folland Gnat aircraft had better performance than the PAFs F-86 fighters. According to Air Cdre Sajad Haider, the F-86 Sabre was inferior in power and speed to the IAFs Hawker Hunter. It was a high-level interceptor designed to neutralize Soviet strategic bombers in altitudes above 40,000 feet, nevertheless, the IAF is believed to have feared the Starfighter although, it was not as effective as the IAFs Folland Gnat. According to Indian sources, the F-86F performed reasonably well against the IAF Hawker Hunters but not as well against the Folland Gnat, according to Indian sources most aircraft losses of IAF were on ground while PAF lost most in aerial combat. The PAF had achieved far more in terms of aircraft destroyed on the ground but without doubt. The two countries have made claims of combat losses during the war and few neutral sources have verified the claims of either country. The PAF claimed it shot down 104 IAF planes and lost 19 of its own, while the IAF claimed it shot down 73 PAF planes, according to the independent sources, the PAF lost some 20 aircraft while the Indians lost 60–75. Despite the intense fighting, the conflict was effectively a stalemate, during this conflict the PAF sent personnel to Egypt, Jordan and Syria to support the Arabs in their battle against the Israelis
32.
United States Army Aviation Branch
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The United States Army Aviation Branch is the administrative organization within the United States Army responsible for doctrine, manning and configuration for all aviation units. The Army would develop a new concept of using the helicopter that would show promise during the Korean War. Army Aviation traces its origins back to the American Civil War, both Union and Confederate forces used hydrogen-filled balloons to direct artillery fire, marking the beginning of U. S. military aeronautics and of aerial support of Army ground forces. The Army also used balloons during the Spanish–American War and World War I, Army Aviation began in 1909 with the Army’s acquisition of its first heavier-than-air aircraft, an airplane built to Army specifications by the Wright brothers. During World War I, the Armys aircraft strength grew from a few dozen to more than 11,000 planes, the Army Air Service was created in May 1918. After World War I, General William Mitchell and other Air Service leaders spoke out forcefully in favor of an independent air force, since they envisioned aviation as a separate striking force, capable of independent operations, they opposed its remaining an arm of the ground forces. Although Congress as well as most Army leaders rejected Mitchells argument, the Air Service did become a combat arm, equal in status to the infantry, cavalry. During the 1930s, many Army Air Corps leaders became preoccupied with strategic air operations, like Billy Mitchell before them, they advocated using air power independently of the Army ground forces to destroy enemy targets behind the lines of combat. This Air Corps emphasis on strategic operations disturbed some ground forces leaders, aerial support was particularly vital for artillery fire adjustment. The Army experimented with using small aircraft for artillery fire adjustment and other functions in maneuvers at Camp Beauregard. The tests were repeated on a scale in the Army maneuvers in Louisiana, Tennessee, Texas. The Armys Grasshoppers, as these light planes came to be called, proved to be more effective than the larger Air Corps planes used for the same purposes. It was this new World War II-era phenomenon with its few small single-engine spotter planes, organic Army Aviation, Organic Army Aviation first entered into combat in November 1942 on the coast of North Africa. After the creation of the Army Air Forces, the Army Ground Forces retained the use of aircraft for artillery forward observation. First use of the helicopter in combat is credited to the USAAF 1st Air Commando Group in Burma in 1943, the 1ACG operated six Sikorsky R-4 helicopters primarily for air rescue and medical evacuation. When the United States Air Force was established as a service in 1947. The Korean War and Vietnam War proved the capabilities of these aviation assets to perform a variety of missions not covered by the Air Force. The Korean War provided new challenges and opportunities for Army Aviation, Organic Army Aviation had acquired its first helicopters, thirteen H-13 Sioux, in 1947, shortly before the U. S. Air Force became independent of the Army
33.
Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts
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The Partition of British India came about in the aftermath of World War II, when both Great Britain and British India were dealing with the economic stresses caused by the war and its demobilisation. It was the intention of those who wished for a Muslim state to come from British India to have a partition between independent and equal Pakistan and Hindustan once independence came. As the Hindu and Muslim populations were scattered unevenly in the whole country, nearly one third of the Muslim population of British India remained in India. Inter-communal violence between Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims resulted in between 500,000 and 1 million casualties, princely-ruled territories, such as Kashmir and Hyderabad, were also involved in the Partition. Rulers of these territories had the choice of joining India or Pakistan, both India and Pakistan laid claim on Kashmir and thus it became the main point of conflict. The ruler of Kashmir, which had a Muslim majority population, the war, also called the First Kashmir War, started in October 1947 when Pakistan feared that the Maharajah of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu would accede to India. Following partition, states were left to choose whether to join India or Pakistan or to remain independent, Jammu and Kashmir, the largest of the princely states, had a predominantly Muslim population ruled by the Hindu Maharaja Hari Singh. The UN Security Council passed the Resolution 47 on 22 April 1948, the fronts solidified gradually along what came to be known as the Line of Control. A formal cease-fire was declared at 23,59 on the night of 1 January 1949, India retaliated by launching a full-scale military attack on West Pakistan. The seventeen-day war caused thousands of casualties on both sides and witnessed the largest engagement of armored vehicles and the largest tank battle since World War II. The hostilities between the two ended after a ceasefire was declared following diplomatic intervention by the Soviet Union and USA. Both India and Pakistan claimed victory and this would culminate in the declaration of Independence of Bangladesh from the state system of Pakistan. Following Operation Searchlight and the 1971 Bangladesh atrocities, about 10 million Bengalis in East Pakistan took refuge in neighbouring India, India intervened in the ongoing Bangladesh liberation movement. After a large scale pre-emptive strike by Pakistan, full-scale hostilities between the two countries commenced, Pakistan attacked at several places along Indias western border with Pakistan, but the Indian Army successfully held their positions. The Indian Army quickly responded to the Pakistan Armys movements in the west and made initial gains. In the words of one Pakistani author, Pakistan lost half its navy, a quarter of its air force, commonly known as the Kargil War, this conflict between the two countries was mostly limited. During early 1999, Pakistani troops infiltrated across the Line of Control, India responded by launching a major military and diplomatic offensive to drive out the Pakistani infiltrators. Two months into the conflict, Indian troops had slowly retaken most of the ridges that were encroached by the infiltrators, according to official count, an estimated 75%–80% of the intruded area and nearly all high ground was back under Indian control
34.
Somali Civil War
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The Somali Civil War is an ongoing civil war taking place in Somalia. It grew out of resistance to the Siad Barre regime during the 1980s, the clan-based armed opposition groups eventually managed to overthrow the Barre government in 1991. Various armed factions began competing for influence in the vacuum and turmoil that followed. In 1990–92 customary law temporarily collapsed due to the fighting and this precipitated the arrival of UNOSOM I UN military observers in July 1992, followed by larger peacekeeping forces. Factional fighting continued in the south, in the absence of a central government, Somalia became a failed state. The UN withdrew in 1995, having incurred significant casualties, after the collapse of the central government, there was some return to customary and religious law in most regions. In 1991 and 1998, two regional governments were also established in the northern part of the country. This led to a decrease in the intensity of the fighting. In 2000, the Transitional National Government was established, followed by the Transitional Federal Government in 2004, the trend towards reduced conflict halted in 2005, and sustained and destructive conflict took place in the south in 2005–07. However, the fighting was of a lower scale and intensity than in the early 1990s. In 2006, Ethiopian troops seized most of the south from the newly formed Islamic Courts Union, the ICU then splintered into more radical groups, notably Al-Shabaab, which have since been fighting the Somali government and the AU-mandated AMISOM peacekeeping force for control of the country. Somalia topped the annual Fragile States Index for six years between 2008 and 2013, in October 2011, following preparatory meetings, Kenyan troops entered southern Somalia to fight Al-Shabaab, and to establish a buffer zone inside Somalia. Kenyan troops were integrated into the multinational force in February 2012. The Federal Government of Somalia was later established in August 2012, International stakeholders and analysts have subsequently begun to describe Somalia as a fragile state, which is making some progress towards stability. In May 1986, Barre suffered serious injuries in an accident near Mogadishu. He was treated in a hospital in Saudi Arabia for head injuries, broken ribs, lieutenant General Mohamed Ali Samatar, then Vice President, subsequently served as de facto head of state for the next several months. Possible contenders included his son-in-law General Ahmed Suleiman Abdille, who was at the time the Minister of the Interior, in an effort to hold on to power, Barres ruling Supreme Revolutionary Council became increasingly authoritarian and arbitrary. This caused opposition to his regime to grow, Barre in turn tried to quell the unrest by abandoning appeals to nationalism, relying more and more on his own inner circle, and exploiting historical clan animosities
35.
Sierra Leone Civil War
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The resulting civil war lasted 11 years, enveloped the country, and left over 50,000 dead. During the first year of the war, the RUF took control of large swathes of territory in eastern and southern Sierra Leone, which were rich in alluvial diamonds. The governments ineffective response to the RUF, and the disruption in government diamond production, by the end of 1993, the Sierra Leone Army had succeeded in pushing the RUF rebels back to the Liberian border, but the RUF recovered and fighting continued. In March 1995, Executive Outcomes, a South Africa-based private military company, was hired to repel the RUF, Sierra Leone installed an elected civilian government in March 1996, and the retreating RUF signed the Abidjan Peace Accord. Under UN pressure, the government terminated its contract with EO before the accord could be implemented, in May 1997 a group of disgruntled SLA officers staged a coup and established the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council as the new government of Sierra Leone. The RUF joined with the AFRC to capture Freetown with little resistance, the new government, led by Johnny Paul Koroma, declared the war over. A wave of looting, rape, and murder followed the announcement, in January 1999, world leaders intervened diplomatically to promote negotiations between the RUF and the government. The Lome Peace Accord, signed on 27 March 1999, was the result, RUF compliance with the disarmament process was inconsistent and sluggish, and by May 2000, the rebels were advancing again upon Freetown. With help from a renewed UN mandate and Guinean air support, on 18 January 2002, President Kabbah declared the Sierra Leone Civil War over. In 1961, Sierra Leone gained its independence from the United Kingdom, when Siaka Stevens entered into politics in 1968 Sierra Leone was a constitutional democracy. When he stepped down, seventeen years later, Sierra Leone was a one-party state, Stevens rule, sometimes called “the 17 year plague of locusts, ” saw the destruction and perversion of every state institution. Parliament was undermined, judges were bribed, and the treasury was bankrupted to finance pet projects that supported insiders, when Stevens failed to co-opt his opponents, he often resorted to state sanctioned executions or exile. In 1985, Stevens stepped down, and handed the nation’s preeminent position to Major General Joseph Momoh, during his seven-year tenure, Momoh welcomed the spread of unchecked corruption and complete economic collapse. With the state unable to pay its civil servants, those desperate enough ransacked and looted government offices, even in Freetown, important commodities like gasoline were scarce. But the government hit rock bottom when it could no longer pay schoolteachers, since only wealthy families could afford to pay private tutors, the bulk of Sierra Leone’s youth during the late 1980s roamed the streets aimlessly. As infrastructure and public ethics deteriorated in tandem, much of Sierra Leone’s professional class fled the country, the phenomenon whereby countries with an abundance of natural resources tend to nonetheless be characterized by lower levels of economic development is known as the resource curse. The presence of diamonds in Sierra Leone invited and led to the war in several ways. First, the highly unequal benefits resulting from diamond mining made ordinary Sierra Leoneans frustrated, when DeBeers pulled out of the venture in 1984, the government lost direct control of the diamond mining areas
36.
Mozambican Civil War
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The Mozambican Civil War began in 1977, two years after the end of the war of independence. It resembled the Angolan Civil War in that both were proxy wars of the Cold War that started soon after the countries gained independence from Portugal, fighting ended in 1992 and the countrys first multi-party elections were held in 1994. However, in 2013, after more than 20 years of peace, in the 1950s and 1960s Mozambican resistance to Portuguese colonial rule intensified, with gathering resentment of Portuguese authorities for centuries of exploitation, oppression and neglect. After a successful wave of movements in other African territories, Cold War powers. FRELIMOs first president was Eduardo Mondlane whose first objective was to forge a broad-based insurgent coalition that could challenge the colonial regime. On 25 September 1964, FRELIMO soldiers, with assistance from the surrounding population. This raid marked the beginning of the struggle against the Portuguese colonial government. At the wars outset, FRELIMO had little hope for a military victory, Portugal fought its own version of protracted warfare. Had the military succeeded with a minimum of expenditure and casualties, in the early 1970s, Operation Gordian Knot and the following Portuguese campaigns were militarily successful in destroying guerrilla forces and support bases in the territory. On 25 April 1974 the authoritarian regime of Estado Novo had been overthrown in Lisbon, the Armed Forces Movement in Portugal pledged a return to civil liberties and an end to the fighting in all colonies. The rapid chain of events within Portugal caught FRELIMO, which had anticipated a protracted guerrilla campaign and it responded quickly to the new situation, and on 7 September 1974 won an agreement from the Armed Forces Movement to transfer power to FRELIMO within a year. When this was known to the public, several thousand Portuguese colonials fled the newly independent country. As a result of the exodus, the economy and social organization of Mozambique collapsed, on 25 June 1975 Mozambique gained independence from Portugal, with Samora Machel as the Head of State. The independence of Mozambique and Angola in 1975 challenged white minority rule in southern Africa, the downfall of Portuguese rule gave hope to black resistance in South Africa and Rhodesia. Second, in both countries revolutionary socialist movements gained power, as President Machel put it in a speech in 1975, The struggle in Zimbabwe is our struggle. This was especially devastating for white-ruled Rhodesia, whose armed forces lacked the manpower to protect its 800-mile border with Mozambique against entering insurgents. At the same time, the government and the Smith regime lost Portugal as an ally. Thus South Africas and Rhodesias white minorities position were severely weakened by the events of 1974/75, subsequently, undermining the newly independent countries capacity to support their neighboring brothers in arms became South Africas and Rhodesias main strategy to counter this new threat
37.
Sri Lankan Civil War
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The Sri Lankan Civil War was an armed conflict fought on the island of Sri Lanka. After a 26-year military campaign, the Sri Lankan military defeated the Tamil Tigers in May 2009, bringing the civil war to an end. For over 25 years, the war caused significant hardships for the population, environment and the economy of the country, with an initial estimated 80, 000–100,000 people killed during its course. In 2013, the UN panel estimated additional deaths during the last phase of the war, during the early part of the conflict, the Sri Lankan forces attempted to retake the areas captured by the LTTE. The LTTE then declared they would resume their struggle to achieve statehood. Following the end of the war, the Sri Lankan government claimed Sri Lanka as the first country in the world to eradicate terrorism on its own soil. Following the LTTEs defeat, pro-LTTE Tamil National Alliance dropped its demand for a separate state, the origins of the Sri Lankan Civil War lie in the continuous political rancor between the majority Sinhalese and the minority Tamils. The roots of the conflict lie in the British colonial rule when the country was known as Ceylon. However, British Gov. William Manning actively encouraged the concept of representation and created the Colombo town seat in 1920. However, in 1944 J. R. Jayawardene moved in the State Council that Sinhala should replace English as the official language, approximately over 700,000 Indian Tamils were made stateless. Over the next three decades more than 300,000 Indian Tamils were deported back to India and it wasnt until 2003–55 years after independence—that all Indian Tamils living in Sri Lanka were granted citizenship, but by this time they only made up 5% of the islands population. In 1956 Prime Minister S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike passed the Sinhala Only Act and this was seen as a deliberate attempt to discourage the Sri Lankan Tamils from working in the Ceylon Civil Service and other public services. The Tamil-speaking minorities of Ceylon viewed the Act as linguistic, cultural, many Tamil-speaking civil servants/public servants were forced to resign because they werent fluent in Sinhala. This was a prelude to the 1956 Gal Oya riots and the 1958 widespread riots in which thousands of Tamil civilians perished, the civil war was a direct result of the escalation of the confrontational politics that followed. In the late 1960s documents relating to a separate Tamil state of Tamil Eelam began to circulate, at this time Anton Balasingham, an employee of the British High Commission in Colombo, began to participate in separatist activities. He later migrated to Britain, where he would become the chief theoretician of the LTTE, in the late 1960s several Tamil youth, among them Velupillai Prabhakaran, also became involved in these activities. They carried out several operations against pro-government Tamil politicians, Sri Lanka police. During the 1970s Policy of standardization was initiated, under the policy, university selection was calculated based on language
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Bosnian War
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The Bosnian War was an international armed conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 1995. Following a number of violent incidents in early 1992, the war is commonly viewed as having started on 6 April 1992, the war ended on 14 December 1995. The war was part of the breakup of Yugoslavia and this was rejected by the political representatives of the Bosnian Serbs, who had boycotted the referendum. The Croats also aimed at securing parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina as Croatian, Events such as the Siege of Sarajevo and the Srebrenica massacre later became iconic of the conflict. After the Srebrenica and Markale massacres, NATO intervened in 1995 with Operation Deliberate Force targeting the positions of the Army of the Republika Srpska, which proved key in ending the war. The war was brought to an end after the signing of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia, Peace negotiations were held in Dayton, Ohio and were finalised on 21 November 1995. According to a report compiled by the UN, and chaired by M, the report echoed conclusions published by a Central Intelligence Agency estimate in 1995. By early 2008, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia had convicted 45 Serbs,12 Croats and 4 Bosniaks of war crimes in connection with the war in Bosnia, the most recent estimates suggest that around 100,000 people were killed during the war. Over 2.2 million people were displaced, making it the most devastating conflict in Europe since the end of World War II, in addition, an estimated 12, 000–20,000 women were raped, most of them Bosniak. There is debate over the date of the Bosnian War. Mulaj reports that Misha Glenny gives a date of 22 March, Tom Gallagher gives 2 April, while Mary Kaldor and Laura Silber, philip Hammond claimed that the most common view is that the war started on 6 April 1992. The Sijekovac killings of Serbs took place on 26 March and the Bijeljina massacre on 1–2 April. Some Bosniaks consider the first casualties of the war to be Suada Dilberović and Olga Sučić, the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina came about as a result of the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. A crisis emerged in Yugoslavia as a result of the weakening of the system at the end of the Cold War. In Yugoslavia, the national communist party, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, was losing its ideological potency, meanwhile, ethnic nationalism experienced a renaissance in the 1980s, after violence broke out in Kosovo. While the goal of Serbian nationalists was the centralisation of Yugoslavia, other nationalities in Yugoslavia aspired to the federalisation, Bosnia and Herzegovina, a former Ottoman province, has historically been a multi-ethnic state. According to the 1991 census, 44% of the population considered themselves Muslim,32. 5% Serb and 17% Croat, with 6% describing themselves as Yugoslav. In March 1989, the crisis in Yugoslavia deepened after the adoption of amendments to the Serbian Constitution which allowed the government of Serbia to dominate the provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina
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War in North-West Pakistan
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The armed conflict began in 2004, when tensions, rooted in the Pakistan Armys search for al-Qaeda fighters in Pakistans mountainous Waziristan area, escalated into armed resistance. Pakistans actions were presented as its contribution to the international War on Terror, clashes further erupted between unified Pakistan Armed Forces and the Central Asian militant groups, allied with the Arab fighters, in 2008–10. The foreign militants were joined by Pakistani non-military veterans of the Afghan War to the west, the TNSM established in 1992 allied with the TTP and LeI. The war depleted the countrys resources, and the outcomes outlined a deep effect on its national economy. A year later in 2015, Forbes cited Pakistans progress on the security front, various names have been applied to the conflict by the authors and historians. War in North-West Pakistan is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Waziristan War, and the War in Waziristan. On the other hand, political scientist, Farrukh Saleem, termed the war as the Fourth Generation War or the 4G War. In 2016, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif stated that the aim was to establish the writ of the Pakistani Government on every square kilometer of Pakistan. Violence is down by three-quarters the last two years due to Karachi operation and Zarb-e-Azb launched by the Army, prompting analysts to say Pakistan is winning the war on terror. In the aftermath of Battle of Tora Bora, formal troop deployment was begun by the Pakistan Army, at the behest of the Pakistan Government, the conservative parties, most notably the Pakistan Muslim League, were very critical of such troop deployments in the region. The XI Corps, under its commander Lieutenant-General Jan Aurkzai, entered the Tirah Valley in the Khyber Agency for the first time since Pakistans independence in 1947, the army troops later moved into the Shawal Valley of North Waziristan, eventually entering South Waziristan. A monitoring reconnaissance base was established by the Special Service Group in 2003, criticism of Musharraf and the United States grew in Peshawar by a massive communist party in 2003, demanding an end to the operations. In 2003, the troubles mounted as the Tribes began to see militarys deployment, in 2003–04 public speeches, Musharraf repeatedly called for the eviction of the foreign fighters from the South Waziristan and justified the army deployments in the region despite the concerns. In December 2003, at least two assassination attempts against President Pervez Musharraf were traced to South Waziristan, the government responded by intensifying military pressure on the area. However, the fighting was costly, government forces sustained heavy casualties throughout 2004 and into early 2005, on 16 March 2004, a bloody mountainous battle between the Pakistan Army troops and the foreign fighters of al-Qaeda was fought in the White Mountains of South Waziristan. The Pakistani media speculated that Pakistan Army had surrounded a high value target in the mountainous region, according to the military intelligence in 2004, all militants were Chechens, Uzbeks, and Tajiks who were trying to flee Black Caves. After a week of the battle, the area was captured. In spite of its success, the failed to capture Zawahiri
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Pakistan Army Corps and Regiments