1.
San Luis Rey River
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The San Luis Rey River is a river in northern San Diego County, California. The rivers headwaters are in the Palomar Mountain Range and Cleveland National Forest, near Palomar Mountain, the river mouth, on the Pacific Ocean, is in northern Oceanside. The San Luis Rey River bike path runs along it for its last 9 miles, the river is over 69 miles long and drains 562 square miles. There is little water in the river during most of the year, the San Luis Rey River rises in two main branches. The mainstem starts east of Rocky Mountain in the Cleveland National Forest, the West Forks headwaters rise as a pair of tiny streams, Fry Creek and Iron Springs Creek, just to the north of Palomar Mountain. These two streams combine into the West Fork, which flows southeast through the Mendenhall Valley, the West Fork joins the main stem at Lake Henshaw, a reservoir formed by a dam across the main stem San Luis Rey River. From the base of Henshaw Dam, the river winds west along the foot of the Palomars and it then bends southwest into a gorge. It leaves the canyon at the wide and spacious Pauma Valley, potrero and Pauma Creeks enter from the right, then Frey Creek and Agua Tibia Creek as the river travels northwest. The river turns west, passing Pala, flowing through a patchwork of privately owned, government-owned and it then crosses under Interstate 15 and exits the foothills of the mountains near Bonsall. After passing Bonsall the river flows generally southwest, through the cities of San Luis Rey and Oceanside. Although usually dry up to point the river starts to contain water as it nears the mouth, both from seeps and from tidal activity that forms a lagoon at the mouth of the river. The San Luis Rey empties into the Pacific north of Oceanside, about 2 miles south of the Santa Margarita River, the dam that forms Lake Henshaw is the only one directly on the river itself. However, tributaries in the watershed are extensively dammed. The San Luis Rey River has natural river banks, except for the last 7 miles where it flows through a 400-foot-wide earthen channel with levees to prevent stormwater from flooding Oceanside, urbanization, mining, and agriculture have caused substantial deterioration of water quality the drainage basin. Since Lake Henshaw is relatively close to the headwaters, it is a source of drinking water, however, the water in the lower reaches of the river is used for groundwater recharge only. A bridge was completed across the river near its mouth in 2009 and they are a southern tribe of the indigenous peoples of California. The first European land exploration of Alta California, the Spanish Portolà expedition, on the return journey to the new pueblo of San Diego, the party again camped near the river on January 22,1770. Franciscan missionary Juan Crespi noted in his diary. we descended to a large and beautiful valley and we crossed it straight to the north and pitched camp near a large pool of water, one of several in the plain
2.
San Diego County, California
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San Diego County is a county in the southwestern corner of the state of California, in the United States. As of the 2010 census, the population was 3,095,313, making it Californias second-most populous county and the fifth-most populous in the United States. Its county seat is San Diego, the eighth-most populous city in the United States and it is the south-westernmost county in the 48 contiguous United States. San Diego County comprises the San Diego-Carlsbad Metropolitan Statistical Area, San Diego is also part of the San Diego–Tijuana metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area shared between the United States and Mexico. Greater San Diego ranks as the 38th largest metropolitan area in the Americas, San Diego County has 70 miles of coastline. Most of the county has a mild Mediterranean climate to climate, though there are mountains that receive frost. There are also 16 naval and military installations of the U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps, and these include the Naval Base San Diego, Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, Marine Corps Air Station Miramar, and Naval Air Station North Island. From north to south, San Diego County extends from the borders of Orange County and Riverside County to the Mexico–United States border. From west to east, San Diego County stretches from the Pacific Ocean to its boundary with Imperial County, the area which is now San Diego County has been inhabited for more than 10,000 years by Kumeyaay, Luiseño, Cupeño and Cahuilla Indians. In 1542, the Portuguese-born explorer Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, sailing for Spain, claimed San Diego Bay for the Spanish Empire, and he named the site San Miguel. In November 1602, Sebastián Vizcaíno surveyed the harbor and what are now Mission Bay and Point Loma and named the area for Saint Didacus, a Spaniard more commonly known as San Diego. European settlement in what is now San Diego County began with the founding of the San Diego Presidio and Mission San Diego de Alcalá by Spanish soldiers and this county was part of Alta California under the Viceroyalty of New Spain until the Mexican declaration of independence. From 1821 through 1848 this area was part of Mexico, San Diego County became part of the United States as a result of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, ending the U. S. -Mexican War. San Diego County was one of the counties of California. At the time of its establishment in 1850, San Diego County was relatively large, as such it included areas of what are now Inyo County and San Bernardino County, as well as all of what is now Riverside County and Imperial County. During the later part of the 19th century, there were changes in the boundaries of San Diego County. The most recent changes were the establishments of Riverside County in 1893, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 4,526 square miles, of which 4,207 square miles is land and 319 square miles is water. The county is larger in area than the states of Rhode Island
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
5.
San Antonio de Pala Asistencia
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Pala Mission was part of the Spanish missions, asistencias, and estancias system in Las Californias—Alta California. Today it is located in the Pala Indian Reservation located in northern San Diego County and it is the only historic mission facility still serving a Mission Indian tribe. Pala was essentially a small rancho surrounded by fields and herds. Once Mission San Luis Rey began to prosper, it attracted the attention of numerous mountain Native Americans in the area, the Franciscan fathers chose this site for the Pala Mission because it was a traditional gathering place and village for the Native American residents. Father Peyrí oversaw the addition of a chapel and housing to the granary complex, the chapels interior wall surfaces featured paintings by native artists, originally measuring 144 by 27 feet. Workers went into the Palomar Mountains and cut down trees to use as roof beams. Pala is unique among all of the Franciscan missions in that it boasts the only completely freestanding campanile, or bell tower, by 1820, some 1,300 baptisms had been performed at the outpost. Folk tales about the mission include mention of a prickly pear cactus, which became a symbol of Christian victory. After the nation achieved independence from Spain, the Mexican Congress passed An Act for the Secularization of the Missions of California on August 17,1833.25, pico on May 18,1846 for $2,000 in silver and $437.50 in wheat. Through the years, priests from San Luis Rey continued to visit Pala and conduct baptisms, marriages, on Christmas Day 1899, the San Jacinto earthquake shook the Pala Valley, causing the roof over the church sanctuary to collapse. In 1902, a group named the Landmarks Club of Southern California, under the direction of American journalist, historian, and photographer Charles Fletcher Lummis, purchased Pala Mission. The following year, the Club returned ownership to the Catholic Church and saved the Chapel, Pala is the only California mission to have ministered without interruption to the Mission Indians for whom it was originally built. It is also the only sub-mission still intact, the traditional Corpus Christi Fiesta has been celebrated every year since its founding. Though it lacked a resident priest, Pala served as the mission to chapels in Cahuilla, La Jolla, Pauma, Pichanga, Rincon, Santa Rosa. On August 9,1942 MGM motion picture actress Ruth Hussey was wed at Pala Mission, in 1948 the Verona Fathers succeeded the Franciscans in the care of the Mission. Six years later, the fathers undertook a restoration of the Mission. In May 1991, administration of the Mission reverted to the Roman Catholic Diocese of San Diego, since 1996, Pala has hosted the Vivian Banks charter school. Bells were vitally important to life at any mission
6.
Mission San Luis Rey de Francia
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Mission San Luis Rey de Francia is a former Spanish mission in an unincorporated part of San Diego County, surrounded by the present-day city of Oceanside, California, United States. The mission was founded on June 13,1798 by Padre Fermín Lasuén, named for Saint Louis, the mission lent its name to the Luiseño tribe of Mission Indians. The current church, built in 1811, is the church on this location. It is a National Historic Landmark, for its example of a Spanish mission church complex. Today the mission complex functions as a church of the Diocese of San Diego as well as a museum. San Luis Rey De Francis Mission raised about 26,000 cattle as well as goats, geese, the first non-natives to see the mission site were members of the 1769 Portola expedition. Padre Juan Crespi noted in his diary on July 18 that it would be a spot for future establishment of a mission. He named the place San Juan Capistrano, but that name was used instead for the mission founded further north in 1776, the area became a standard camping stop on the road connecting the missions, until the mission establishment 29 years later. The original name La Misión de San Luis, Rey de Francia was named for King Louis IX of France. At its prime, Mission San Luis Reys structures and services compound covered almost 950,400 acres, making it one of the largest of the missions, along with its surrounding agricultural land. Two outposts were built in support of Mission San Luis Rey and placed under its supervision, San Antonio de Pala Asistencia in 1816 and Las Flores Estancia in 1823. In his book, Tac lamented the rapid decline of his Luiseño people after the founding of the mission, In Quechla not long ago there were 5,000 souls. Through a sickness that came to California,2,000 souls died, the Mission-born, Franciscan-educated Tac wrote that his people initially attempted to bar the Spaniards from invading their Southern California lands. When the foreigners approached. the chief stood up. and met them, pablo Tac went on to describe the preferential conditions and treatment the padres received, In the mission of San Luis Rey de Francia the Fernandiño father is like a king. He has his pages, alcaldes, majordomos, musicians, soldiers, gardens, ranchos, the first Peruvian Pepper Tree in California was planted here in 1830, now iconic, widely planted, and renamed the California Pepper tree in the state. After the Mexican secularization act of 1833 much of Mission San Luis Rey de Francia land was sold off, during the Mexican-American War in Alta California, the Mission was utilized as a military outpost by the United States Army. With secularization of the mission in 1834, no services were held. The Missions religious services restarted in 1893, when two Mexican priests were given permission to restore the Mission as a Franciscan college, father Joseph OKeefe was assigned as an interpreter for the monks
7.
California State Route 76
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State Route 76 is a state highway 52.63 miles long in the U. S. state of California. It is a much used east–west route in the North County region of San Diego County that begins in Oceanside near Interstate 5, the highway is a major route through the region, passing through the community of Bonsall and providing access to Fallbrook. East of the junction with I-15, SR76 goes through Pala, a route along the corridor has existed since the early 20th century, as has the bridge over the San Luis Rey River near Bonsall. The route was added to the highway system in 1933. The section of the highway through Oceanside and Bonsall is mostly an expressway, east of Bonsall. Originally, the highway was two lanes wide, west of Bonsall, the route was widened in stages, after decades of funding shortages, planning. The California Department of Transportation plans to expand the length of the highway west of I-15 to an expressway. As of March 2016, construction is under way between Bonsall and I-15, there is soon an interchange with I-5, after which SR76 becomes a four-lane expressway known as the San Luis Rey Mission Expressway. From I-5 to Mission Avenue, the highway parallels the San Luis Rey River until it passes by Oceanside Municipal Airport, during this stretch, SR76 intersects Loretta Street, Canyon Drive, Benet Road, Airport Road, and Foussat Road. There are two overpasses, one over Mission Avenue, and one over El Camino Real, before the road intersects Douglas Drive, as it enters rural Oceanside, SR76 intersects with North Santa Fe Avenue, Guajome Lake Road, and Melrose Drive. SR76 intersects the segment of CR S13, known as East Vista Way. The highway passes through Bonsall, intersecting Via Montellano, Olive Hill Road, SR76 then meets the northern segment of CR S13, known as South Mission Road, while heading north into Fallbrook, SR76 is the primary road connecting the two portions of CR S13. Here, SR76 becomes known as Pala Road, narrowing to two lanes and it intersects Via Monserate and Gird Road south of Fallbrook before crossing the former routing of US395 and the current routing of I-15 in the community of Pala Mesa Village. SR76 then goes through Pala and the Pala Indian Reservation, providing access to the Pala Casino and intersecting CR S16, SR76 intersects the southern leg of CR S6, leading to Valley Center and Escondido. It then briefly passes through the Cleveland National Forest and meets the terminus of CR S7. SR76 then passes along the shores of Lake Henshaw before terminating at the intersection with SR79 at Morettis Junction, SR76 is legally eligible for the State Scenic Highway System, but it is not officially designated as a scenic highway by the California Department of Transportation. The part of the highway from the terminus to Douglas Drive is also named for Tony Zeppetella. The road through the San Luis Rey Valley was planned as early as 1889 and it was added to the state highway system in 1933, while the condition of the highway continued to improve
8.
Huell Howser
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The archive of his video chronicles offers an enhanced understanding of the history, culture, and people of California. He also voiced the Backson in Winnie the Pooh, Howser was born Huell Burnley Howser in Gallatin, Tennessee on October 18,1945 to Harold Chamberlain and Jewell Havens Howser. Howsers first name is a blend of his parents names Harold and Jewell and he received a B. A. in history from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, where he also served as student body president. After serving in the U. S. Marine Corps and on the staff of U. S. Howser was also a personality working for the University of Tennessee. After working in New York City as the host of WCBS-TVs Real Life show, Howser moved to Los Angeles, during 1982 and 1983, he served as weekend host and correspondent for Entertainment Tonight. In 1985, he joined KCET as a producer of Videolog, Californias Gold highlights small towns, landmarks, events, or places of interest throughout California that are not well known to the general public. Howser conducted informal, often impromptu, interviews with locals involved with the sites he visits and he also produced Californias Communities, Californias Golden Fairs, Downtown, Californias Water, Californias Green, Californias Golden Coast, Californias Golden Parks, Road Trip, Visiting. With Huell Howser, California Missions, Palm Springs, Our Neighborhoods, The Bench, articles written by Howser have appeared in Westways, the magazine of the Automobile Club of Southern California. In 1997, Howser featured prominently as himself alongside Tracey Ullman in character as Ruby Romaine in the Tracey Takes On, Howser spearheaded an unsuccessful effort to stop the demolition of buildings designed by Paul Williams at the Long Beach Naval Shipyard. He appeared in Who Killed the Electric Car. in his capacity as a reporter, witnessing the demolition, in 2011, Howser voiced the Backson in the post-credits scene of Walt Disney Animation Studioss feature film Winnie the Pooh. Howser lived in the historic El Royale apartments in Los Angeles, California and also had homes in Palm Springs, on June 29,2015, Howsers Twentynine Palms home became available for rentals and weddings. On September 3,2015, his Volcano-Top Saucer House in the Mojave Desert sold for $650,000, Howser mentioned that he was a Methodist during his episode covering the Nevada County Fair on Californias Golden Fairs. In 2003, Howser purchased the 1, 800-square-foot Volcano House, situated on a cinder cone just outside Barstow, along with 60 acres of desert. In 2010, Howser put his unusual Newberry Springs, California, in June 2012, The Panther, a student-run newspaper for Chapman University announced that Howser had donated the Volcano House to the school. On November 27,2012, The Sacramento Bee reported that Howser was retiring from making new shows, on January 7,2013, Howser died at his Palm Springs home at the age of 67. He had been battling cancer for years and his death certificate listed metastatic prostate cancer as the cause of death. Howsers body was cremated and his ashes were scattered at sea off the coast of Los Angeles County, on January 15,2013, a memorial was held for Howser, who said before his death that he did not want a funeral as he did not want attention. Howser donated his collection of Californias Gold episodes, as well as those of his other series
9.
Chapman University
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Chapman University is a private, non-profit university located in Orange, California, United States. It is affiliated with the Christian Church, Chapman also operates Brandman University as a separate, fully accredited university within the Chapman University System. Founded as Hesperian College, in Woodland, California, the school classes on March 4,1861. Its opening was timed to coincide with the hour of Abraham Lincolns first inauguration, Hesperian admitted students of both sexes and all races. In 1920, the assets of Hesperian College were absorbed by California Christian College, in 1934, the school was renamed Chapman College, after the chairman of its board of trustees, C. C. In 1954, Chapman College moved to its present campus in the city of Orange, Chapman established a Residence Education Center Program to serve military personnel in 1958. This evolved into the Chapman University College, Chapman University is the largest private university in Orange County, and is ranked in the U. S. News and World Reports top-tier of western region colleges and universities. It comprises four schools and five colleges, including the Dale E and it offers 46 undergraduate and 17 graduate majors. Chapman College became Chapman University in 1991, in that year, Dr. James L. Doti became president of Chapman University. Dr. Doti has received the Horatio Alger Award and the Ellis Island Medal of Honor and he was honored by the Council for Advancement of Education as 2003 CEO of the Year. According to The Chronicle of Higher Education, Doti earned $1,542,270, Schmid College of Science and Technology has a plan for a 140,000 sq. ft. Center for Science & Technology on Chapmans main campus in Orange, opening in fall 2018. In 1959 Chapman University broke ground for Braden Hall, a dormitory on campus. It later became a co-ed dorm and was best known for its basketball court and it was torn down in 2007 and replaced in 2009 by the Sandhu Residence Center, which includes a cafeteria and rock climbing wall for students. Chapman co-produces the OC Channel in a partnership with KOCE, founded in 1977, the school is named after George L. Argyros, a Chapman alum and former U. S. Ambassador to Spain. Argyros has chaired the board of trustees of Chapman University since 1976, the business school was renamed in Argyros honor in 1999. The Argyros School offers undergraduate and graduate degrees in business, the MBA program has three lines, Executive, Professional, and Full Time. Chapmans Professional MBA Program is ranked #48 by Bloomberg/Businessweek and the Full Time program is currently ranked #83, building on its strength in undergraduate accounting, the school recently launched a one-year Master of Science in Accounting degree. In 2008, The Princeton Review ranked Chapman Business Schools undergraduate and graduate programs among its Top 25 programs in the country, the Argyros School of Business and Economics was officially nationally ranked as the 60th Best Undergraduate Bloomberg BusinessWeek Business School in 2014
10.
Indian reservation
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Each of the 326 Indian reservations in the United States are associated with a particular Nation. Not all of the countrys 567 recognized tribes have a reservation—some tribes have more than one reservation, some share reservations and this jumble of private and public real estate creates significant administrative, political, and legal difficulties. The collective geographical area of all reservations is 56,200,000 acres, while most reservations are small compared to US states, there are 12 Indian reservations larger than the state of Rhode Island. The largest reservation, the Navajo Nation Reservation, is similar in size to West Virginia, Reservations are unevenly distributed throughout the country, the majority are west of the Mississippi River and occupy lands that were first reserved by treaty or granted from the public domain. Because tribes possess tribal sovereignty, even though it is limited and these laws can permit legal casinos on reservations, for example, which attract tourists. The tribal council, not the local or federal government, generally has jurisdiction over reservations, different reservations have different systems of government, which may or may not replicate the forms of government found outside the reservation. Most Native American reservations were established by the government, a limited number, mainly in the East. The name reservation comes from the conception of the Native American tribes as independent sovereigns at the time the U. S, the term remained in use even after the federal government began to forcibly relocate tribes to parcels of land to which they had no historical connection. A majority of Native Americans and Alaska Natives live somewhere other than the reservations, often in big cities such as Phoenix. In 2012, there were over 2.5 million Native Americans with about 1 million living on reservations, from the beginning of the European colonization of the Americas, Europeans often removed native peoples from lands they wished to occupy. The means varied, including voluntary moves based on agreement, treaties made under considerable duress, forceful ejection. The removal caused many problems such as tribes losing means of livelihood by being subjected to an area, farmers having inadmissible land for agriculture. In 1764 the “Plan for the Future Management of Indian Affairs” was proposed by the Board of Trade, additionally, this plan dictated that the Indians would be properly consulted when ascertaining and defining the boundaries of colonial settlement. For much of North America, the American Revolution was more of a battle against the Indians than a war against the British, the treaty was seen by Americans as a confirmation of their conquest of Indian land. The private contracts that once characterized the sale of Indian land to various individuals and this protocol was adopted by the United States Government after the America Revolution. On March 11,1824, John C. Calhoun founded the Office of Indian Affairs as a division of the United States Department of War, to solve the land problem with 38 treaties with American Indian tribes. The passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 marked the systematization of a US federal government policy of forcibly moving Native populations away from European-populated areas, some of the lands these tribes were given to inhabit following the removals eventually became Indian Reservations. In 1851, the United States Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act which authorized the creation of Indian reservations in modern-day Oklahoma, relations between settlers and natives had grown increasingly worse as the settlers encroached on territory and natural resources in the West
11.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
12.
Mission Indians
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Spanish explorers arrived on Californias coasts as early as the mid-16th century. In 1769 the first Spanish Franciscan mission was built in San Diego, local tribes were relocated and conscripted into forced labor on the mission, stretching from San Diego to San Francisco. Disease, starvation, over work, and torture decimated these tribes, many were baptized as Roman Catholics by the Franciscan missionaries at the missions. Mission Indians were from many regional Native American tribes, their members were often relocated together in new mixed groups, for instance, the Payomkowishum were renamed Luiseños after the Mission San Luis Rey, and the Acjachemem were renamed the Juaneños after the Mission San Juan Capistrano. The Catholic priests forbade the Indians from practicing their native culture, resulting in the disruption of many linguistic, spiritual. When Mexico gained its independence in 1834, it assumed control of the Californian missions from the Franciscans, Mexico secularized the missions and transferred or sold the lands to other non-Native administrators or owners. Many of the Mission Indians worked on the newly established ranchos with little improvement in their living conditions, around 1906 Alfred L. Kroeber and Constance G. On January 12,1891 the U. S, in 1927, Sacramento Bureau of Indian Affairs Superintendent Lafayette A. Dorrington was instructed by Assistant Commissioner E. B. Merritt in Washington D. C. to list tribes in California that Congress had not yet purchased land to be used as reservations. As part of the 1928 California Indian Jurisdictional Act enrollment, Native Americans were asked to identify their “Tribe or Band. ”The majority of applicants supplied the name of the mission that they knew their ancestors were associated with. The enrollment was part of a plan to provide reservation lands promised, some bands also occupy trust lands—Indian Reservations—identified under the Mission Indian Agency. The Mission Indian Act of 1891 formed the administrative Bureau of Indian Affairs unit which governs San Diego County, Riverside County, San Bernardino County, there is one Chumash reservation in the last county, and more than thirty reservations in the others. Los Angeles, San Luis Obispo, and Orange counties do not contain any tribal trust lands. But, resident tribes, including the Tongva in the first and these and the tribal governments of fifteen other reservations operate casinos today. The total acreage of the Mission group of reservations constitutes approximately 250,000 acres, los Coyotes Band of Mission Indians Manzanita Band of Mission Indians Mesa Grande Band of Mission Indians Mission Creek Band of Mission Indians - Mission Creek Reservation of Cahuilla. Morongo Band of Mission Indians Pala Band of Mission Indians Pauma Band of Mission Indians Pechanga Band of Mission Indians Ramona Band or Village of Mission Indians San Cayetano Band of Cahuilla. San Manuel Band of Mission Indians San Miguel Arcangel, descandants of Mission San Miguel Indians in San Miguel, Mythology of the Mission Indians, The Journal of the American Folk-Lore Society, Vol. XVII, No. Two Myths of the Mission Indians of California, Journal of the American Folk-Lore Society, Vol. XIX, a Native American Encyclopedia, History, Culture, and Peoples
United States (
California)
