1.
Palacio de Bellas Artes
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The Palacio de Bellas Artes is a prominent cultural center in Mexico City. It has hosted some of the most notable events in music, dance, theatre, opera and literature and has held important exhibitions of painting, sculpture, consequently, the Palacio de Bellas Artes has been called the Cathedral of Art in Mexico. The building is located on the side of the historic center of Mexico City next to the Alameda Central park. Construction began again in 1932 under Mexican architect Federico Mariscal and was completed in 1934, the exterior of the building is primarily Neoclassical and Art Nouveau and the interior is primarily Art Deco. The building is best known for its murals by Diego Rivera, Siqueiros and others, as well as the exhibitions and theatrical performances its hosts. The earliest known structure on the site was the Convent of Santa Isabel, however, significant Aztec finds, such as a sacrificial altar in the shape of a plumed serpent have been found here. The convent area suffered frequent flooding during the colonial period. In spite of this, the convent remained until it was closed in the 1860s by the Reform Laws. It was replaced by a mill and lower-class housing. A section of housing, on Santa Isabel Alley, was torn down. During the late 19th century and very early 20th, this theatre was the site of most of Mexico Citys high culture, presenting events such as theatre, operettas, Viennese dance and more. It was then decided to replace this building with an opulent one for the upcoming Centennial of Mexican Independence celebrations in 1910. The old theatre was demolished in 1901, and the new theatre would be called the Gran Teatro de Ópera. The work was awarded to Italian architect Adamo Boari, who favored neoclassical and art nouveau styles, Adamo Boari promised in October 1904 to build grand metallic structure, which at that time only existed in the United States, but not to this size. The first stone of the building was placed by Porfirio Díaz in 1904, despite the 1910 deadline, by 1913, the building was hardly begun with only a basic shell. One reason for this is that the project became more complicated than anticipated as the building sank into the soft spongy subsoil. The other reason was the political and economic instability that would lead to the Mexican Revolution, full hostilities suspended construction of the palace completely and Adamo Boari returned to Italy. The project would sit unfinished for about twenty years, in 1932, construction resumed under Mexican architect Federico Mariscal
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Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)
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The Museum of Science and Industry is located in Chicago, Illinois, in Jackson Park, in the Hyde Park neighborhood between Lake Michigan and The University of Chicago. It is housed in the former Palace of Fine Arts from the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition, based on 2009 attendance, the Museum of Science and Industry was the second largest cultural attraction in Chicago. David R. Mosena has been President and CEO of the Museum since 1998, the Palace of Fine Arts at the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition was designed by Charles B. Atwood for D. H. Burnham & Co, unlike the other White City buildings, it was constructed with a brick substructure under its plaster facade. After the Worlds Fair, it housed the Columbian Museum. When the Field Museum moved to a new building near downtown Chicago in 1920, Art Institute of Chicago professor Lorado Taft led a public campaign to restore the building and turn it into another art museum, one devoted to sculpture. However, after a few years, the building was selected as the site for a new science museum, at this time, the Commercial Club of Chicago was interested in establishing a science museum in Chicago. Julius Rosenwald, the Sears, Roebuck and Company president and philanthropist, during its conversion into the MSI, the buildings exterior was re-cast in limestone to retain its 1893 Beaux Arts look. The interior was replaced with a new one in Art Moderne style designed by Alfred P. Shaw, Rosenwald established the museum organization in 1926 but declined to have his name on the building. For the first few years, the museum was called the Rosenwald Industrial Museum. In 1928, the name of the museum was changed to the Museum of Science. Rosenwalds vision was to create a museum in the style of the Deutsches Museum in Munich, sewell Avery, another businessman, had supported the museum within the Commercial Club and was selected as its first president of the board of directors. The museum conducted a search for the first director. MSIs Board of Directors selected Waldemar Kaempffert, then the editor of The New York Times. He assembled the museums staff and directed the organizing and constructing the exhibits. In order to prepare the museum, Kaempffert and his staff visited the Deutsches Museum in Munich, the Science Museum in Kensington, Kaempffert was instrumental in developing close ties with the science departments of the University of Chicago, which supplied much of the scholarship for the exhibits. The new Museum of Science and Industry opened to the public in three stages between 1933 and 1940, the first opening ceremony took place during the Century of Progress Exposition. Two of the presidents, a number of curators and other staff members
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National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
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Historic districts in the United States
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Buildings, structures, objects and sites within a historic district are normally divided into two categories, contributing and non-contributing. Districts greatly vary in size, some have hundreds of structures, the U. S. federal government designates historic districts through the United States Department of Interior under the auspices of the National Park Service. Federally designated historic districts are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, state-level historic districts may follow similar criteria or may require adherence to certain historic rehabilitation standards. Local historic district designation offers, by far, the most legal protection for historic properties because most land use decisions are made at the local level, local districts are generally administered by the county or municipal government. The first U. S. historic district was established in Charleston, South Carolina in 1931, Charleston city government designated an Old and Historic District by local ordinance and created a board of architectural review to oversee it. New Orleans followed in 1937, establishing the Vieux Carré Commission, other localities picked up on the concept, with the city of Philadelphia enacting its historic preservation ordinance in 1955. The Supreme Court case validated the protection of resources as an entirely permissible governmental goal. In 1966 the federal government created the National Register of Historic Places, conference of Mayors had stated Americans suffered from rootlessness. By the 1980s there were thousands of federally designated historic districts, Historic districts are generally two types of properties, contributing and non-contributing. In general, contributing properties are integral parts of the historic context, in addition to the two types of classification within historic districts, properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places are classified into five broad categories. They are, building, structure, site, district and object, all but the eponymous district category are also applied to historic districts listed on the National Register. A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district, however, the Register is an honorary status with some federal financial incentives. The National Register of Historic Places defines a historic district per U. S. federal law, a district may also comprise individual elements separated geographically but linked by association or history. Districts established under U. S. federal guidelines generally begin the process of designation through a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, the National Register is the official recognition by the U. S. government of cultural resources worthy of preservation. While designation through the National Register does offer a district or property some protections, if the federal government is not involved, then the listing on the National Register provides the site, property or district no protections. If, however, company A was under federal contract the Smith House would be protected, a federal designation is little more than recognition by the government that the resource is worthy of preservation. Usually, the National Register does not list religious structures, moved structures, reconstructed structures, however, if a property falls into one of those categories and are integral parts of districts that do meet the criteria then an exception allowing their listing will be made. Historic district listings, like all National Register nominations, can be rejected on the basis of owner disapproval, in the case of historic districts, a majority of owners must object in order to nullify a nomination to the National Register of Historic Places
5.
San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
6.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
Beaux-Arts architecture
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Beaux-Arts architecture expresses the academic neoclassical architectural style taught at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. The style of instruction that produced Beaux-Arts architecture continued without interruption until 1968. The Beaux-Arts style heavily influenced the architecture of the United States in the period from 1880 to 1920, in contrast, many European architects of the period 1860–1914 outside France gravitated away from Beaux-Arts and towards their own national academic centers. American architects of the Beaux-Arts generation often returned to Greek models, for the first time, repertories of photographs supplemented meticulous scale drawings and on-site renderings of details. Beaux-Arts training emphasized the production of quick conceptual sketches, highly finished perspective presentation drawings, close attention to the program, site considerations tended toward social and urbane contexts. In the façade shown to the right, Diana grasps the cornice she sits on in an action typical of Beaux-Arts integration of sculpture with architecture. A sense of appropriate idiom at the craftsman level supported the teams of the first truly modern architectural offices. The prestige of the École gave the style Beaux-Arts a second wind in combining the new manner with the traditional training and they were followed by an entire generation. Henry Hobson Richardson absorbed Beaux-Arts lessons in massing and spatial planning and his Beaux-Arts training taught him to transcend slavish copying and recreate in the essential fully digested and idiomatic manner of his models. Richardson evolved a personal style freed of historicism that was influential in early Modernism. The White City of the Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago was a triumph of the movement, the Beaux-Arts curriculum was subsequently begun at Columbia University, the University of Pennsylvania, and elsewhere. From 1916, the Beaux-Arts Institute of Design in New York City schooled architects, painters, bosworth, Carnegie Mellon University, designed by Henry Hornbostel, and the University of Texas, designed by Paul Philippe Cret. Beaux-Arts architecture also brought a civic face to the railroad, two of the best American examples of the Beaux-Arts tradition stand within a few blocks of each other, Grand Central Terminal and the New York Public Library. Another prominent U. S. example of the style is the largest academic dormitory in the world, in the late 1800s, during the years when Beaux-Arts architecture was at a peak in France, Americans were one of the largest groups of foreigners in Paris. Many of them were architects and students of architecture who brought this back to America. Beaux-Arts was very prominent in public buildings in Canada in the early 20th century, notably all three prairie provinces legislative buildings are in this style. Buenos Aires is a center of Beaux-Arts architecture which continued to be built as late as the 1950s, national Theatre, Melbourne General Post Office building, Forrest Place, Perth Argus Building. Beaux-Arts Architecture in New York, A Photographic Guide United States, sixteenth Street Architecture – profiles of Beaux-Arts architecture in Washington D. C
9.
Marina District, San Francisco
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The Marina District is a neighborhood located in San Francisco, California. The neighborhood sits on the site of the 1915 Panama–Pacific International Exposition, aside from the Palace of Fine Arts, all other buildings were demolished to make the current neighborhood. Much of the Marina is built on landfill, and is susceptible to soil liquefaction during strong earthquakes. This phenomenon caused extensive damage to the neighborhood during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. The area in the 19th century prior to the 1906 earthquake consisted of bay shallows, tidal pools, sand dunes, human habitation and development came in the mid to late 19th century in the form of a sandwall and of a road from the nearby Presidio to Fort Mason. Most of the dunes were leveled out and a hodgepodge of wharves. However, all of this was destroyed in the 1906 earthquake, during reconstruction of the city after the 1906 earthquake, the area was chosen as the site of the Panama–Pacific International Exposition. Although rubble from the earthquake was used as part of the reclamation, most of the landfill came from dredging mud. After the end of the exposition in 1915, the land was sold to private developers and this major redevelopment was completed in the 1920s. In the 1930s, with the completion of the nearby Golden Gate Bridge, Lombard Street was widened, the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake caused severe liquefaction of the fill upon which the neighborhood is built, causing major damage including a small firestorm. Firefighters resorted to pumping water directly from the Bay, to replace water unavailable from broken water mains, physically, the neighborhood appears to have changed very little since its construction in the 1920s. The Palace is the building left standing in its original location within the 1915 Exposition fairgrounds. The grounds around the Palace are a popular attraction for tourists and locals. The neighborhood is noted for its demographics, which since the 1980s have shifted from mostly middle-class families and pensioners. These now make up more than half of the population, although a small, San Franciscos Academy of Art University has a campus housing building at the Southern edge of the neighborhood on Lombard Street. The San Francisco Police Department Northern Station serves the Marina District, a16 Strangers in the night – Bars, cheap sex, and boozy anthropology
10.
Seismic retrofit
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Seismic retrofitting is the modification of existing structures to make them more resistant to seismic activity, ground motion, or soil failure due to earthquakes. With better understanding of demand on structures and with our recent experiences with large earthquakes near urban centers. In view of the imminent problem, various research work has been carried out and these codes must be regularly updated, the 1994 Northridge earthquake brought to light the brittleness of welded steel frames, for example. The retrofit techniques outlined here are also applicable for other natural hazards such as cyclones, tornadoes. Seismic retrofit strategies have developed in the past few decades following the introduction of new seismic provisions. This is typically done by the addition of cross braces or new structural walls, reduction of the seismic demand by means of supplementary damping and/or use of base isolation systems. Increasing the local capacity of structural elements and this is a counter intuitive strategy to change the inelastic mechanism of the structure, while recognising the inherent capacity of the structure. Allowing sliding connections such as bridges to accommodate additional movement between seismically independent structures. Addition of seismic friction dampers to brace weak structures and provide damping, in the past, seismic retrofit was primarily applied to achieve public safety, with engineering solutions limited by economic and political considerations. However, with the development of Performance based earthquake engineering, several levels of objectives are gradually recognised. The goal is to human life, ensuring that the structure will not collapse upon its occupants or passersby. Under severe seismic conditions the structure may be a total economic write-off, requiring tear-down, the goal is that the structure, while remaining safe for exit, may require extensive repair before it is generally useful or considered safe for occupation. This is typically the lowest level of retrofit applied to bridges, primary structure undamaged and the structure is undiminished in utility for its primary application. A high level of retrofit, this ensures that any required repairs are only cosmetic – for example, minor cracks in plaster, drywall and this is the minimum acceptable level of retrofit for hospitals. This level of retrofit is preferred for historic structures of cultural significance. Common seismic retrofitting techniques fall into categories, The use of external post-tensioning for new structural systems have been developed in the past decade. Pre-stressing can increase the capacity of structural elements such as beam and it should be noted that external pre-stressing has been used for structural upgrade for gravity/live loading since the 1970s. This earthquake engineering technology, which is a kind of vibration control
11.
San Francisco Bay Area
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The San Francisco Bay Area is a populous region surrounding the San Francisco and San Pablo estuaries in Northern California. The region encompasses the cities and metropolitan areas of San Jose, San Francisco. The Bay Areas nine counties are Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, Napa, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Solano, and Sonoma. The combined statistical area of the region is the second-largest in California, the fifth-largest in the United States, the Bay Area has the second-most Fortune 500 Companies in the United States, and is known for its natural beauty, liberal politics, entrepreneurship, and diversity. The eastern side of the bay, consisting of Alameda and Contra Costa counties, is known locally as the East Bay, the inner East Bay is more densely populated, with generally older buildings, and a more ethnically diverse population. The word Lamorinda was coined by combining the names of the cities it includes, Lafayette, Moraga, walnut Creek is situated east of Lamorinda and north of the San Ramon Valley and, together with Concord, Martinez, and Pleasant Hill comprises Central Contra Costa County. The cities of Antioch, Pittsburg, Brentwood, Oakley and the areas surrounding them comprise East Contra Costa County. The Tri-Valley consists of the Amador, the Livermore, and the San Ramon Valleys, dublin and Pleasanton comprise the Amador Valley, Livermore lies in the Livermore Valley, and the San Ramon Valley consists of Alamo, Danville, Diablo and its namesake, San Ramon. The outer East Bay is connected to the inner East Bay by BART, Interstate 580 to the south, and State Routes State Route 4 to the north, the outer East Bays infrastructure was mostly built up after World War II. This area remains largely white demographically, although the Hispanic and Filipino populations have grown significantly over the past 2–3 decades, the region north of the Golden Gate Bridge is known locally as the North Bay. This area encompasses Marin County, Sonoma County, Napa County, the city of Fairfield, being part of Solano County, is often considered the easternmost city of the North Bay. With few exceptions, this region is affluent, Marin County is ranked as the wealthiest in the state. The North Bay is relatively rural compared to the remainder of the Bay Area, with areas of undeveloped open space, farmland. Santa Rosa in Sonoma County is the North Bays largest city, with a population of 167,815 and a Metropolitan Statistical Area population of 466,891, making it the fifth-largest city in the Bay Area. The North Bay is the section of the Bay Area that is not currently served by a commuter rail service. The area from San Francisco to the Silicon Valley, geographically part of the San Francisco Peninsula, is known locally as The Peninsula, many of these families are of foreign background and have significantly contributed to the diversity of the area. Whereas the term peninsula technically refers to the entire geographical San Franciscan Peninsula, in local terms, San Francisco is surrounded by water on three sides, the north, east, and west. The city squeezes roughly 870,000 people in under 47 square miles, on any given day, there can be as many as 1 million people in the city because of the commuting population and tourism
12.
Disney California Adventure
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Disney California Adventure Park, commonly referred to as Disney California Adventure, California Adventure, or DCA, is a theme park located in Anaheim, California. It is owned and operated by The Walt Disney Company through its Parks, the 72-acre park is themed after the history and culture of California. The park opened in 2001 as Disneys California Adventure Park, the concept of a theme park dedicated to California arose from a meeting of Disney executives in 1995, following the cancellation of the WestCOT project. Construction of the began in 1998 and was completed by early 2001. Disney spent the several years incrementally adding new rides, shows, and attractions. In 2007, Disney announced an expansion of the park as well as a major overhaul of a significant portion of the park. Construction lasted for five years and was completed in stages, culminating with the opening of Buena Vista Street, according to the Themed Entertainment Association, the park hosted approximately 9.4 million guests in 2015, making it the 11th-most visited theme park in the world that year. In front of the Sun Icon of the former Sunshine Plaza, To all who believe in the power of dreams, Disneys California Adventure opens its golden gates to you. Here we pay tribute to the dreamers of the past, the people, explorers, immigrants. And we salute a new generation of dreamers who are creating the wonders of tomorrow, from the screen to the computer screen. Disneys California Adventure celebrates the richness and the diversity of California and its land, its people, its spirit and, above all, the dreams that it continues to inspire. On the plaque of the flagpole in Buena Vista Plaza on Buena Vista Street, To all who come to place of dreams. This unique place embraces the richness and diversity of California and its land, its people, its stories and, above all, the dreamers it continues to inspire. In front of the Sun Icon of the current Sunshine Plaza while On the plaque of the flagpole in Buena Vista Plaza on Buena Vista Street, To all who believe in the power of dreams, Disneys California Adventure opens its golden gates to you. Here we pay tribute to the dreamers of the past, the people, explorers, immigrants. And we salute a new generation of dreamers who are creating the wonders of tomorrow, from the screen to the computer screen. Disneys California Adventure celebrates the richness and the diversity of California and its land, its people, its spirit and, above all, the dreams that it continues to inspire while To all who come to this place of dreams, welcome. This unique place embraces the richness and diversity of California and its land, its people, its stories and, above all, the dreamers it continues to inspire
13.
Anaheim
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Anaheim is a city in Orange County, California, part of the Los Angeles metropolitan area. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city had a population of 336,265, making it the most populous city in Orange County, Anaheim remained largely a rural community until Disneyland opened in the city in 1955. This led to the construction of hotels and motels around the area. The city also developed into a center, producing electronics, aircraft parts. Anaheims city limits extend from Cypress in the west to the Riverside County line in the east and encompass a diverse collection of neighborhoods, Anaheim Hills is a master-planned community located in the citys eastern stretches that is home to many of the citys affluent. Downtown Anaheim has three historic districts, the largest of which is the Anaheim Colony. The Anaheim Resort, a district, includes Disneyland, Disney California Adventure. The Platinum Triangle, a redevelopment district surrounding Angel Stadium, is planned to be populated with mixed-use streets. Finally, Anaheim Canyon is a district north of California State Route 91. Anaheims name is a blend of Ana, after the nearby Santa Ana River, and heim, the city of Anaheim was founded in 1857 by 50 German-Americans who were residents of San Francisco and whose families had originated in Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Franconia in Bavaria. For $750 a share, the formed the Anaheim Vineyard Company. Their new community was named Annaheim, meaning home by the Santa Anna River in German, the name later was altered to Anaheim. To the Spanish-speaking neighbors, the settlement was known as Campo Alemán, although grape and wine-making was their primary objective, the majority of the 50 settlers were mechanics, carpenters and craftsmen with no experience in wine-making. The community set aside 40 acres for a center and a school was the first building erected there. The first home was built in 1857, the Anaheim Gazette newspaper was established in 1870, for 25 years, the area was the largest wine producer in California. However, in 1884, a disease infected the grape vines, other crops – walnuts, lemons and oranges – soon filled the void. Fruits and vegetables had become viable cash crops when the Los Angeles – Orange County region was connected to the railroad network in 1887. The famous Polish actress Helena Modjeska settled in Anaheim with her husband and various friends, among them Henryk Sienkiewicz, Julian Sypniewski, while living in Anaheim, Helena Modjeska became good friends with Clementine Langenberger, the second wife of August Langenberger
14.
Edwin Deakin
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Edwin Deakin was a British-American artist best known for his romantic landscapes as well as his architectural studies, especially the Spanish colonial missions of California. His still lifes are considered to be some of the finest of the genre, Deakin is one of the artists who popularized scenes of San Francisco’s Chinatown. His sensitive and highly publicized depictions of the deteriorating missions drew public attention to the necessity of restoring these historically important monuments, Deakin was born in Sheffield, England, on May 21,1838. He was apprenticed at the age of 12 to a business which painted landscapes and floral designs on furniture in the style, ”. By 18, he was a landscape artist. He emigrated to the US in 1856 with his family to the city of Chicago, on June 21,1865 Edwin Deakin married the 21-year-old Isabel Fox, also an emigrant from England. The following year saw the birth of their son Oscar Edwin Deakin, who became a talented painter, just prior to 1870 Edwin, along with his entire extended family, moved to San Francisco, California. He quickly established a career as a painter of the untamed California wilderness. His European subjects were especially popular and he became an exhibiting member of the Graphic Club and Bohemian Club. In 1874 he exhibited a Lake Tahoe scene at the Chicago Academy of Arts, three years later he left on a grand tour of Europe, where he painted primarily in England, France and Switzerland, and exhibited at the Paris Salon. He returned in May 1879 to San Francisco, his new canvases were received much acclaim. He exhibited dozens of paintings to positive reviews at the California State Fair between 1879 and 1889 and he traveled extensively through the Midwest and had prolonged stays in both Denver and Salt Lake City. Deakin’s highly publicized disputes with the “rebels” of the San Francisco art colony caused him to withdraw in 1885 as a member of the SFAA. At this time his still lifes of pendulous grapes became extremely popular and were much imitated, Deakin built and occupied with his wife and two daughters a large residence and studio-gallery in the university town of Berkeley, just across the bay from San Francisco. He soon began a tradition of holding an annual studio exhibit open to the public, Deakin still maintained a small sales office in San Francisco and continued to contribute his paintings to that city’s auctions and private galleries. His campaign to save the missions was the subject of a laudatory article in the Washington. He also exhibited frequently at venues in Oakland as well as in Berkeley where he actively supported the creation of the Berkeley Art Association in 1907. His many depictions of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire received great attention and he expanded his Berkeley gallery to maintain a permanent display of one of the three sets of his mission paintings and allowed the public to visit three days a week
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Bernard Maybeck
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Bernard Ralph Maybeck was an American architect in the Arts and Crafts Movement of the early 20th century. He was an instructor at University of California, Berkeley, most of his major buildings were in the San Francisco Bay Area. Maybeck was born in New York City, the son of a German immigrant and studied at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris and he moved to Berkeley, California, in 1892. In 1951, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the American Institute of Architects, while working in the office of A. Many of Maybecks buildings still stand in his home city of Berkeley. The 1910 First Church of Christ, Scientist is designated a National Historic Landmark and is considered one of Maybecks finest works, a number of his works are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1914, Maybeck oversaw the building of the Maybeck Recital Hall in Berkeley, the Palace of Fine Arts was seen as the embodiment of Maybecks elaboration of how Roman architecture could fit within a California context. One of Maybecks most interesting buildings is the home of the Family Service Agency of San Francisco. This building, constructed in 1928, is on the citys Historic Building Register, some of his larger residential projects, most notably a few in the hills of Berkeley, California, have been compared to the ultimate bungalows of the architects Greene and Greene. Maybeck had many ideas about town planning that he elaborated throughout his career, as a citizen of Berkeley from the 1890s, he was intimately involved in the Hillside Club. His associations and work there helped evolve ideas about hillside communities, Maybeck developed a number of firm beliefs in how civilization and the land should relate to each other. There were other principles he would elucidate, such as a public landscape, but these were key. Its grids, imposed in places on very steep grades, resulted in extremeley steep streets, sidewalks and urban transitions and his views reflected his wide interests and experience. A lifetime fascination with drama and the theatre can be seen in much of Maybecks work, in his spare time, he was known to create costumes, and also designed sets for the amateur productions at Berkeleys Hillside Club. Bernard Maybeck died in 1957 and is buried in the Mountain View Cemetery in Oakland, notable works include, Charles Keeler House & Studio — Maybeck’s first private client, Berkeley Hills, Highland Place, North Berkeley, California. Swedenborgian Church —3200 Washington Street at Lyon Street, Pacific Heights, San Francisco, California, wyntoon, with architect Julia Morgan — private estate of Phoebe Apperson Hearst−Hearst family, rural Siskiyou County, California. Boke House — for George Henry Boke, at 23 Panoramic Way, Panoramic Hill Historic District, Berkeley, faculty Club — University of California, Berkeley campus, NRHP-listed. Grove Clubhouse−Maybeck Lodge — Bohemian Grove, the Bohemian Club campground on the Russian River, Monte Rio, howard B. Gates House — Mission Revival style, at 62 South Thirteenth Street, San Jose, California
16.
Ancient Roman architecture
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Ancient Roman architecture adopted the external language of classical Greek architecture for the purposes of the ancient Romans, but differed from Greek buildings, becoming a new architectural style. The two styles are considered one body of classical architecture. Roman architecture flourished in the Roman Republic and even more so under the Empire and it used new materials, particularly concrete, and newer technologies such as the arch and the dome to make buildings that were typically strong and well-engineered. Large numbers remain in some form across the empire, sometimes complete, Roman Architecture covers the period from the establishment of the Roman Republic in 509 BC to about the 4th century AD, after which it becomes reclassified as Late Antique or Byzantine architecture. Almost no substantial examples survive from before about 100 BC, and most of the major survivals are from the later empire, after about 100 AD. They moved from trabeated construction mostly based on columns and lintels to one based on walls, punctuated by arches. The classical orders now became largely decorative rather than structural, except in colonnades, however, they did not feel entirely restricted by Greek aesthetic concerns, and treated the orders with considerable freedom. Innovation started in the 3rd or 2nd century BC with the development of Roman concrete as a readily available adjunct to, or substitute for, stone, more daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting broad arches and domes. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture, concretes strength freed the floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment, factors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new architectural solutions of their own. The use of vaults and arches, together with a knowledge of building materials. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla and these were reproduced at a smaller scale in most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some surviving structures are almost complete, such as the walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis. The administrative structure and wealth of the empire made possible very large even in locations remote from the main centres, as did the use of slave labour. Especially under the empire, architecture often served a function, demonstrating the power of the Roman state in general. The influence is evident in many ways, for example, in the introduction and use of the Triclinium in Roman villas as a place, Roman builders employed Greeks in many capacities, especially in the great boom in construction in the early Empire. The Roman Architectural Revolution, also known as the Concrete Revolution, was the use in Roman architecture of the previously little-used architectural forms of the arch, vault. For the first time in history, their potential was fully exploited in the construction of a range of civil engineering structures, public buildings
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Ancient Greek architecture
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Ancient Greek architecture is best known from its temples, many of which are found throughout the region, mostly as ruins but many substantially intact. The second important type of building that all over the Hellenic world is the open-air theatre. Ancient Greek architecture is distinguished by its highly formalised characteristics, both of structure and decoration, nikolaus Pevsner refers to the plastic shape of the temple. placed before us with a physical presence more intense, more alive than that of any later building. The architecture of ancient Rome grew out of that of Greece, the successive styles of Neoclassical architecture and Greek Revival architecture followed and adapted Ancient Greek styles closely. The mainland and islands of Greece are rocky, with deeply indented coastline, the most freely available building material is stone. Limestone was readily available and easily worked, there is an abundance of high quality white marble both on the mainland and islands, particularly Paros and Naxos. This finely grained material was a contributing factor to precision of detail. Deposits of high quality potters clay were found throughout Greece and the Islands and it was used not only for pottery vessels, but also roof tiles and architectural decoration. The climate of Greece is maritime, with both the coldness of winter and the heat of summer tempered by sea breezes and this led to a lifestyle where many activities took place outdoors. Colonnades encircling buildings, or surrounding courtyards provided shelter from the sun, the light of Greece may be another important factor in the development of the particular character of ancient Greek architecture. The light is extremely bright, with both the sky and the sea vividly blue. The clear light and sharp shadows give a precision to the details of landscape, pale rocky outcrops and this clarity is alternated with periods of haze that varies in colour to the light on it. In this characteristic environment, the ancient Greek architects constructed buildings that were marked by precision of detail, the gleaming marble surfaces were smooth, curved, fluted, or ornately sculpted to reflect the sun, cast graded shadows and change in colour with the ever-changing light of day. Historians divide ancient Greek civilization into two eras, the Hellenic period, and the Hellenistic period, during the earlier Hellenic period, substantial works of architecture began to appear around 600 BC. Before the Hellenic era, two cultures had dominated the region, the Minoan, and the Mycenaean. The Mycenaean culture, which flourished on the Peloponnesus, was different in character. Its people built citadels, fortifications and tombs rather than palaces, following these events, there was a period from which few signs of culture remain. This period is often referred to as a Dark Age
18.
Phoebe Hearst
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Phoebe Elizabeth Apperson Hearst was an American philanthropist, feminist and suffragist. She was the mother of William Randolph Hearst and wife of George Hearst and she was born Phoebe Elizabeth Apperson in St. Clair, Missouri, in Franklin County, the daughter of Drucilla and Randolph Walker Apperson. In her early years, Phoebe attended school, intending to become a teacher and her childhood also consisted of helping her father with finances at the family store, learning French, and how to play the piano. George Hearst returned to St. Clair in 1860 to care for his mother, and ran into Phoebe. On June 15,1862, when she was 19, Phoebe married George in the hopes of leaving her mundane home. Soon after their marriage, the couple left Missouri and moved to San Francisco, California, Georges home, George was a successful miner and had struck it rich. In their busy life, George often left Phoebe alone during his work, George later became a U. S. Senator. Phoebe and her son William shared a relationship throughout their time together, sharing many similar interests, one being art. After Phoebes death in 1919, William inherited a $10 million fortune, in the 1880s, she became a major benefactor and director of the Golden Gate Kindergarten Association and the first president of the Century Club of California. In 1902, Phoebe Hearst funded the construction of a building to provide training and kindergarten classes. The Golden Gate Kindergarten Association had 26 schools at the time of the San Francisco earthquake in 1906, Phoebe Hearst was a major benefactor of the University of California, Berkeley and its first woman Regent, serving on the board from 1897 until her death. Also in 1897, she contributed to the establishment of the National Congress of Mothers, in 1900, she co-founded the all-girls National Cathedral School in Washington, DC. A public elementary school near the National Cathedral School bears her name, Phoebe Hearst funded the Hearst Library in Anaconda Montana in 1898. She maintained the library until 1904, in 1901, Phoebe Hearst founded the University of California Lowie Museum of Anthropology, renamed Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology in 1992, in celebration of the museums ninth decade. The original collection was founded with about 230,000 objects representing cultures, the museum now contains about 3.8 million objects. Throughout her lifetime, and as denoted in her will, Phoebe Hearst donated over 60,000 objects to the Museum and she also funded archaeological and anthropological expeditions such as the Pepper-Hearst Expedition on the coast of Florida, near Tarpon Springs. The purpose of these expeditions was to enable anthropologists and archaeologists to study, most notable are the 1899 expeditions in Egypt by American archaeologist George A. Reisner and in Peru by German archaeologist Max Uhle. These expeditions, among others, found numerous, well-documented objects now in the museums collection, among these are approximately 20,000 ancient Egyptian artifacts, the largest Egyptian collection west of Chicago
19.
Robert Lewis Reid
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Robert Lewis Reid was an American Impressionist painter and muralist. Robert Reid was born in Stockbridge, Massachusetts and attended the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston under Otto Grundmann, where he was also later an instructor. In 1884 he moved to New York City, studying at the Art Students League and his early pictures were figures of French peasants, painted at Étaples. Upon returning to New York in 1889, he worked as a portraitist and later became an instructor at the Art Students League, much of his work centered on the depiction of young women set among flowers. His work tended to be decorative, and he became known for mural decoration. He contributed with others to the frescoes of the dome of the Liberal Arts Building at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, in 1897, Reid was a member of the Ten American Painters, who seceded from the Society of American Artists. In 1906 he became a member of the National Academy of Design. He has work in the Library of Congress, Washington, D. C. ”He executed a panel for the American Pavilion at the Paris Exhibition,1900, and in 1906 he completed a series of ten stained glass windows for the Unitarian Memorial Church at Fairhaven, Mass. Reids “The Martyrdom of St. Paul” is located at the end of the nave of the Church of St. Paul the Apostle in New York City. Robert Reids murals for the Palace of Fine Arts building at the Panama–Pacific International Exposition were a tribute to the Arts. Reid also taught, among his pupils was Nan Sheets and he died in Clifton Springs, New York. Attribution Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Reid, Robert, the affairs of Anatol by Robert Reid, an exhibition catalog available as a full-text PDF
20.
Rotunda (architecture)
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A rotunda is any building with a circular ground plan, and sometimes covered by a dome. It can also refer to a room within a building. The Pantheon in Rome is a famous rotunda, a Band Rotunda is a circular bandstand, usually with a dome. The rotunda has historical and architectural value because it was widespread in medieval Central Europe, a great number of parochial churches were built in this form in the 9th to 11th centuries BCE in Central Europe. This type of circular shaped parochial building can be found in great number in Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Croatia, Austria, Bavaria, Dalmatia, Germany, and it was thought of as a structure descending from the Roman Pantheon. However, it can be found mainly not on former Roman territories, generally its size was 6–9 meters inner diameter and the apsis was directed toward the east. Sometimes 3 or 4 apsides were glued to the central circle, several types of rotundas are found in the Carpathian Basin, within the former boundaries of Medieval Hungary. The role and form developed from gradual enlargements of ancient small village churches, many of them still stand today, e. g. in Nagytótlak, Kallósd and Kissikátor in Hungary or in Bíňa and Šivetice in Slovakia. In many places the ancient foundations have been excavated and conserved, the village church of Sárospatak is complete with a simple circular nave and an eastern apse. The church of Alagimajor at Dunakeszi was enlarged toward the apse in the 14th century, in many cases the rotunda was used as the apse of the villages new and larger church. Such semi-circle apses are preserved all over the Carpathian Basin, rotundas of six apses, a most interesting form, are found at Karcsa, Kiszombor in Hungary, at Horjany in Ukraine and several places in Armenia. There is a connection between Central European and Caucasian rotundas of the 9th to 11th centuries BCE. Several Armenian built rotunda churches have sixfold arched central apsis, i. e. at Aragatz, Bagaran, Bagnayr, Botshor, at the same time eightfold arched central buildings are also frequently occurring in Armenia, Ani, Irind, Varzhahan. It was a suggestion that there was not only western European, temple of Heaven construction completed on 1420 during Yongle Emperor who also constructed Forbidden City of China. Fujian Tulou is a traditional rural dwellings of the Hakka in Fujian region of China and they are built between the 12th and the 20th centuries. The Baptistery at the Piazza dei Miracoli, Pisa, Italy, the Church of the Rotonda in Thessaloniki, built as the Tomb of Galerius in 306 AD. The St George Rotunda in Sofia, Bulgaria, a 4th-century Early Christian church, St. George Cathedral Church at Zvartnots, Armenia. St. Martins Rotunda in Vyšehrad Castle, Prague, Czech Republic, the Rotunda of St Marija Assunta in Mosta, Malta
21.
Staff (building material)
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Staff is a kind of artificial stone used for covering and ornamenting temporary buildings. Staff is chiefly made of powdered gypsum or plaster of Paris, with a cement, glycerin. When staff is cast in molds it can form any shape, to strengthen it coarse cloth or bagging, or fibers of hemp or jute, are put into the molds before casting. It becomes hard enough in about a half-hour to be removed and fastened on the building in construction, staff may easily be bent, sawed, bored, or nailed. Its natural color is white, but it may be made to resemble any kind of stone. Staff was invented in France about 1876 and was used in the construction and ornamentation of the buildings of the Paris Expositions of 1878, dewey Arch Building material Glazed architectural terra-cotta a material also made into many decorative forms, more permanent List of building materials
22.
Plaster
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Plaster is a building material used for the protective and/or decorative coating of walls and ceilings and for moulding and casting decorative elements. In English plaster usually means a material used for the interiors of buildings, another imprecise term used for the material is stucco, which is also often used for plasterwork that is worked in some way to produce relief decoration, rather than flat surfaces. The most common types of plaster mainly contain either gypsum, lime, or cement, the plaster is manufactured as a dry powder and is mixed with water to form a stiff but workable paste immediately before it is applied to the surface. The reaction with water liberates heat through crystallization and the hydrated plaster then hardens, plaster can be relatively easily worked with metal tools or even sandpaper, and can be moulded, either on site or to make pre-formed sections in advance, which are put in place with adhesive. Plaster is not a material, it is suitable for finishing, rather than load-bearing. Forms of plaster have several other uses, in medicine plaster orthopedic casts are still often used for supporting set broken bones. In dentistry plaster is used to make dental models, various types of models and moulds are made with plaster. In art, lime plaster is the matrix for fresco painting. Gypsum plaster, or plaster of Paris, is produced by heating gypsum to about 300 °F, when the dry plaster powder is mixed with water, it re-forms into gypsum. The setting of unmodified plaster starts about 10 minutes after mixing and is complete in about 45 minutes, if plaster or gypsum is heated above 266 °F, hemihydrate is formed, which will also re-form as gypsum if mixed with water. On heating to 180 °C, the nearly water-free form, called γ-anhydrite is produced, γ-Anhydrite reacts slowly with water to return to the dihydrate state, a property exploited in some commercial desiccants. On heating above 250 °C, the anhydrous form called β-anhydrite or dead burned plaster is formed. A large gypsum deposit at Montmartre in Paris led calcined gypsum to be known as plaster of Paris. Plasterers often use gypsum to simulate the appearance of surfaces of wood, stone, or metal, on movie, nowadays, theatrical plasterers often use expanded polystyrene, although the job title remains unchanged. Plaster of Paris can be used to impregnate gauze bandages to make a material called plaster bandages. It is used similarly to clay, as it is shaped when wet, yet sets into a resilient. This is the material that was used to make classic plaster orthopedic casts to protect limbs with broken bones, set Modroc is an early example of a composite material. The hydration of plaster of Paris relies on the reaction of water with the dehydrated or partially hydrated calcium sulfate present in the plaster, lime plaster is a mixture of calcium hydroxide and sand
23.
Hessian fabric
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Gunny cloth is similar in texture and construction. The second element, ~lap, means piece of cloth, hessian was first exported from India in the early 19th century. It was traditionally used as backing for linoleum, rugs and carpet, in Jamaica and certain parts of the Caribbean many enslaved Africans who used to work on the plantations were not often given pleasant materials with which to make clothes. Some had access to cotton which was spun, woven, cut, enslaved Africans used their resourcefulness to recycle discarded sacking and fashion them into garments that although fairly uncomfortable by all accounts provided protection from the heat and dust. For the rest of the population, it is used to make bags for carrying loads of coffee, hessian is often used to make sacks and bags to ship goods such as coffee beans and rooibos tea, these contrivances are known as gunny sacks. It is breathable and thus resists condensation and associated spoilage of contents, hessian is also commonly used to make effective sandbags, hessian sacks filled with sand are often used for flood mitigation in temporary embankments against floodwaters or field fortifications. Hessian is also used for the transportation of unprocessed dry tobacco. This material is used for much the same reasons as it would be used for coffee, hessian sacks in the tobacco industry hold up to 200 kg of tobacco, and due to hessians toughness, a hessian sack can have a useful life of up to three years. Hessian is used to wrap the exposed roots of trees and shrubs when transplanting, due to its coarse texture, it is not commonly used in modern apparel. Owing to its durability, open weave, naturally non-shiny refraction and fuzzy texture and it was also a popular material for camouflage scrim on combat helmets during World War II. Until the advent of the plastic leafy multi-color net system following the Vietnam War, burlap scrim was also woven onto shrimp, during the Great Depression in the U. S. cloth became relatively scarce in the largely agrarian parts of the country. Many farmers used burlap cloth to sew their own clothes, however, sensitive skins prolonged exposure to the material can cause rashes. Hessian has been used by artists as an alternative to canvas as a painting or working surface. In horror fiction, it is used as a mask. Hessian bags are deployed as sandbags as a temporary response to flooding. Because of their material, they can either be reused or can be composted after use, agencies like the State Emergency Service in Australia and Technisches Hilfswerk in Germany often deploy sandbags, and these are found in the majority of their emergency response vehicles. Hessian fabric is used as smoker fuel in beehive-tending because of its generous smoke generation
Walkthrough of outside grounds, Virtual Tour
