1.
Baku
–
Baku is the capital and largest city of Azerbaijan, as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and of the Caucasus region. Baku is located 28 metres below sea level, which makes it the lowest lying national capital in the world and it is located on the southern shore of the Absheron Peninsula, alongside the Bay of Baku. At the beginning of 2009, Bakus urban population was estimated at just over two million people, officially, about 25 percent of all inhabitants of the country live in Bakus metropolitan area. Baku is divided into administrative districts and 48 townships. Among these are the townships on the islands of the Baku Archipelago, the Inner City of Baku, along with the Shirvanshahs Palace and Maiden Tower, were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000. According to the Lonely Planets ranking, Baku is also among the top ten destinations for urban nightlife. The city is the scientific, cultural and industrial center of Azerbaijan, many sizeable Azerbaijani institutions have their headquarters there. The Baku International Sea Trade Port is capable of handling two million tons of general and dry bulk cargoes per year, in recent years, Baku has become an important venue for international events. The city is renowned for its winds, which is reflected in its nickname. Indeed, the city is renowned for its fierce winter snow storms and this is also reflected in the citys nickname as the City of Winds. A less probable folk etymology explains the name as deriving from Baghkuy, baga and kuy are the Old Persian words for god and town respectively, the name Baghkuy may be compared with Baghdād in which dād is the Old Persian word for give. Arabic sources refer to the city as Baku, Bakukh, Bakuya, around 100,000 years ago, the territory of modern Baku and Absheron was savanna with rich flora and fauna. Traces of human settlement go back to the Stone age, from the Bronze age there have been rock carvings discovered near Bayil, and a bronze figure of a small fish discovered in the territory of the Old City. These have led some to suggest the existence of a Bronze Age settlement within the citys territory, further archeological excavations revealed various prehistoric settlements, native temples, statues and other artifacts within the territory of the modern city and around it. In the 1st century, the Romans organized two Caucasian campaigns and reached Baku, near the city, in Gobustan, Roman inscriptions dating from 84–96 AD were discovered. This is one of the earliest written evidences for Baku, during the 8th century Baku was the realm of the Shirvanshahs. The city frequently came under assault of the Khazars and the Rus, shirvanshah Akhsitan I built a navy in Baku and successfully repelled another Rus assault in 1170. After a devastating earthquake struck Shamakhy, the capital of Shirvan, the Shirvan era greatly influenced Baku and the remainder of Azerbaijan
Baku
–
Roman stone inscription in
Gobustan dating back to 84-96 A.D.
Baku
Baku
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A
miniature painting marking the downfall of the Shirvanshahs at the hands of the Safavids.
Baku
–
Relics from the sunken
Sabayil Castle.
2.
Maiden Tower (Baku)
–
The Maiden Tower, also known locally as Giz Galasi, located in the Old City, Baku, in Azerbaijan, was built as some sources indicate in VIII-VII B. C. It is one of Azerbaijans most distinctive emblems, and is thus featured on Azeri currency notes. The Maiden Tower houses a museum, which presents the story of evolution of the Baku city. The view from the roof takes in the alleys and minarets of the Old City, the Baku Boulevard, the De Gaulle house, in recent years, the brazier on the top has been lit during the nights of the Novruz festival. Bakus Maiden Tower is a place and world famous landmark in Baku. The Tower is covered by cloud of mysteries and legends which are rooted to the History of Azerbaijan, the pool of towers epics and legends is a part of Azerbaijans culture and national heritage. Indeed, Some epics became a subject for scenario for ballets, the Maiden Tower is a world class Azerbaijani ballet created by Afrasiyab Badalbeyli in 1940 and ballets remake was performed in 1999. Consequent to the receding of the sea line of the Caspian Sea. This land was developed between the 9th and 15th centuries, when the walls of the old city, the including the huge bastion of the Maiden Tower were built. Some scientific sources indicate that the Maiden Tower is a paramount example of Zoroastrianism, davud A. Akhundov provides archeological and architectural evidences and argues that the Tower is Zoroastrians Fire temple-Tower which had 7 fire exits on the top of the tower. Zoroastrian believed that there are 7 Steps or 7 Sky to reach heaven, davud A. Akhundov and Hassan Hassanov date the fire temple-tower approximately as VIII-VII century B. C. The Maiden Tower set in the south-east part of Icheri Sheher, has mystique and hoary history, the area was first settled in the Palaeolithic period. This conclusion is supported by historian Bretanitskiy who has postulated that the tower was partly built in the 5th to 6th centuries. The site was believed to have been used originally during the Sasanid era as a Zoroastrian temple, further excavations have also revealed wooden girders, each 14 metres high, at the foundation of the tower. This has been inferred as an earthquake resistant design and it has also been conjectured that the cylindrical shape of the tower with 5 metres thick base walls tapering to 4.5 metres provided the solid foundation on which it has survived over the centuries. It is also mentioned that the tower was built at one go, the tower and other wall structures now under the UNESCO list were strengthened during the Russian rule in 1806 and have survived. Interestingly, there is a pool of mysteries and legends related to Baku Maiden Tower. However, the mystery is, the Towers design and purpose
Maiden Tower (Baku)
–
The Maiden Tower
Maiden Tower (Baku)
–
Depiction of Maiden Tower on
Azerbaijani manat (1993)
Maiden Tower (Baku)
–
The entrance
Maiden Tower (Baku)
–
Architectural details of the Maiden Tower
3.
World Heritage Site
–
A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
World Heritage Site
–
Site #252:
Taj Mahal, an example of cultural heritage site
World Heritage Site
–
Logo of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
World Heritage Committee
World Heritage Site
–
Site #156:
Serengeti National Park, an example of natural heritage site
World Heritage Site
–
Site #274:
Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu, an example of mixed heritage site
4.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
5.
Palatial mosque in Baku
–
Palatial mosque in Baku – is a mosque of the 15th century, which is included in Shirvanshahs palace complex in Baku. The plan of the mosque is rectangular, there is a small hall, small prayer room for women, and serving rooms. The northern portal, turned towards a burial vault of Shirvanshahs, is more solemn than the eastern one, the latter, which came down to an underground exit, was intended for the inhabitants of the palace. Two tier windowed prayer room is covered with cupola with spherical sails, mihrab is located in the southern end of the palace. Cupola area over one a tier women prayer room ceding to cupola of the hall with its dimensions, aperture of the mosque’s portal is clearly described on severe background of prismatic volume, ended with two cupolas with slightly sharpening calottes. Trunk of the minaret is surrounded by an inscription, a ligature of which has a date of 845, details of sherefe’s stalactites are subtly modeled
Palatial mosque in Baku
–
Palatial mosque in Baku
Palatial mosque in Baku
Palatial mosque in Baku
Palatial mosque in Baku
6.
List of World Heritage in Danger
–
Entries in the list are threatened World Heritage Sites for the conservation of which major operations are required and for which assistance has been requested. The list is intended to increase awareness of the threats. Threats to a site can be either proven imminent threats or potential dangers that could have effects on a site. Potential dangers for both cultural and natural sites include development projects, armed conflicts, insufficient management systems or changes in the protective status of the properties. In the case of sites, gradual changes due to geology. The final decision about inscription is made by the committee, financial support from the World Heritage Fund may be allocated by the committee for listed properties. Of the two Former UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the Dresden Elbe Valley was delisted after placement on the List of World Heritage in Danger while the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary was directly delisted, as of 2016, there are 55 entries on the List of World Heritage in Danger. Some sites have been designated as World Heritage Sites and World Heritage in Danger in the year, such as the Church of the Nativity. Arranged by the UNESCO regions 21 of the sites are located in the Arab States,17 in Africa,7 in Latin America and the Caribbean,6 in Asia and the Pacific. The majority of the natural sites are located in Africa. Despite this, the list itself and UNESCOs implementation of it have been the focus of criticism, in particular, States Parties and other stakeholders of World Heritage Sites have questioned the authority of the Committee to declare a site in danger without their consent. The Union also argues that keeping a site listed as endangered over a period is questionable. The Everglades National Park was listed from 1993 to 2007 and again since 2010, both are therefore included in the list of currently listed sites. Citations General World Heritage in Danger, A compendium of key decisions on the conservation of natural World Heritage properties via the List of World Heritage in Danger, chape, Stuart, Spalding, Mark, Jenkins, Martin. The worlds protected areas, status, values and prospects in the 21st century, timothy, Dallen J. Nyaupane, Gyan P. Cultural heritage and tourism in the world, a regional perspective. Contemporary geographies of leisure, tourism and mobility, UNESCO World Heritage Sites, official site UNESCO World Heritage Centre – World Heritage in Danger List, official site UNESCO Heritage Centre – World Heritage List, official site
List of World Heritage in Danger
–
The
Church of the Nativity, traditionally considered the birthplace of
Jesus, is one of several sites to have been designated as
World Heritage Sites and World Heritage in Danger in the same year.
List of World Heritage in Danger
–
Abu Mena
List of World Heritage in Danger
–
Air and Ténéré Natural Reserves
List of World Heritage in Danger
–
Ancient City of Aleppo
7.
Azerbaijani language
–
The language has official status in Azerbaijan and Dagestan but it does not have official status in Iranian Azerbaijan, where the majority of Azerbaijanis live. It is also spoken to varying degrees in Azerbaijani communities of Georgia and Turkey and by diaspora communities, primarily in Europe. Azerbaijani is a member of the Oghuz branch of the Turkic languages, modern literature in Azerbaijan is based on the Shirvani dialect mainly, while in Iranian Azerbaijan region it is based on the Tabrizi one. Azerbaijani evolved from the Eastern branch of Oghuz Turkic which spread to the Caucasus, in Eastern Europe, Persian and Arabic influenced the language, but Arabic words were mainly transmitted through the intermediary of literary Persian. By the beginning of the 16th century, it had become the dominant language of the region, the historical development of Azerbaijani can be divided into two major periods, early and modern. Early Azerbaijani differs from its descendant in that it contained a larger number of Persian. Early writings in Azerbaijani also demonstrate linguistic interchangeability between Oghuz and Kypchak elements in many aspects, despite major differences, they all aimed primarily at making it easy for semi-literate masses to read and understand literature. They all criticized the overuse of Persian, Arabic, and European elements in both colloquial and literary language and called for a simpler and more popular style. Despite the wide use of Azerbaijani in the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic, after independence, Azerbaijan republic decided to switch back to the Latin script. The first examples of Azerbaijani literature date to the late 1200s following the Mongol conquest and were written in Arabic script, in the 1300s Kadi Burhan al-Din, Hesenoghlu, and Imadaddin Nasimi helped to establish Azerbaiijani as a language through poetry and other literary works. In 1875 Akinchi became the first Azerbaijani newspaper to be published in the Russian Empire and it was started by Hasan bey Zardabi, a journalist and education advocate. Following the rule of the Qajar dynasty Iran was ruled by Reza Shah who banned the publication of texts in Azerbaijani, modern literature in the Republic of Azerbaijan is based on the Shirvani dialect mainly, while in Iranian Azerbaijan it is based on the Tabrizi dialect. Mohammad-Hossein Shahriar is an important figure in Azerbaijani poetry and his most important work is Heydar Babaya Salam and it is considered to be a pinnacle of Azerbaijani literature and gained popularity in the Turkic-speaking world. It was translated more than 30 languages. In the mid-19th century Azerbaijani literature was taught at schools in Baku, Ganja, Shaki, Tbilisi, since 1845, it has also been taught in the Saint Petersburg State University in Russia. Per the 1829 Caucasus School Statute, Azerbaijani was to be taught in all schools of Ganja, Shusha, Nukha, Shamakhi, Quba, Baku, Derbent, Yerevan, Nakhchivan, Akhaltsikhe. Beginning in 1834, it was introduced as a language of study in Kutaisi instead of Armenian, in 1853, Azerbaijani became a compulsory language for students of all backgrounds in all of Transcaucasia with the exception of the Tiflis Governorate. Azerbaijani is one of the Oghuz languages within the Turkic language family, the International Organization for Standardization encodes North Azerbaijani and South Azerbaijani as distinct languages
Azerbaijani language
–
Garden of Pleasures by
Fuzûlî in Azerbaijani. Early 19th century. There is Shaki khan's seal on it. Museum of History of Azerbaijan
Azerbaijani language
–
Location of Azerbaijani speakers in the
Caucasus
Azerbaijani language
–
Azerbaijani-language road sign.
8.
Persian language
–
Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
Persian language
–
Old Persian
Persian language
–
Ferdowsi 's
Shahnameh
Persian language
–
Kalilah va Dimna, an influential work in Persian literature.
9.
Shirvanshah
–
Shirvanshah, also spelled as Shīrwān Shāh or Sharwān Shāh, was the title of the rulers of Shirvan, located in modern Azerbaijan, from the mid-9th century to the early 16th century. The title remained in a family, the Yazidids, an originally Arab but gradually Persianized dynasty. The Shirvanshah established a state in Shirvan. The title Shirvanshah dates back to pre-Islamic times, ibn Khordadbeh mentions the Shirvanshah as one of the local rulers who received their title from the first Sassanid emperor, Ardashir I. From the late 8th century, Shirvan was under the rule of the members of the Arab family of Yazid ibn Mazyad al-Shaybani and his descendants, the Yazidids, would rule Shirvan as independent princes until the 14th century. By origin, the Yazidids were Arabs of the Shayban tribe and belonged to high ranking generals, in the chaos that engulfed the Abbasid Caliphate after the death of the Caliph al-Mutawakkil in 861, the great-grandson of Yazid b. Mazyad Shaybani, Haytham ibn Khalid, declared independent and assume the ancient title of Shirvanshah. The dynasty continuously ruled the area of Shirvan either as an independent state or a state until the Safavid times. A translation of important work into English language was published by the orientalist Vladimir Minorsky in 1958. We can also discern the progressive Persianisation of this originally Arab family, according to Encyclopedia of Islam, After the Shah Yazid b. Ahmad, Arab names give way to Persian ones like Manūčihr, Ḳubādh, Farīdūn, according to Vladimir Minorsky, the most likely explanation of the Iranicisation of this Arab family could be marriage link with the family of the ancient rulers of Shabaran. He further states, The attraction of a Sassanian pedigree proved stronger than the recollection of Shaybani lineage. The coat of arms with two lions could be a reminder of the story of Bahrām Gur in Shahnama where Bahrām had to claim the crown from between two lions to be recognized as the king. In 1120 King David IV of Georgia, entered the neighbouring Shirvan and took the town of Qabala and In 1124, David finally conquered Shirvan. In 1167, George III of Georgia marched to defend his vassal Shah Akhsitan of Shirvan against the Khazar and Kipchak assaults and strengthened the Georgian dominance in the area. Early in the 1190s, the Georgian government began to interfere in the affairs of the Ildenizids and of the Shirvanshahs, aiding rivaling local princes and reducing Shirvan to a tributary state. The Ildenizid atabeg Abu Bakr attempted to stem the Georgian advance, although Abu Bakr was able to resume his reign a year later, the Ildenizids were only barely able to contain further Georgian forays. Shirvanshahs built many defensive castles across all of Shirvan to resist many foreign invasions, however, Shirvan was greatly devastated by Mongol invasion in 1235, from which it was not able to fully recover for the next century
Shirvanshah
–
Coat of Arms of the Shirvanshahs
Shirvanshah
–
The battle between Shah Farrukh Yassar of Shirvan and Shah Ismail of Persia
10.
Azerbaijan
–
Azerbaijan, officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, is a country in the South Caucasus region, situated at the crossroads of Southwest Asia and Southeastern Europe. It is bound by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west and Iran to the south. The exclave of Nakhchivan is bound by Armenia to the north and east, Iran to the south and west, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic proclaimed its independence in 1918 and became the first democratic state in the Muslim orient world. The country was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1920 as the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic, the modern Republic of Azerbaijan proclaimed its independence on 30 August 1991, prior to the official dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. In September 1991, the Armenian majority of the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region seceded to form the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, the region and seven adjacent districts outside it became de facto independent with the end of the Nagorno-Karabakh War in 1994. These regions are recognized as part of Azerbaijan pending a solution to the status of the Nagorno-Karabakh. Azerbaijan is a unitary semi-presidential republic, the country is a member state of the Council of Europe, the OSCE and the NATO Partnership for Peace program. It is one of six independent Turkic states, a member of the Turkic Council. Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries and holds membership in 38 international organizations and it is one of the founding members of GUAM, the Commonwealth of Independent States and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. Its term of office began on 19 June 2006, Azerbaijan is also a member state of the Non-Aligned Movement, holds observer status in World Trade Organization and is a correspondent at the International Telecommunication Union. The Constitution of Azerbaijan does not declare an official religion and all political forces in the country are secularist. However, the majority of the population are of a Shiite Muslim background, Azerbaijan has a high level of human development which ranks on par with most Eastern European countries. It has a rate of economic development and literacy, as well as a low rate of unemployment. According to the Davos World Economic Forum, Azerbaijans economy has scored 37th place within 138 countries in 2016, Global Competitiveness Index 2015 indicates that Azerbaijan scores highest in its region. ASAN services, established with Presidential Decree, are known for eliminating bribery. ASAN Service has been awarded with United Nations Public Service Award 2015, the ruling party, the New Azerbaijan Party, has been accused of authoritarianism and human rights abuses. The original etymology of name is thought to have its roots in the once-dominant Zoroastrianism. In the Avesta, Frawardin Yasht, there is a mention of âterepâtahe ashaonô fravashîm ýazamaide, the name Atropates itself is the Greek transliteration of an Old Iranian, probably Median, compounded name with the meaning Protected by the Fire or The Land of the Fire
Azerbaijan
–
Petroglyphs in
Gobustan dating back to 10,000 BC indicating a thriving culture. It is a UNESCO
World Heritage Site considered to be of "outstanding universal value"
Azerbaijan
–
Flag
Azerbaijan
–
The
Maiden Tower in
Old Baku is a UNESCO World Heritage Site built in the 11th–12th century.
Azerbaijan
–
The siege of Ganja Fortress in 1804 during the
Russo-Persian War (1804-1813) by the Russian forces under leadership of general
Pavel Tsitsianov.
11.
UNESCO World Heritage List
–
A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
UNESCO World Heritage List
–
Site #252:
Taj Mahal, an example of cultural heritage site
UNESCO World Heritage List
–
Logo of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
World Heritage Committee
UNESCO World Heritage List
–
Site #156:
Serengeti National Park, an example of natural heritage site
UNESCO World Heritage List
–
Site #274:
Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu, an example of mixed heritage site
12.
Obverse and reverse
–
In this usage, obverse means the front face of the object and reverse means the back face. The obverse of a coin is commonly called heads, because it depicts the head of a prominent person. In fields of scholarship outside numismatics, the front is more commonly used than obverse. For prints and drawings with material on both sides the one judged as more significant will be the recto, a convention now exists typically to display the obverse to the left and the reverse to the right in photographs and museum displays, but this is not invariably observed. Following this principle, in the most famous of ancient Greek coins, the tetradrachm of Athens, the obverse is the head of Athena, similar versions of these two images, both symbols of the state, were used on the Athenian coins for more than two centuries. The opposite side may have varied from time to time and this change happened in the coinage of Alexander the Great, which continued to be minted long after his death. The various Hellenistic rulers who were his successors followed his tradition and this script alone style then was used on nearly all Islamic coinage until the modern period. The type of Justinian II was revived after the end of Iconoclasm, without images, therefore, it is not always easy to tell which side will be regarded as the obverse without some knowledge. After 695, Islamic coins avoided all images of persons and usually, the side expressing the Six Kalimas is usually defined as the obverse. The form of currency follows its function, which is to serve as an accepted medium of exchange of value. Traditionally, most states have been monarchies where the person of the monarch, if not provided for on the obverse, the reverse side usually contains information relating to a coins role as medium of exchange. Additional space typically reflects the countrys culture or government, or evokes some aspect of the states territory. Regarding the euro, some regarding the obverse and reverse of the euro coins exists. This rule does not apply to the coins as they dont have a common side. A number of the used for obverse national sides of euro coins were taken from the reverse of the old pre-euro coins of some individual countries. Several countries continue to use portraits of the monarch and the Republic of Ireland continues to use the State Arms. The Chrysanthemum Crest was no longer used after the war, and so, the side on which the date continues to be regarded as the reverse. Following ancient tradition, the obverse of coins of the United Kingdom almost always feature the head of the monarch
Obverse and reverse
–
Roman imperial coin with the head of Tranquillina on the obverse, struck c. 241 when her marriage to Gordian III is depicted on the reverse in smaller scale; the coin exhibits the obverse "head" or front and reverse "tail" or back convention that still dominates much coinage today
Obverse and reverse
–
Roman imperial coin of Marcus Claudius Tacitus, who ruled briefly from 275-276, follows the convention of obverse and reverse coin traditions
Obverse and reverse
–
Obverse of the tetradrachm of
Alexander the Great, intended to be seen as a deity, wearing the attributes of the hero,
Heracles - 325 BC
Obverse and reverse
–
Solidus of
Justinian II after 705, Christ (left) is on the obverse, the emperor on the reverse
13.
Azerbaijani manat
–
The manat is the currency of Azerbaijan. It is subdivided into 100 qəpik, the word manat is borrowed from the Russian word Монета moneta which is pronounced as manta and is a loanword from Latin. Manat was also the designation of the Soviet ruble in both the Azerbaijani and Turkmen languages, the Azerbaijani manat symbol, ₼, was assigned to Unicode U+20BC in 2013. Can be used as a substitute for the manat symbol, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic and its successor the Azerbaijani Soviet Socialist Republic issued their own currency between 1919 and 1923. The currency was called the manat in Azeri and the ruble in Russian, the manat replaced the first Transcaucasian ruble at par and was replaced by the second Transcaucasian ruble after Azerbaijan became part of the Transcaucasian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic. No subdivisions were issued, and the currency only existed as banknotes, the second manat was introduced on 15 August 1992. It had the ISO4217 code AZM and replaced the Soviet ruble at a rate of 10 rubles to 1 manat, from early 2002 to early 2005, the exchange rate was fairly stable. At the end of 2005, one dollar was worth 4591 manat, Banknotes below 100 manat had effectively disappeared by 2005, as had the qəpik coins. Coins were issued in denominations of 5,10,20 and 50 qəpik, although brass and cupro-nickel were used for some of the 1992 issues, later issues were all in aluminium. On 1 January 2006, a new manat was introduced at a value of 5,000 old manat, since 1 October 2005, prices have been indicated both in new manats and in old manats to ease transition. Coins denominated in qəpik, which had not been used from 1993 onwards due to inflation, have been reintroduced with the redenomination, the former manat remained valid through 31 December 2006. The new banknotes and Azeri Manat symbol, ₼, were designed by Robert Kalina in 2006, and the symbol was added to Unicode in 2013, after failed addition proposals between 2008 and 2011. The final Azeri Manat symbol design was inspired by the design of the Euro sign, based on a proposal by Mykyta Yevstifeyev. Coins in circulation are 1,3,5,10,20 and 50 qəpik, most coins closely resemble the size and shape of various euro coins. Most notably the bimetallic 50 qəpik and the 10 qəpik, Coins were first put into circulation during January 2006 and do not feature a mint year. Banknotes in circulation are 1,5,10,20,50 and 100 manat and they were designed by Austrian Robert Kalina, who also designed the current banknotes of the euro and the Syrian Pound. Therefore, the look quite similar to those of the euro. In 2009 the Azərbaycan Milli Bankı was renamed the Azərbaycan Mərkəzi Bankı, in 2011 the Azerbaijani ministry of finance announced it was considering to issue notes of 2 and 3 manat as well as notes with values larger than 100 manat
Azerbaijani manat
–
Obverse of 1 manat
Azerbaijani manat
Azerbaijani manat
–
Qəpik coins of the second manat
Azerbaijani manat
–
1 qəpik
14.
Ibrahim I of Shirvan
–
Ibrahim I was the 33rd Shirvanshah. Because of his politics he managed to remain independent and avoid getting deposed by the Turko-Mongol ruler Timur. The son of the Shirvanian prince Sultan Muhammad, Ibrahim was born in a village in Shakki, after the death of Shirvanshah Hushang in 1382, Ibrahim I was selected to be the ruler by the local nobility. In 1386, Ibrahim recognized the powerful Turko-Mongol ruler Timur as his suzerain, when Timur arrived to Caucasus in 1394, Ibrahim gave him gifts and riches as presents in order to maintain good relations with him. However, one of these gifts were eight slaves, which Timur did not see as enough—when he asked Ibrahim why he had only given eight slaves, Ibrahim replied, I am myself the ninth. This made Timur glad, who due to the kindness of Ibrahim gave him much land, from 1399 to 1402, Ibrahim fought alongside Timur in his campaigns in Syria and Anatolia. Timur later died in 1405, fighting and rebellion broke, causing great disruption, Ibrahim was one those, he used the death of Timur as an opportunity to declare independence and seize Ganja and Karabakh. Ibrahim, along with his sons and Constanine were then imprisoned, some time later, due to the bad behavior of Constantine, Qara-Yusuf had him, his son and other Georgians executed. Furthermore, Qara-Yusuf had also caused destruction in Shirvan. Ibrahim later paid an amount of money in return of being freed. Ibrahim went back to his kingdom and struggled to restore order in it and he died in 1418 and was succeeded by his son Khalilullah I. Ibrahim I revived Shirvans fortunes, and through his cunning politics managed to avoid Timurid conquest, furthermore, Ibrahim also greatly increased the limits of his state as far as Derbent in north and the Mugan plain to the south. Ibrahim was married to Bika khanum, a noblewoman, with whom he had 11 sons,1398, d.1443 - imprisoned by Qara-Yusuf in Battle of Chalagan, was acting as the governor of Baku during the absence of Khalilullah I. Prince Kayqubad - rebelled against Khalilullah I in 1425, executed by Shahrukh Mirza, prince Ishaq - rebelled against Khalilullah I in 1425, executed by Shahrukh Mirza. Prince Asadullah - imprisoned by Qara-Yusuf in Battle of Chalagan, prince Manuchihr - imprisoned by Qara-Yusuf in Battle of Chalagan, later was in service of Shahrukh Mirza. Prince Abdurrahman - imprisoned by Qara-Yusuf in Battle of Chalagan, prince Nasratullah - imprisoned by Qara-Yusuf in Battle of Chalagan. Prince Hashim - imprisoned by Qara-Yusuf in Battle of Chalagan, rebelled against Khalilullah I in 1425, prince Farrukhzad - imprisoned by Qara-Yusuf in Battle of Chalagan. Princess Lal Bi Tukmak - married to Timurs son Umar Shaikh Mirza in c.1387 Minorsky, a History of Sharvān and Darband in the 10th-11th Centuries
Ibrahim I of Shirvan
–
Mosque in
Baku constructed during the reign of Ibrahim I.
Ibrahim I of Shirvan
–
Map of
Caucasus and its surroundings.
15.
Shemakha
–
Şamaxı is a city in and the capital of the Shamakhi Rayon of Azerbaijan. The city has a heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events throughout much of its two millennia of existence. The citys estimated population as of 2010 was 31,704 and it is famous for its traditional dancers, the Shamakhi Dancers, and also for perhaps giving its name to the Soumak rugs. The only building to have survived eight of the earthquakes is the landmark Juma Mosque of Shamakhi. Shamakhi was first mentioned as Kamachia by the ancient Greco-Roman Egyptian geographer Claudius Ptolemaeus in the 1st to 2nd century CE, Shamakhi was an important town during the Middle Ages and served as a capital of the Shirvanshah realm from the 8th to 15th centuries. The Catholic friar, missionary and explorer William of Ruysbroeck passed through it on his journey from the Mongol Great Khans court. In 1500-1501, it was taken by the Safavid Iranians, following the conquest of the area by the first Safavid ruler Ismail I, he allowed the descendants of Farrukh Yassar to rule Shamakhi and the rest of Shirvan under Safavid suzerainty. This lasted until 1538, when his son and successor, king Tahmasp I, turned the territory into a full Safavid province, from then on, Shamakhi functioned as the capital of the Shirvan province. They however soon retired from the city, leaving it to Ottomans who possessed it in 1723-35, the new Shamakhi was at different times a residence of the Shirvan Khanate, ruled by the from Iran semi-independent khans, but it was finally abandoned, and the old town rebuilt. In the mid-1700s, the population of Shamakhi was about 60,000, the British Penny Cyclopaedia stated in 1833 that The bulk of the population of Shirvan consists of the Tahtar, or, to speak more correctly, Turkish race, with some admixture of Arabs and Persians. Besides the Mohammedans, who form the mass of the population, there are many Armenians, some Jews, and a few Gipsies. According to the returns of 1831, the number of males belonging to the Mohammedan population was 62,934, Armenians,6,375, Jews,332. The prevalent language of Shirvan is what is there called Toorkee or Turkish, the Encyclopædia Britannica stated that in 1873 the city had 25,087 inhabitants, of which 18,680 were Tartars and Shachsevans,5,177 were Armenians, and 1,230 Russians. Silk production continued to be the output, with 130 silk-winding establishments, owned mostly by Armenians. Shamakhi was the capital of the Shamakhi Governorate of the Russian Empire until the earthquake of 1859. The importance of the city declined sharply afterwards, according to the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary, Shamakhi had 20,008 inhabitants, of which 3% were Russians, 18% were Armenians, and 79% Azerbaijani Tatars. With regard to religion, 79% of the population was Muslim, of which 22% was Sunni and the rest Shiite, the remaining 21% was Armeno-Gregorian and Pravoslav. The city is located in the most seismic area of the Caucasus and was hit by earthquakes in 1191 and 1859
Shemakha
–
Shamakhi in 1734
Shemakha
–
Seal
Shemakha
–
Yeddi Gumbez Mausoleum
Shemakha
–
Mausoleum of Shakhandan, brother of famous Azeri poet
Nasimi. Built in 17th century.
16.
Place of worship
–
A building constructed or used for this purpose is sometimes called a house of worship. Temples, churches, and mosques are examples of structures created for worship, a monastery, particularly for Buddhists, may serve both to house those belonging to religious orders and as a place of worship for visitors. These international laws of war bar firing upon or from a religious building, a Mosque is a place of worship for followers of Islam. There are strict and detailed requirements in Sunni jurisprudence for a place of worship to be considered a masjid, many mosques have elaborate domes, minarets, and prayer halls, in varying styles of architecture. Mosques originated on the Arabian Peninsula, but are now found in all inhabited continents, the mosque serves as a place where Muslims can come together for salat as well as a center for information, education, social welfare, and dispute settlement. The imam leads the congregation in prayer and its original meaning is to refer to the body of believers, or the body of Christ. The word church is used to refer to a Christian place of worship by some Christian denominations, including Anglicans, instead, these groups use words such as Hall to identify their places of worship or any building in use by them for the purpose of assembly. Basilica Cathedral or minster Chapel – Presbyterian Church of Wales, and some other denominations, in Catholicism and Anglicanism, some smaller and private places of worship are called chapels. Normal worship services are held in meeting houses while Mormon temples are reserved for special ordinances. Temple – French Protestants Protestant denominations installed in France in the modern era use the word temple. Orthodox temple – Orthodox Christianity an Orthodox temple is a place of worship with base shaped like Greek cross and their multi-congregation events are typically held at a meeting place termed Assembly Hall of Jehovahs Witnesses. Some Jewish congregations use the Yiddish term shul to describe their place of worship or Beyt Knesset meaning house of assembly, hof – Norse Paganism Jinja – Shinto Gurdwara – Sikhism Daoguan – Taoism Fire temple - All Zoroastrian temples fall into the Fire temple category. Atash Behram Agyari Dadgah Nhà thờ họ, historically speaking Vietnamese people venerate their ancestors, as they somehow still exist among them. However, there is a diversity of religions in Vietnam, Christianity, Buddhism
Place of worship
–
The
Great Mosque of Kairouan, also called the Mosque of Uqba, in
Tunisia, was built in 670 and is the oldest and most prestigious Islamic place of worship in North Africa.
Place of worship
–
The
Parthenon in
Athens, Greece, was built for the goddess
Athena in 447–432 BC and remained devoted to her cult for nearly a thousand years, later serving as a Christian church and then as an Islamic mosque under the
Ottoman Empire.
Place of worship
–
The Baha'i
Lotus Temple in
New Delhi, India
Place of worship
–
Wat Mahathat,
Luang Prabang,
Laos
17.
Pir (Sufism)
–
Pir or Peer is a title for a Sufi master or spiritual guide equally used in the nath tradition. They are also referred to as a Hazrat or Shaikh, which is Arabic for Old Man, the title is often translated into English as saint and could be interpreted as Elder. In Sufism a Pirs role is to guide and instruct his disciples on the Sufi path and this is often done by general lessons and individual guidance. Other words that refer to a Pir include, Murshid, Sheikh, in Alevism, Pirs are considered a direct descendant of Ali. The title Peer Baba is common in Hindi used to give a salutation to Sufi masters or similarly honored persons, after their death people visit their tombs. The path of Sufism starts when a student takes an oath of allegiance with a teacher called Baiath or Bayah where he swears allegiance at the hands of his Pir, after that, the student is called a Murid. From here, his batin journey starts, a Pir usually has authorizations to be a teacher for one Tariqahs. A Tariqah may have more than one Pir at a time, a Pir is accorded that status by his Shaikh by way of Khilafat or Khilafah. Khilafat is the process in which a Shaikh identifies one of his disciples as his successor, a Pir can have more than one khalifah. Chapter on Sui Ideology in SUFISM by R. M. Chopra,2016, Anuradha Prakashan, New Delhi
Pir (Sufism)
Pir (Sufism)
–
Pir Dastgir, from the Mughal era
18.
Khalwati order
–
The Khalwati order is an Islamic Sufi brotherhood. Along with the Naqshbandi, Qadiri and Shadhili orders, it is among the most famous Sufi orders. The order takes its name from the Arabic word khalwa, meaning “method of withdrawal or isolation from the world for mystical purposes. ”The order was founded by Umar al-Khalwati in the city of Herat in medieval Khorasan. However, it was Umars disciple, Yahya Shirvani, who founded the “Khalwati Way. ”Yahya Shirvani wrote Wird al-Sattar, the Khalwati order is known for its strict ritual training of its dervishes and its emphasis of individualism. Particularly, the order promoted individual asceticism and retreat, differentiating themselves from other orders at the time, the order is associated as one of the source schools of many other Sufi orders. There were two major movements of the Khalwati order. The first one started in the late 14th century and ended in the 17th century, the first historical movement marks its origins and spread in vast area, now being part of Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey. The second movement began in the late 15th century to the mid-19th century mostly focused in Egypt, the order lost popularity in 1865, but many of its leaders branched off to form different orders to expand Islam throughout Africa. The order resided mostly in urban areas. The origins of the Khalwati order are obscure, but most attribute Umar al-Khalwati as its founder, however, Umar- Khalwati was considered a mysterious man who did very little to spread the order. Shaykh Yahya Shirvani was considered the second pir that was responsible for the spread of the Khalwati order, Yahya Shirvani lived during a time of great political instability in the wake of the Mongol invasion. After the Mongol invasions, Turkish nomads began to gather into urban centers of the Islamic world, all these cities had Sufi shaykhs performing miracles for the nomads. Thus, these Turkish nomads were easily converted to mystical Islam when the Sufi shaykhs promised them union with Allah, Yahya Shirvani entered Baku at this time of religious fervor and political instability, and he was able to start a movement. Yahya Shirvani was able to gather ten thousand people to his movement, Yahya had many popular, charismatic disciples to spread the order, including Pir Ilyas. The time of greatest popularity for Khalwati order was during the reign of “Sufi Bayazid II” in Ottoman Turkey. During this time, the sultan practiced Sufi rituals, which, without a doubt and this is the time period where members of the upper class, Ottoman military, and higher ranks of civil services were all involved with the Khalwati order. The Sufi sheikh, Chelebi Khalifa, moved the headquarters of the Khalwati order from Amasya to Istanbul, here, they rebuilt a former church into a tekke, or Sufi lodge. The tekke became known as the Koca Mustafa Pasha Mosque and these buildings spread throughout the region as Khalwatis popularity grew
Khalwati order
Khalwati order
19.
Sufi
–
Sufism or Taṣawwuf, which is often defined as Islamic mysticism, the inward dimension of Islam, or the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam, is a mystical trend in Islam characterized. These orders meet for sessions in meeting places known as zawiyas, khanqahs. They strive for ihsan as detailed in a hadith, Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him, if you cant see Him, Rumi stated, The Sufi is hanging on to Muhammad, like Abu Bakr. Sufis regard Muhammad as al-Insān al-Kāmil, the perfect man who exemplifies the morality of God. The orders largely follow one of the four madhhabs of Sunni Islam, classical Sufis were characterized by their asceticism, especially by their attachment to dhikr, the practice of repeating the names of God, often performed after prayers. According to William Chittick, In a broad sense, Sufism can be described as the interiorization, historically, Muslims have used the Arabic word taṣawwuf to identify the practice of Sufis. In this view, it is necessary to be a Muslim to be a true Sufi. However, Islamic scholars themselves are not by any means in agreement about the meaning of the word sufi, Sufis themselves claim that Tasawwuf is an aspect of Islam similar to Sharia, inseparable from Islam and an integral part of Islamic belief and practice. Classical Sufi scholars have defined Tasawwuf as a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else, two origins of the word sufi have been suggested. Commonly, the root of the word is traced to ṣafā. Another origin is ṣūf, wool in Arabic, referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore, the two were combined by the Sufi al-Rudhabari, who said, The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity. Scholars generally agree that ṣūf or wool is probably the word of Sufi. This term was given to them because they wore woollen garments, the term labisal-suf meant he clad himself in wool and applied to a person who renounced the world and became an ascetic. Others have suggested that the word comes from the term ahl aṣ-ṣuffah and these men and women who sat at al-Masjid an-Nabawi are considered by some to be the first Sufis. Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all other than ṣūf on linguistic grounds. Sufi orders are based on the bayah that was given to the Prophet Muhammad by his Sahaba, by pledging allegiance to the Prophet Muhammad, the Sahaba had committed themselves to the service of God. According to Islamic belief, by pledging allegiance to Prophet Muhammad and it is through the Prophet Muhammad that Sufis aim to learn about, understand and connect with God. Such a concept may be understood by the hadith, which Sufis regard to be authentic, in which Prophet Muhammad said, I am the city of knowledge, eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri refer to Ali as having a very high ranking in Tasawwuf
Sufi
Sufi
–
The tomb of
Sheikh Rukn-ud-Din Abul Fath located in
Multan, Pakistan. The city of Multan is known for various Sufi Saint tombs, as they call it the City of Saints
Sufi
–
Entrance of Sidi Boumediene mosque in
Tlemcen,
Algeria, built to honor 12th century Sufi master
Abu Madyan
20.
Safavid
–
The Safavid dynasty was one of the most significant ruling dynasties of Iran, often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history. The Safavid shahs ruled over one of the so-called gunpowder empires, the Safavid dynasty had its origin in the Safaviyya Sufi order, which was established in the city of Ardabil in the Azerbaijan region. The Safavids have also left their mark down to the present era by spreading Shia Islam in Iran, as well as parts of the Caucasus, Anatolia. The Safavid Kings themselves claimed to be Seyyeds, family descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, There seems now to be a consensus among scholars that the Safavid family hailed from Persian Kurdistan, and later moved to Azerbaijan, finally settling in the 11th century CE at Ardabil. Traditional pre-1501 Safavid manuscripts trace the lineage of the Safavids to the Kurdish dignitary, a massive migration of Oghuz Turks in the 11th and 12th centuries not only Turkified Azerbaijan but also Anatolia. The Azeri Turks are Shiʿites and were founders of the Safavid dynasty, by the time of the establishment of the Safavid empire, the members of the family were native Turkish-speaking and Turkicized, and some of the Shahs composed poems in their native Turkish language. Furthermore, the dynasty was from the very start thoroughly intermarried with both Pontic Greek as well as Georgian lines, Safavid history begins with the establishment of the Safaviyya by its eponymous founder Safi-ad-din Ardabili. In 700/1301, Safi al-Din assumed the leadership of the Zahediyeh, due to the great spiritual charisma of Safi al-Din, the order was later known as the Safaviyya. The Safavid order soon gained great influence in the city of Ardabil, after Safī al-Dīn, the leadership of the Safaviyya passed to Sadr al-Dīn Mūsā. The leadership of the order passed from Sadr ud-Dīn Mūsā to his son Khwādja Ali, when Shaykh Junayd, the son of Ibrāhim, assumed the leadership of the Safaviyya in 1447, the history of the Safavid movement was radically changed. Savory, Sheikh Junayd was not content with spiritual authority and he sought material power, Junayd sought refuge with the rival of Kara Koyunlu Jahan Shah, the Aq Qoyunlu Khan Uzun Hassan, and cemented his relationship by marrying Uzun Hassans sister, Khadija Begum. Junayd was killed during an incursion into the territories of the Shirvanshah and was succeeded by his son Haydar Safavi, Haydar married Martha Alamshah Begom, Uzun Hassans daughter, who gave birth to Ismail I, founder of the Safavid dynasty. Marthas mother Theodora—better known as Despina Khatun—was a Pontic Greek princess and she had been married to Uzun Hassan in exchange for protection of the Grand Komnenos from the Ottomans. After Uzun Hassans death, his son Yaqub felt threatened by the growing Safavid religious influence, Yaqub allied himself with the Shirvanshah and killed Haydar in 1488. By this time, the bulk of the Safaviyya were nomadic Oghuz Turkic-speaking clans from Asia Minor, the Qizilbash were warriors, spiritual followers of Haydar, and a source of the Safavid military and political power. After the death of Haydar, the Safaviyya gathered around his son Ali Mirza Safavi, according to official Safavid history, before passing away, Ali had designated his young brother Ismail as the spiritual leader of the Safaviyya. After the decline of the Timurid Empire, Persia was politically splintered, the demise of Tamerlanes political authority created a space in which several religious communities, particularly Shi’i ones, could come to the fore and gain prominence. Among these were a number of Sufi brotherhoods, the Hurufis, Nuqtawis, of these various movements, the Safavid Qizilbash was the most politically resilient, and due to its success Shah Isma’il I gained political prominence in 1501
Safavid
–
Flag [1]
Safavid
–
Manikin of a safavid
Qizilbash soldier, showing characteristic red cap (
Sa'dabad Palace, Teheran).
21.
Bartold
–
Vasily Vladimirovich Bartold was a Russian and Soviet historian of German descent who specialized in the history of Islam and the Turkic peoples. Bartolds lectures at the University of Saint Petersburg were annually interrupted by extended field trips to Muslim countries, in the two volumes of his dissertation, he pointed out the many benefits the Muslim world derived from Mongol rule after the initial conquests. Bartold was the first to publish obscure information from the early Arab historians on Kievan Rus and he also edited several scholarly journals of Muslim studies, and contributed extensively to the first edition of the Encyclopaedia of Islam. In 1913, he was elected to the Russian Academy of Sciences, in February 1917 he was appointed to the Commission for the Study of the Tribal Composition of the Population of the Borderlands of Russia. After the Russian Revolution, Bartold was appointed director of the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography and he wrote three authoritative monographs on the history of Islam, namely Islam, Muslim Culture and The Muslim World. He also contributed to the development of Cyrillic writing for the Muslim countries of Central Asia, most of his writings were translated in English, Arabic, and Persian. Some of his works have been reprinted more recently in Moscow, «Улугбек и его время» Ulugh-Beg Ulug Beg und seine Zeit. In Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 21, No,1,1935, ISSN 0567-4980 Ulugh-Beg, Leyden,1958 Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion 1928 Mussulman Culture,1934. In Four Studies on the History of Central Asia 1956 —Substantial excerpts of vol
Bartold
–
Vasily Bartold
22.
Kufic
–
Kufic is the oldest calligraphic form of the various Arabic scripts and consists of a modified form of the old Nabataean script. Kufic developed around the end of the 7th century in Kufa, Iraq, from which it takes its name, Kufic was prevalent in manuscripts from the 7th to 10th centuries. Until about the 11th century it was the script used to copy the Quran. Professional copyists employed a form of kufic for reproducing the earliest surviving copies of the Quran. Kufic is commonly seen on Seljuk coins and monuments and on early Ottoman coins and its decorative character led to its use as a decorative element in several public and domestic buildings constructed prior to the Republican period in Turkey. The current flag of Iraq includes a rendition of the takbir. Similarly, the flag of Iran has the takbir written in white square kufic script a total of 22 times on the fringe of both the green and red bands, Square or geometric Kufic is a very simplified rectangular style of Kufic widely used for tiling. In Iran sometimes entire buildings are covered with tiles spelling sacred names like those of God, Muhammad and Ali in square Kufic, christoph Brunner, Basel 2014, ISBN 978-3-906206-10-3. Square Kufic lectures, alphabet, examples, square designs Kufic manuscript alphabet On The Origins Of The Kufic Script Kufic Script Square Kufic Script Square Kufic Square Kufic explained
Kufic
–
Kufic script, 8th or 9th century (Surah 48: 27–28)
Qur'an.
Kufic
–
Kufic script used in a copy of the
Qur'an
Kufic
–
Calligraphy
Kufic
–
Page from a Qur'an in Kufic style, 8th century (Surah 15: 67–74)
23.
Allah
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Allah is the Arabic word for God in Abrahamic religions. In the English language, the word refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from al-ilāh, which means the god, and is related to El and Elohim, the word Allah has been used by Arabic people of different religions since pre-Islamic times. More specifically, it has used as a term for God by Muslims. It is now used by Muslims and Arab Christians to refer to God. It is also often, albeit not exclusively, used in this way by Bábists, Baháís, Indonesian and Maltese Christians, similar usage by Christians and Sikhs in West Malaysia has recently led to political and legal controversies. The etymology of the word Allāh has been discussed extensively by classical Arab philologists, grammarians of the Basra school regarded is as either formed spontaneously or as the definite form of lāh. The majority of modern scholars subscribe to the theory. Cognates of the name Allāh exist in other Semitic languages, including Hebrew, the corresponding Aramaic form is Elah, but its emphatic state is Elaha. It is written as ܐܠܗܐ in Biblical Aramaic and ܐܲܠܵܗܵܐ in Syriac as used by the Assyrian Church, Biblical Hebrew mostly uses the plural form Elohim, but more rarely it also uses the singular form Eloah. Regional variants of the word Allah occur in both pagan and Christian pre-Islamic inscriptions, different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in pre-Islamic polytheistic cults. Some authors have suggested that polytheistic Arabs used the name as a reference to a god or a supreme deity of their pantheon. The term may have been vague in the Meccan religion, according to one hypothesis, which goes back to Julius Wellhausen, Allah was a designation that consecrated the superiority of Hubal over the other gods. However, there is evidence that Allah and Hubal were two distinct deities. Some inscriptions seem to indicate the use of Allah as a name of a polytheist deity centuries earlier, some scholars have suggested that Allah may have represented a remote creator god who was gradually eclipsed by more particularized local deities. There is disagreement on whether Allah played a role in the Meccan religious cult. No iconic representation of Allah is known to have existed, muhammads fathers name was ʿAbd-Allāh meaning the slave of Allāh. The Aramaic word for God in the language of Assyrian Christians is ʼĔlāhā, arabic-speakers of all Abrahamic faiths, including Christians and Jews, use the word Allah to mean God
Allah
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Allah
Jalla Jalālah in
Arabic calligraphy
Allah
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Allah script outside Eski Cami (The Old Mosque) in
Edirne, Turkey.
24.
Lancet window
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A lancet window is a tall, narrow window with a pointed arch at its top. It acquired the name from its resemblance to a lance. Instances of this motif are typical of Gothic church edifices of the earliest period. Lancet windows may occur singly, or paired under a single moulding, the motif first appeared in the French early-Gothic period and later in the English period of Gothic architecture. So common was the lancet window feature that this era is known as the Lancet Period. The term lancet window is properly applied to windows of austere form, paired windows were sometimes surmounted by a simple opening such as a quatrefoil cut in plate tracery. This form gave way to the ornate, multi-light traceried windowed
Lancet window
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Lancet windows at
Hexham Abbey, UK
Lancet window
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Early English lancet windows in the south transept of
Beverley Minster, East Riding of Yorkshire, England
Lancet window
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Early English lancet windows, built 1234, east end of
Southwell Minster, Nottinghamshire, England
Lancet window
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Early English east window and series of nine lancet windows in the south wall of the choir, in the ruined
Ardfert Cathedral, County Kerry, Ireland
25.
Murad III
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Murad III was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1574 until his death in 1595. Born in Bozdağan or Manisa, Şehzade Murad was the son of Sultan Selim II, after his ceremonial circumcision in 1557, Murad was appointed sancakbeyi of Akşehir by Suleyman I in 1558. At the age of 18 he was appointed sancakbeyi of Saruhan, suleiman died when Murad was 20, and his father became the new sultan. Selim II broke with tradition by sending only his oldest son out of the palace to govern a province, Selim died in 1574 and was succeeded by Murad, who began his reign by having his five younger brothers strangled. His authority was undermined by the influences, more specifically. The power had only been maintained under Selim II by the genius of the powerful Grand Vizier Mehmed Sokollu who remained in office until his assassination in October 1579, during Murads reign the northern borders with the Habsburg Monarchy were defended by the Bosnian governor Hasan Predojević. The reign of Murad III was marked by exhausting wars on the western and eastern fronts. The Ottomans also faced defeats during battles such as the Battle of Sisak, the Ottomans had been at peace with the neighbouring rivalling Safavid Empire since 1555, per the Treaty of Amasya, that for some time had settled border disputed. But in 1577 Murad declared war, starting the Ottoman–Safavid War and he was influenced by viziers Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha and Sinan Pasha and disregarded the opposing counsel of Grand Vizier Mehmed Sokollu. The war would drag on for 12 years, ending with the Istanbul Treaty of 1590, Murads reign was a time of financial stress for the Ottoman state. To keep up with changing military techniques, the Ottomans trained infantrymen in the use of firearms, by 1580 an influx of silver from the New World had caused high inflation and social unrest, especially among Janissaries and government officials who were paid in debased currency. Deprivation from the rebellions, coupled with the pressure of over-population, was especially felt in Anatolia. Competition for positions within the government grew fierce, leading to bribery, numerous envoys and letters were exchanged between Elizabeth I and Sultan Murad III. This diplomacy would be continued under Murads successor Mehmed III, by both the sultan and Safiye Sultan alike, following the example of his father Selim II, Murad was the second Ottoman sultan who never went on campaign during his reign, instead spending it entirely in Istanbul. During the final years of his reign, he did not even leave Topkapı Palace, for two consecutive years he did not attend the Friday procession to the imperial mosque—an unprecedented breaking of custom. Murad withdrew from his subjects and spent the majority of his reign keeping to the company of few people and their negative portrayals of Murad influenced later historians. Both historians also accused Murad of sexual excess, before becoming sultan, Murad had been loyal to Safiye Sultan, his Venetian-born concubine who had given him a son, Mehmed, and two daughters. His monogamy was disapproved of by his mother Nurbanu, who worried that Murad needed more sons to succeed him in case Mehmed died young and she also worried about Safiyes influence over her son and the Ottoman dynasty
Murad III
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Murad III
Murad III
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Tughra
Murad III
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Miniature painting of a parade of two riding Gazi (veterans from Rumelia) in front of Sultan Murat III (from the Surname-i hümayun, 16th century CE)
Murad III
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Gobustan National Park
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It is located west of the settlement of Gobustan, about 40 miles southwest of the centre of Baku on the west bank of the Caspian Sea. The territory of Gobustan is cut up with numerous, sometimes rather deep ravines and that is a suggested origin of the Gobustan geographical name. In 1966 Gobustan was declared a historical landmark of Azerbaijan in an attempt to preserve the ancient carvings, relics. The mountains Boyukdash, Kichikdash, Jingirdag, and the Yazili hill were taken under government protection. These mountains are located near the Caspian Sea, in the southeast part of Gobustan, the archeological value of Gobustan was discovered when a group of men went in to mine for gravel in 1930. While the zone is abundant in boulders and stone formations, one mine employee noticed the sacred carvings on the rocks and they also discovered man-made caves wherein more of the drawings can be found. Gobustan is very rich in archaeological monuments, the reserve has more than 6,000 rock engravings dating back between 5, 000–40,000 years. The site, which covers an area of 537 ha, is part of the larger protected Gobustan Reservation, iskhag Jafarzadeh who was one of the pioneers of Azerbaijan archaeology and ethnography, excavated over seventy artifacts on Azerbaijans territory and studied the Gobustan rock paintings. In 1948 during the Gobustan expedition, he discovered the Latin rock inscription near mountain Boyukdash, some 70 km far from Baku, petroglyphs from Gobustan are depicted on the reverse of the Azerbaijani 5 manat banknote issued since 2006. As of 2011, The Petroglyph Museum functions in the park, today Gobustan is the most popular state reserve and is an invaluable treasure-house of Azerbaijan. For other state reserves see State Reserves of Azerbaijan, some of notable features among other animal rock arts are marine species that can not be found in todays Caspian Sea, such as baleen whales, beaked whales or dolphins, and auks. The climate of Gobustan is a dry one, with rather mild winters. An atmospheric precipitation is small and so are the springs of Big Caucasus area, in the remote past, the flora and fauna of Gobustan were incomparably richer. Its landscape represented a kind of savanna with corresponding climate, here were large herds of wild bulls, goats, deer, wild horses, donkeys, wild boars, and gazelles hunted by asiatic lions, gray wolves, wildcats and leopards. The vegetative world of Gobustan has a character that is common for deserts and semi-deserts and it consists of ephemeris grasses and bushes, wormwood and similar long-term plants. The fauna of Gobustan has strongly grown poor for the last decades of years. The natural inhabitants of Gobustan now are rare foxes, jackals, wolves, hares and wild cats, giant ditch frogs, wild pigeons, Azerbaijan and its Caspian coastline are home to nearly 400 mud volcanoes, more than half the total throughout the world. In 2001, one mud volcano 15 kilometers from Baku made world headlines when it started ejecting flames 15 meters high
Gobustan National Park
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UNESCO World Heritage Site
Gobustan National Park
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Petroglyphs in Gobustan,
Azerbaijan, dating back to 10,000 BC indicating a thriving
culture.
Gobustan National Park
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Ancient Petroglyphs at Gobustan National Park, Azerbaijan. UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Gobustan National Park
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Announcement in Gobustan, 1950
