1.
1st arrondissement of Paris
–
The 1st arrondissement of Paris is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. Situated principally on the bank of the River Seine, it also includes the west end of the Île de la Cité. It is the least populated of the arrondissements and one of the smallest by area, a significant part of which is occupied by the Louvre Museum. Much of the remainder of the arrondissement is dedicated to business, the 1st arrondissement is very small, with a land area of only 1,83 km2. The area now occupied by the first arrondissement attained its peak population in the preceding the re-organization of Paris in 1860. In 1999, the population was 16,888, while the arrondissement hosted 63,056 jobs, making it one of the most active for business after the 2nd, 8th, and 9th. ¹The peak of population actually occurred before 1861, but the arrondissement was created in 1860, each of the 20 Paris arrondissements is divided into four quarters. The table below lists the four quarters of the 1st arrondissement, at one time Air Inters head office was located in the first arrondissement. When Minerve, an airline, existed, its office was in the first arrondissement. In terms of state-operated schools, the first arrondissement has two schools, two primary schools, one école polyvalente, one high school, and one sixth form college. The state-operated nursery schools are École Maternelle Auxerrois and École Maternelle Sourdiere, the state-operated primary schools are École Élémentaire Arbre Sec and École Élémentaire DArgenteuil. The arrondissement has one école polyvalente, École Polyvalente Cambon, collège Jean-Baptiste Poquelin is the sole state-operated high school in the arrondissement. Lycée Professionnel Commercial Pierre Lescot is the sole state-operated sixth form college in the first arrondissement
1st arrondissement of Paris
–
The
Louvre and
Tuileries, seen from the north
2.
Louvre
–
The Louvre or the Louvre Museum is the worlds largest museum and a historic monument in Paris, France. A central landmark of the city, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the citys 1st arrondissement, approximately 38,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited over an area of 72,735 square metres. The Louvre is the second most visited museum after the Palace Museum in China. The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace, originally built as a fortress in the late 12th century under Philip II, remnants of the fortress are visible in the basement of the museum. Due to the expansion of the city, the fortress eventually lost its defensive function and. The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace, in 1692, the building was occupied by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons. The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100 years, during the French Revolution, the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum to display the nations masterpieces. The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed in 1796 until 1801. The collection was increased under Napoleon and the museum renamed Musée Napoléon, the collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second French Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces. Holdings have grown steadily through donations and bequests since the Third Republic, whether this was the first building on that spot is not known, it is possible that Philip modified an existing tower. According to the authoritative Grand Larousse encyclopédique, the name derives from an association with wolf hunting den, in the 7th century, St. Fare, an abbess in Meaux, left part of her Villa called Luvra situated in the region of Paris to a monastery. This territory probably did not correspond exactly to the modern site, the Louvre Palace was altered frequently throughout the Middle Ages. In the 14th century, Charles V converted the building into a residence and in 1546, Francis acquired what would become the nucleus of the Louvres holdings, his acquisitions including Leonardo da Vincis Mona Lisa. After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682, constructions slowed, however, on 14 October 1750, Louis XV agreed and sanctioned a display of 96 pieces from the royal collection, mounted in the Galerie royale de peinture of the Luxembourg Palace. Under Louis XVI, the museum idea became policy. The comte dAngiviller broadened the collection and in 1776 proposed conversion of the Grande Galerie of the Louvre – which contained maps – into the French Museum, many proposals were offered for the Louvres renovation into a museum, however, none was agreed on. Hence the museum remained incomplete until the French Revolution, during the French Revolution the Louvre was transformed into a public museum. In May 1791, the Assembly declared that the Louvre would be a place for bringing together monuments of all the sciences, on 10 August 1792, Louis XVI was imprisoned and the royal collection in the Louvre became national property
Louvre
–
the Richelieu wing (2005)
Louvre
–
The only portion of the medieval Louvre still visible
Louvre
–
Antonio Canova 's
Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss was commissioned in 1787, donated in 1824.
Louvre
–
The
Venus de Milo was added to the Louvre's collection during the reign of
Louis XVIII.
3.
Daniel Buren
–
Daniel Buren is a French conceptual artist. Among his chief concerns is the scene of production as a way of presenting art, the work is site-specific installation, having a relation to its setting in contrast to prevailing ideas of an autonomous work of art. He graduated from the Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Métiers dArt in Paris and he began painting in the early 1960s. Denoting the trademark stripes as an instrument or seeing tool. In June 1970 he put stripes on the front and back of Los Angeles bus benches without permission, in another controversial gesture he blocked the entrance of the gallery with stripes of his first solo exhibition. Expanding on this idea, in 1971 he created a banner, Peinture-Sculpture. In the late 1960s he connected to the ideas of space, often referred to as the stripe guy, Buren also expresses his theme in paint, laser cut fabric, light boxes, transparent fabrics and ceramic cup sets. His stripes are displayed in homes, public places. Since the 1950s he has amassed some 400,000 of what he calls photos-souvenirs, documenting his work, from 1960 on, Buren designed a number of permanent site-specific installations in the United States, Belgium, France, and Germany. In 1986 he created a 3, 000-square-meter sculpture in the courtyard of the Palais Royal, in Paris, Les Deux Plateaux. This provoked a debate over the integration of contemporary art. In 1993, Buren was commissioned to design the work in situ, Poser/Déposer/Exposer, since the 1990s, Burens work has become more architectural. He creates new spaces within existing environments such as city centers, public parks, entire museums, and even beaches. In 2004, for the occasion of the opening of the French cultural year in China, a Rainbow in the Sky consisted of thousands of colorful pennant flags hovering over a busy pedestrian square in Pasadena, California for two months. Buren collaborated with Hermès on a number of occasions, in 2010, he created Photo souvenirs au carrè, a 365 limited-edition line of scarves decorated with silk-printed photographs. In 2009 Buren collaborated with the collective Ensemble La Ligne created by RCP Design Global agency, with, among others, Louis Dandrel and Roger Tallon to create Curseur. It is a work in situ – for Tours Tram – three black and white stripes vertically, which join the same horizontal marking on the ground. Trainsets shaped cursor with mirror effect identified in black and white stripes, in 2014, the rooftop of Modernist architect Le Corbusiers Cité Radieuse building in Marseilles hosted an installation of mirrors and coloured glass by Buren
Daniel Buren
–
Daniel Buren, 2014
Daniel Buren
–
Tours Tram – The vertical stripes; Collaboration design with
RCP Design Global
Daniel Buren
–
"D'un Losange à L'autre", unique wall painting at Hudiksvallsgatan 8 in
Stockholm
Daniel Buren
–
" L'arc Rouge " (The red arc),
Guggenheim Museum Bilbao Spain
4.
Les Deux Plateaux
–
Les Deux Plateaux, more commonly known as the Colonnes de Buren, is a highly controversial art installation created by the French artist Daniel Buren in 1985–1986. It is located in the courtyard of the Palais Royal in Paris. In one sense the installation can be read as an exploration of the perception, the work replaced the courtyards former parking lot and was designed to conceal ventilation shafts for an underground extension of the culture ministrys premises. Some of the columns extend below courtyard level and are surrounded by pools of water into which passersby toss coins, the project was the brainchild of the culture minister Jack Lang and elicited considerable controversy at the time. It was attacked for its cost and unsuitability to a historic landmark, Lang paid no attention to the orders of the Commission des Monuments Historiques, which objected to the plan. In retrospect Ayers has remarked, Given the harmlessness of the result, the fuss seems excessive, although the columns have proved not only expensive to install, but also to maintain. Daniel Buren - Les deux plateaux - Travail in situ permanent 1985 - Juillet 1986, Cour d’honneur du Palais-Royal, Paris, France
Les Deux Plateaux
–
The Colonnes de Buren in the Cour d'Honneur of the
Palais-Royal
5.
Palace
–
A palace is a grand residence, especially a royal residence, or the home of a head of state or some other high-ranking dignitary, such as a bishop or archbishop. The word is derived from the Latin name Palātium, for Palatine Hill in Rome which housed the Imperial residences, in many parts of Europe, the term is also applied to ambitious private mansions of the aristocracy. Many historic palaces are now put to uses such as parliaments, museums, hotels. The word is sometimes used to describe a lavishly ornate building used for public entertainment or exhibitions. The word palace comes from Old French palais, from Latin Palātium, the original palaces on the Palatine Hill were the seat of the imperial power while the capitol on the Capitoline Hill was the religious nucleus of Rome. Long after the city grew to the seven hills the Palatine remained a residential area. Emperor Caesar Augustus lived there in a purposely modest house only set apart from his neighbours by the two trees planted to flank the front door as a sign of triumph granted by the Senate. His descendants, especially Nero, with his Golden House, enlarged the house, the word Palātium came to mean the residence of the emperor rather than the neighbourhood on top of the hill. Palace meaning government can be recognized in a remark of Paul the Deacon, AD790 and describing events of the 660s, When Grimuald set out for Beneventum, he entrusted his palace to Lupus. At the same time, Charlemagne was consciously reviving the Roman expression in his palace at Aachen, in the 9th century, the palace indicated the housing of the government too, and the constantly travelling Charlemagne built fourteen. In the Holy Roman Empire the powerful independent Electors came to be housed in palaces and this has been used as evidence that power was widely distributed in the Empire, as in more centralized monarchies, only the monarchs residence would be a palace. In modern times, the term has been applied by archaeologists and historians to large structures that housed combined ruler, court, in informal usage, a palace can be extended to a grand residence of any kind. The earliest known palaces were the residences of the Egyptian Pharaohs at Thebes, featuring an outer wall enclosing labyrinthine buildings. Other ancient palaces include the Assyrian palaces at Nimrud and Nineveh, the Minoan palace at Knossos, the Brazilian new capital, Brasília, hosts modern palaces, most designed by the citys architect Oscar Niemeyer. The Alvorada Palace is the residence of the Brazils president. The Planalto Palace is the official workplace, the Jaburu Palace is the official residence of Brazils vice-president. In Canada, Government House is a given to the official residences of the Canadian monarchy. The use of the term Government House is a custom from the British Empire
Palace
–
Schwerin Palace in
Germany, historical
ducal residence of
Mecklenburg since 1348.
Palace
–
Palace of Versailles, the center of
French absolutism from 1682 on.
Palace
–
Ambavilas Palace, famous as
Mysore Palace, the official residence of
Maharajas of Mysore since 1400.
Palace
–
The
Planalto Palace, in
Brasília,
Brazil
6.
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Cardinal Armand Jean du Plessis, Duke of Richelieu and Fronsac, commonly referred to as Cardinal Richelieu, was a French clergyman, nobleman, and statesman. He was consecrated as a bishop in 1607 and was appointed Foreign Secretary in 1616, Richelieu soon rose in both the Catholic Church and the French government, becoming a cardinal in 1622, and King Louis XIIIs chief minister in 1624. He remained in office until his death in 1642, he was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin, Cardinal de Richelieu was often known by the title of the kings Chief Minister or First Minister. He sought to consolidate power and crush domestic factions. By restraining the power of the nobility, he transformed France into a strong and his chief foreign policy objective was to check the power of the Austro-Spanish Habsburg dynasty, and to ensure French dominance in the Thirty Years War that engulfed Europe. Although he was a cardinal, he did not hesitate to make alliances with Protestant rulers in attempting to achieve his goals. While a powerful figure, events like the Day of the Dupes show that in fact he very much depended on the kings confidence to keep this power. As alumnus of the University of Paris and headmaster of the Collège de Sorbonne, Richelieu was also famous for his patronage of the arts, most notably, he founded the Académie Française, the learned society responsible for matters pertaining to the French language. Richelieu is also known by the sobriquet lÉminence rouge, from the red shade of a cardinals clerical dress and this in part allowed the colony to eventually develop into the heartland of Francophone culture in North America. He is also a character in The Three Musketeers by Alexandre Dumas. Born in Paris, Armand du Plessis was the fourth of five children, at the age of nine, young Richelieu was sent to the College of Navarre in Paris to study philosophy. Thereafter, he began to train for a military career and his private life seems to have been typical of a young officer of the era, in 1605, aged twenty, he was treated by Théodore de Mayerne for gonorrhea. King Henry III had rewarded Richelieus father for his participation in the Wars of Religion by granting his family the bishopric of Luçon. The family appropriated most of the revenues of the bishopric for private use, they were, however, challenged by clergymen, to protect the important source of revenue, Richelieus mother proposed to make her second son, Alphonse, the bishop of Luçon. Alphonse, who had no desire to become a bishop, became instead a Carthusian monk, thus, it became necessary that the younger Richelieu join the clergy. He had strong interests, and threw himself into studying for his new post. In 1606 King Henry IV nominated Richelieu to become Bishop of Luçon, as Richelieu had not yet reached the canonical minimum age, it was necessary that he journey to Rome for a special dispensation from the Pope. This secured, Richelieu was consecrated bishop in April 1607, soon after he returned to his diocese in 1608, Richelieu was heralded as a reformer
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Portrait of Cardinal Richelieu, 1633–40,
Philippe de Champaigne,
National Gallery,
London
Cardinal Richelieu
–
The young King
Louis XIII was only a figurehead during his early reign; power actually rested with his mother,
Marie de Médicis.
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Henri Motte 's depiction of Cardinal Richelieu at the
Siege of La Rochelle.
Cardinal Richelieu
–
Letter of Cardinal Richelieu to
Claude de Razilly asking him to do everything in his power to relieve
Ré Island in the
Siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré, July 1627.
7.
Jacques Lemercier
–
Lemercier was born in Pontoise, the son of a master mason, one of a large interrelated tribe of professionals. As early as 1618 he appears as architecte du roy, with a salary of 1200 livres, in this manner Lemercier built the northern half of the west side and the famous Pavillon de lHorloge at the center of the west wing. Its high squared dome breaks the roofline and three arched openings provide access to the enclosed court. Two superposed orders of columns and rich sculptural decor in pediments and niches, on piers, the Hôtel de Liancourt stands out among Lemerciers Paris hôtels particuliers for aristocratic patrons. Lemercier built Richelieus Paris residence, the Palais-Cardinal, todays Palais Royal, Richelieus palace was destroyed by fire in 1763. Only one remnant survives, a fragment with a relief of ship anchors and prows, signs of the Cardinals role as Superintendent of the Navy. This remnant is located in the Galerie des Proues, on the east side of the second court, the lost château itself was an improvisation on the theme set by Brosses Luxembourg. Also for the Cardinal Lemercier rebuilt the Château de Rueil, not so far from Paris, the Château of Thouars, with its majestic long façade, is his also, and survives. Less known, because gardens are less permanent, are parterre gardens laid out to Lemerciers designs, at Montjeu, at Richelieu, at the Sorbonne, the college has been rebuilt, but its domed church is the acknowledged surviving masterpiece of Lemercier. The interior was intended to be frescoed, the square intersection is surrounded by cylindrical vaults and a semicircular choir apse. The north side consists of a portico, in the church Richelieu was interred in 1642. At the royal church of Val-de-Grâce Lemercier succeeded the elder Mansart who completed the structure to the cornice line. Lemercier completed it with a dome, one of his last commissions was the design of the Church of Saint-Roch, where the cornerstone was laid by Louis XIV in 1653. With a length of m. it is one of the largest churches of Paris, the deep choir emphasizes the extent of the interior, scarcely interrupted by the discreet low dome over the crossing, which is hidden on the exterior beneath the transept roof. Lemercier completed the choir and crossing and the rest of the interior was carried out to his plan, work was interrupted 1701–1740 save for a chapel inserted 1705–1710 designed by Jules Hardouin-Mansart. The present façade is an 18th-century composition by Robert de Cotte, in a long career, the scrupulous Lemercier amassed no fortune. Other French architects of the first half of the 17th century, Salomon de Brosse Liberal Bruant Pierre Le Muet Louis Le Vau François Mansart Clément Métezeau Ballon, the Architecture of Cardinal Richelieu, pp. 246–259, in Richelieu, Art and Power, edited by Hilliard Todd Goldfarb. The Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, Jacques Lemercier, architecte et ingénieur du roi ISBN 2-7351-1042-7 Review by Thierry Sarment
Jacques Lemercier
–
Jacques Lemercier, by
Philippe de Champaigne: Lemercier's
Sorbonne is in the background.
Jacques Lemercier
–
Lemercier's
Pavillon de l’Horloge at the Louvre
Jacques Lemercier
–
Relief of ship anchors and prows, a surviving remnant of Lemercier's
Palais-Cardinal
Jacques Lemercier
–
The chapel at the
Sorbonne, 1635: prototype for
Mansart 's at
Les Invalides.
8.
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1610 to 1643 and King of Navarre from 1610 to 1620, when the crown of Navarre was merged with the French crown. Shortly before his birthday, Louis became king of France. His mother, Marie de Medici, acted as regent during his minority, Louis XIII, taciturn and suspicious, relied heavily on his chief ministers, first Charles dAlbert, duc de Luynes then Cardinal Richelieu, to govern the kingdom of France. King and cardinal are remembered for establishing the Académie française, the reign of Louis the Just was also marked by the struggles against Huguenots and Habsburg Spain. This battle marked the end of Spains military ascendancy in Europe and foreshadowed French dominance in Europe under Louis XIV, his son, born at the Château de Fontainebleau, Louis XIII was the oldest child of King Henry IV of France and his second wife Marie de Medici. As son of the king, he was a Fils de France and his father Henry IV was the first French king of the House of Bourbon, having succeeded his ninth cousin, Henry III of France, in application of Salic law. Louis XIIIs paternal grandparents were Antoine de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme and his maternal grandparents were Francesco I de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Joanna of Austria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany. Eleonora de Medici, his aunt, was his godmother. His mother Marie de Medici acted as Regent until 1617, although Louis XIII became of age at thirteen, his mother did not give up her position as Regent until 1617. Marie maintained most of her husbands ministers, with the exception of Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully and she mainly relied on Nicolas de Neufville, seigneur de Villeroy, Noël Brûlart de Sillery, and Pierre Jeannin for political advice. Marie pursued a policy, confirming the Edict of Nantes. She was not, however, able to prevent rebellion by nobles such as Henri, Prince of Condé second in line to the throne after Maries second surviving son Gaston, Duke of Orléans. Condé squabbled with Marie in 1614, and briefly raised an army, but he found support in the country. Nevertheless, Marie agreed to call an Estates General assembly to address Condés grievances, the assembly of this Estates General was delayed until Louis XIII formally came of age on his thirteenth birthday. Although Louiss coming-of-age formally ended Maries Regency, she remained the de facto ruler of France, the Estates General accomplished little, spending its time discussing the relationship of France to the Papacy and the venality of offices, but reaching no resolutions. Beginning in 1615, Marie came to rely increasingly on the Italian Concino Concini, Concini was widely unpopular because he was a foreigner. This further antagonised Condé, who launched another rebellion in 1616, Huguenot leaders supported Condés rebellion, which led the young Louis XIII to conclude that they would never be loyal subjects. Eventually, Condé and Queen Marie made peace via the Treaty of Loudun, which allowed Condé great power in government, but did not remove Concini
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII
Louis XIII of France
–
Half Louis d'Or (1643) depicting Louis XIII
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII in 1611 by
Frans Pourbus the Younger (
Palazzo Pitti)
Louis XIII of France
–
Louis XIII, young King, by
Frans Pourbus the younger, 1620
9.
Anne of Austria
–
Anne of Austria was queen consort of France and Navarre, regent for her son, Louis XIV of France, and a Spanish and Portuguese Infanta by birth. During her regency, Cardinal Mazarin served as Frances chief minister, born at Benavente Palace in Valladolid, Spain, and baptised Ana María Mauricia, she was the eldest daughter of King Philip III of Spain and his wife Margaret of Austria. She held the titles of Infanta of Spain and of Portugal, in spite of her birth in Spain, she was referred to as Anne of Austria because the rulers of Spain belonged to the House of Austria. Anne was raised mainly at the Royal Alcazar of Madrid, exceptionally for a royal princess, Anne grew up close to her parents, who were very religious. She was raised to be too, and was often taken to visit monasteries during her childhood. In 1611, she lost her mother, who died in childbirth, despite her grief, Anne did her best to take care of her younger siblings, who referred to her with affection as their mother. Anne was betrothed at age eleven to King Louis XIII of France and her father gave her a dowry of 500,000 crowns and many beautiful jewels. For fear that Louis XIII would die early, the Spanish court stipulated that she would return to Spain with her dowry, jewels, and wardrobe if he did die. On 24 November 1615, Louis and Anne were married by proxy in Burgos while Louiss sister, Elisabeth of France, Anne and Elisabeth were exchanged on the Isle of Pheasants between Hendaye and Fuenterrabía. She was lively and beautiful during her youth and she was also a noted equestrian, a taste her son, Louis, would inherit. At the time, Anne had many admirers, including the handsome Duke of Buckingham, Anne and Louis, both fourteen years old, were pressured to consummate their marriage in order to forestall any possibility of future annulment, but Louis ignored his bride. Louiss mother, Marie de Medici, continued to conduct herself as queen of France, Anne, surrounded by her entourage of high-born Spanish ladies-in-waiting, continued to live according to Spanish etiquette and failed to improve her French. During the years he was in the ascendancy, the Duke of Luynes attempted to remedy the formal distance between Louis and his queen, Anne began to dress in the French manner, and in 1619 Luynes pressed the king to bed his queen. Some affection developed, to the point where it was noted that Louis was distracted during an illness of the queen. A series of stillbirths disenchanted the king and served to chill their relations, on 14 March 1622, while playing with her ladies, Anne fell on a staircase and suffered her second stillbirth. Louis blamed her for the incident and was angry with the Duchess of Luynes for having encouraged the queen in what was seen as negligence. Henceforth, the king had less tolerance for the influence that the duchess had over Anne, Louis turned now to Cardinal Richelieu as his advisor. Under the influence of Marie de Rohan-Montbazon, the queen let herself be drawn into political opposition to Richelieu, in 1635, France declared war on Spain, placing the queen in an untenable position
Anne of Austria
–
Anne of Austria by Peter Paul Rubens
Anne of Austria
–
Anne at the age of six, 1607. The pleated ruff that surrounds her neck and frames her face was made of yards and yards of expensive lace stiffened with starch. It was probably held in position by a wire frame attached to the collar of her dress.
Anne of Austria
–
Anne of Austria, coronation costume, by
Peter Paul Rubens
Anne of Austria
–
Louis XIII, Anne, and their son
Louis XIV, flanked by
Cardinal Richelieu and the Duchesse de Chevreuse.
10.
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis XIV by
Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701)
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis-Dieudonné,
Dauphin of France, in 1643 by
Claude Deruet
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis XIV as a child, unknown painter
Louis XIV of France
–
1655 portrait of Louis, the Victor of the Fronde, portrayed as the god
Jupiter
11.
Cardinal Mazarin
–
Mazarin succeeded his mentor, Cardinal Richelieu. He was a collector of art and jewels, particularly diamonds. His personal library was the origin of the Bibliothèque Mazarine in Paris, some of these principles, such as the nation states sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs and the legal equality among states, remain the basis of international law to this day. Giulio Raimondo Mazzarino was born in Pescina, then part of the Kingdom of Naples, giulio was the older brother of Michele Mazzarino, Master of the Sacred Palace under Pope Urban VIII, and later Archbishop of Aix-en-Provence and a cardinal. Contemporary John Bargrave suggested that his father Pietro Mazzarini had lost a significant amount of money during a transaction and was forced to flee to Rome. Regardless, Pietro was a notary who made use of his connections to the Colonna once he arrived in Rome and became chamberlain to the Constable Filippo I Colonna and he had a younger sister, Laura Margherita Mazzarini. Mazarin studied at the Jesuit College in Rome, though he declined to join their order, at seventeen he accompanied Girolamo Colonna, one of the sons of Filippo I Colonna, to the university of Alcalá de Henares in Spain, to serve as his chamberlain. His stay was brief, a notary who had advanced some cash to cover gaming debts urged the charming and personable young Mazarino to take his daughter as bride, with a substantial dowry. Later Mazarin frequented the University of Rome La Sapienza, gaining the title of Doctor in jurisprudence, Mazarin followed Filippo I Colonna as captain of infantry in his regiment during the war in Monferrato of 1628, over the succession to Mantua. During this war he gave proofs of much ability, and Pope Urban VIII entrusted him, in 1629. At the time Anna Colonna, daughter of Filippo I Colonna, was married to Urbans nephew Taddeo Barberini, and the Pope now made her brother, Girolamo Colonna, Archbishop of Albano and a new cardinal. The Cardinal was sent to Monferrat as papal legate, to treat of peace between France and Spain in the matter of Mantua, and insisted that Mazarin be attached to his legation as secretary. As papal vice-legate at Avignon, and nuncio extraordinary in France, under Habsburg pressure, Mazarin was sent back to Avignon, where he was dismissed by Urban VIII on 17 January 1636. Richelieu, who felt the weight of his years, though he was as assiduous in the Kings service as ever, detected in Mazarin a likely aide in carrying on government. He confided to the man several sensitive missions, in which Mazarin acquitted himself well, then presented him to the King. He attributed his winnings to the Queens presence, and in thanks, the Queen demurred, Mazarin pressed, and she accepted. Several days later, Mazarin quietly received a deal more than he had given. Thus he was affirmed in the favour of the King, the court and above all of Anne of Austria, who would soon be regent
Cardinal Mazarin
–
Cardinal Mazarin by
Pierre Mignard
Cardinal Mazarin
–
Cardinal Mazarin by
Robert Nanteuil, 1656
12.
Henrietta Maria of France
–
Henrietta Maria of France was queen consort of England, Scotland, and Ireland as the wife of King Charles I. She was mother of his two successors, Charles II and James II. Her Roman Catholicism made her unpopular in England, and also prohibited her from being crowned in an Anglican service, the execution of King Charles in 1649 left her impoverished. She settled in Paris, and then returned to England after the Restoration of her eldest son, Charles, in 1665, she moved back to Paris, where she died four years later. The North American Province of Maryland was named in her honour, Henrietta Maria was the youngest daughter of King Henry IV of France and his second wife, Marie de Medici. She was born at the Palais du Louvre on 25 November 1609, in England, where the Julian calendar was still in use, her date of birth is often recorded as 16 November. Henrietta Maria was brought up as a Catholic, as daughter of the Bourbon king of France, she was a Fille de France and a member of the House of Bourbon. She was the youngest sister of the future King Louis XIII of France and her father was assassinated on 14 May 1610, in Paris, before she was a year old. Henrietta was trained, along with her sisters, in riding, dancing, and singing, although tutored in reading and writing, she was not known for her academic skills, the princess was heavily influenced by the Carmelites at French court. By 1622, Henrietta was living in Paris with a household of some 200 staff, Henrietta Maria and Charles I of England were married on 13 June 1625, during a brief period in which Englands pro-Spanish policy was replaced by a pro-French policy. After an initial period, she and Charles formed an extremely close partnership. Henrietta never fully assimilated herself into English society, she did not speak English before her marriage, Charles was outraged, and upon returning to England in October, he and Buckingham demanded that King James declare war on Spain. Searching elsewhere for a bride, Charles looked to France instead, the English agent Kensington was sent to Paris in 1624 to examine the potential French match, and the marriage was finally negotiated in Paris by James Hay and Henry Rich. Henrietta was aged just 15 at the time of her marriage, views on Henriettas appearance vary, her husbands niece, Sophia of Hanover commented that the. Her arms were long and lean, her shoulders uneven, and she did, however, have pretty eyes, nose, and a good complexion. Henrietta married Charles by proxy on 11 May 1625, shortly after his accession to the throne and they were then married in person at St. Henrietta was allowed to watch Charles being crowned, at a discreet distance. Henrietta had strong Catholic beliefs, which would influence her time as queen. Charles liked to call Henrietta Maria simply Maria, with the English people calling her Queen Mary, in due course, Henrietta would unsuccessfully try to convert her Calvinist nephew Prince Rupert during his stay in England
Henrietta Maria of France
–
Portrait by
Anthony van Dyck
Henrietta Maria of France
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Signature
Henrietta Maria of France
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Henrietta Maria as a young princess of France
Henrietta Maria of France
–
Henrietta Maria and King Charles I with their two eldest surviving sons,
Charles, Prince of Wales, and
James, Duke of York, painted by
Anthony van Dyck, 1633. The greyhound symbolises the marital fidelity between Charles and Henrietta.
13.
Princess Henrietta of England
–
Henrietta of England was the youngest daughter of King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland and his wife, Henrietta Maria of France. Fleeing England with her governess at the age of three, she moved to the court of her first cousin Louis XIV of France, where she was known as Minette. After she married Philippe of France, brother of King Louis XIV, known as Monsieur at court and her marriage was marked by frequent tensions. Henrietta was instrumental in negotiating the Secret Treaty of Dover, in June 1670 – early in the month as her unexpected death. Jacobite claims to the throne of Great Britain following the death of Henry Benedict Stuart descend from her through her daughter Anne Marie and her father was King Charles I of England, her mother the youngest daughter of Henry IV of France and Marie de Medici. All her life, Henrietta would enjoy a relationship with her mother. Her connections with the court of France as niece of King Louis XIII, shortly before the birth of Henrietta, her mother had been forced to leave Oxford for Exeter, where she had arrived on 1 May 1644. Many thought she would not survive the birth due to her state of health at the time, after a particularly difficult birth, the princess was put in the care of Anne Villiers, Countess of Morton, known at that time as Lady Dalkeith. For the safety of the infant princess, the decided to make her way to Falmouth. Arriving at Falmouth in mid-July, the queen was informed that the infant princess had been ill with convulsions. On 26 July, Henrietta met her father, Charles I of England, prior to his arrival, the king had ordered that the princess would be baptised in accordance with the rites of the Church of England, and she was baptised Henrietta at Exeter Cathedral on 21 July. A canopy of state was erected in honour of her dignity as a Princess of England, while living at the French court, the princess was given the name Anne in honour of her aunt, the French queen Anne of Austria. When she first arrived, she was known as Henrietta dAngleterre or the princesse dAngleterre in France and she and her mother were given apartments at the Louvre, a monthly pension of 30,000 livres and the use of the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye. This lavish establishment soon diminished as all the money Queen Henrietta Maria received was given to her husband in England or to exiled cavaliers who had fled to France. During the Fronde, the war that raged in France between 1648 and 1653, Henrietta and her mother stayed at the Louvre. In February 1649, Henriettas mother was informed of the execution of her husband Charles I, at the end of the Fronde, Queen Henrietta Maria and her daughter moved into the Palais Royal with the young Louis XIV and his mother and brother Philippe. At the same time, Queen Henrietta Maria decided to have her daughter, with the arrival of Henriettas brother, Henry Stuart, Duke of Gloucester, in 1652, their small court was increased. After the Fronde was over, the French court made it a priority to find a bride for the king of France
Princess Henrietta of England
–
Painting by
Mignard
Princess Henrietta of England
–
A posthumous painting by
Peter Lely of Princess Henrietta commissioned by her brother King Charles II and presented by him to Exeter Guildhall, in the Council Chamber of which it still hangs today, in recognition of her birth in Bedford House, Exeter, the
town house of the
Earl of Bedford who had given her mother refuge during the dangerous years before her father's execution in 1649
Princess Henrietta of England
–
Henrietta as
Minerva holding a painting of
Monsieur, by Antoine Mathieu
14.
King Charles I of England
–
Charles I was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles was the son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England. He became heir apparent to the English, Irish, and Scottish thrones on the death of his brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. Two years later, he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France instead, after his succession, Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. Charles believed in the right of kings and thought he could govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent and he supported high church ecclesiastics, such as Richard Montagu and William Laud, and failed to aid Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years War. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War, after his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors demands for a constitutional monarchy, re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwells New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a called the Commonwealth of England was declared. The monarchy was restored to Charless son, Charles II, in 1660, the second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on 19 November 1600. James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England, in mid-July 1604, Charles left Dunfermline for England where he was to spend most of the rest of his life. His speech development was slow, and he retained a stammer, or hesitant speech. In January 1605, Charles was created Duke of York, as is customary in the case of the English sovereigns second son, Thomas Murray, a Presbyterian Scot, was appointed as a tutor. Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics, in 1611, he was made a Knight of the Garter. Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity, which might have been caused by rickets and he became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing. Even so, his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his stronger and taller elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. However, in early November 1612, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid, Charles, who turned 12 two weeks later, became heir apparent
King Charles I of England
–
Portrait from the studio of
Anthony van Dyck, 1636
King Charles I of England
–
Engraving by
Simon de Passe of Charles and his parents, King James and Queen Anne, c. 1612
King Charles I of England
–
Portrait by
Robert Peake, c. 1610
King Charles I of England
–
Portrait of Charles as Prince of Wales after
Daniel Mytens, c. 1623
15.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
England
–
Stonehenge, a
Neolithic monument
England
–
Flag
England
–
Boudica led an uprising against the
Roman Empire
England
–
Replica of a 7th-century ceremonial
helmet from the
Kingdom of East Anglia, found at
Sutton Hoo
16.
English Civil War
–
The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
English Civil War
–
The victory of the
Parliamentarian New Model Army over the
Royalist Army at the
Battle of Naseby on 14 June 1645 marked the decisive turning point in the English Civil War.
English Civil War
–
Charles I, painted by Van Dyck
English Civil War
–
Henrietta Maria, painted by
Peter Lely, 1660
English Civil War
–
Session of the Long Parliament
17.
Louis XIV
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Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
Louis XIV
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Louis XIV by
Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701)
Louis XIV
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Louis-Dieudonné,
Dauphin of France, in 1643 by
Claude Deruet
Louis XIV
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Louis XIV as a child, unknown painter
Louis XIV
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1655 portrait of Louis, the Victor of the Fronde, portrayed as the god
Jupiter
18.
Ball (dance)
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A ball is a formal dance party. Social dance forms a part of the evening, actual ballroom dancing may or may not occur. Catalan uses the word, ball, for the dance event. Cotillion ball Commemoration ball Hunt ball Masquerade ball May Ball Dance party Prom A well-documented ball occurred at Kingston Lacy, Dorset, England, on 19 December 1791. The occasion was to celebrate the completion of major alterations to the house, the event involved 140 guests, with dancing from 9pm to 7am, interrupted by dinner at 1am. Ball gown Ballroom Dance card Wallace, Carol McD. et al, new York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Media related to Balls at Wikimedia Commons
Ball (dance)
–
A photo taken the morning after a
Cambridge University May Ball in 1906
Ball (dance)
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A ball at the Russian imperial court in the 1910s.
Ball (dance)
–
Aristocrats gathering around
Emperor Franz Joseph at a ball in the
Hofburg Imperial Palace, painting by
Wilhelm Gause (1900).
Ball (dance)
–
Budapest Székely Ball
19.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
20.
Anne, Duchess of Montpensier
–
Anne Marie Louise dOrléans, Duchess of Montpensier, known as La Grande Mademoiselle, was the eldest daughter of Gaston dOrléans, and his first wife Marie de Bourbon, Duchess of Montpensier. One of the greatest heiresses in history, she died unmarried and childless, leaving her vast fortune to her cousin and she is best remembered for her role in the Fronde, her role in bringing the famous composer Lully to the kings court, and her Mémoires. Anne Marie Louise dOrléans was born at the Palais du Louvre in Paris on 29 May 1627 and her father was Gaston, Duke of Orléans, known as Monsieur, the only surviving brother of then-King Louis XIII of France. She grew up in the company of Mademoiselle de Longueville, as well as the sisters of the Maréchal de Gramont, Mademoiselle was very close to her father Gaston, Duke of Orléans. Frequently involved in conspiracies against Louis XIII and his chief advisor, Cardinal Richelieu, he was often on bad terms with the court. Mademoiselles father married Marguerite of Lorraine in a ceremony in Nancy during the night of 2 –3 January 1632. Having not obtained the permission of his elder brother, the couple could not appear at the French court. The seven-year-old Mademoiselle saw her again in October 1634. For the first time in two years she met him at Limours, where seeing him she flung herself into his arms, Gaston resided at Blois where Mademoiselle would be a frequent visitor. At the birth of the future Louis XIV in 1638, the determined Mademoiselle decided that she would marry him, Richelieu subsequently reprimanded her for her remarks. Regardless of her dreams, her father made no secret that he wanted her to marry Louis, Count of Soissons, Madame de Saint Georges died in 1643 and Mademoiselles father chose Madame de Fiesque to take her place. Her uncle also died in May 1643, leaving Louis XIV as King of France, in 1646, Mademoiselle met Charles, Prince of Wales. Her aunt, Queen Henrietta Maria of England, encouraged the idea of marrying Charles, stating he had taken a fancy to Mademoiselle, but nothing further was said at the time. Soon after, at the death of Empress Maria Anna, Mademoiselle ceased all interest in the prince and thus sighed over a union with her widower, Emperor Ferdinand III. However, under the influence of Mazarin, Queen Anne, her aunt by marriage and regent for the young Louis XIV, the wealthiest single princess of Europe was unable to marry the infant Louis XIV or his brother, the Duke of Anjou. Queen Anne suggested her brother, Cardinal Ferdinand of Austria, the influence of Cardinal Mazarin was also opposed. At the Peace of Rueil of 1 April 1649, the Fronde Parlementaire ended, Mademoiselle caught smallpox, but survived the illness. Having convalesced, Mademoiselle befriended Claire Clémence de Brézé, Madame la Princesse, the pair sojourned in Bordeaux, where Mademoiselle was involved in the peace which ended the siege in the city in October 1650
Anne, Duchess of Montpensier
–
Portrait by the school of
Pierre Mignard (Musée de Versailles)
Anne, Duchess of Montpensier
–
Signature
Anne, Duchess of Montpensier
–
Mademoiselle's father,
Gaston d'Orléans after a painting by
Anthony van Dyck. Mademoiselle had a tender relationship with her father.
Anne, Duchess of Montpensier
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Mademoiselle in 1652 by Gilbert de Seve
21.
Prince de Conti
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The title of Prince of Conti was a French noble title, assumed by a cadet branch of the princely house of Bourbon-Condé. François de Bourbon, the son of this marriage, was given the title of marquis de Conti and was later elevated to the rank of prince de Conti. He died in 1614 and the title lapsed, since his only child had predeceased him in 1610. In 1629, the title of Prince of Conti was revived in favor of Armand de Bourbon, second son of Henry II, Prince of Condé, and brother of Louis, the holders of this title used the style of Serene Highness. 1558-1614, marquis, then from 1581 onwards 1st prince François de Bourbon At his death, princess of Conti Château de LIsle-Adam This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Conti, Princes of
Prince de Conti
–
Coat of arms of the Princes of Conti
22.
Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine
–
Princess Elisabeth Charlotte was a German princess and, as Madame, the wife of Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, younger brother of Louis XIV of France, and mother of Frances ruler during the Regency. Louis invoked her hereditary claim to the Palatinate as pretext to launch the Nine Years War in 1688. Her vast, frank correspondence provides an account of the personalities and activities at the court of her brother-in-law, Louis XIV for half a century. Her grandmother Elizabeth of Bohemia was a Scottish and later English princess, daughter of James I of England and granddaughter of Mary and her first cousin became George I, the first Hanover King of England. In childhood she became known as Liselotte—a portmanteau of her names and her parents were in an unhappy dynastic marriage and in 1653 her father began an affair with Marie Luise von Degenfeld, one of his wifes attendants. He purported to marry her motu proprio as a prince-elector of the Empire, without benefit of a judicial divorce, Liselotte was five years old when she was sent to live with her fathers sister, Sophia, wife of Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover. She always remembered her time with her aunt as the happiest of her life, in 1663, Liselotte had to move back to Heidelberg where she lived with her stepmother, fifteen half-siblings, and brother, the future Charles II, Elector Palatine. On 16 November 1671, she was married by proxy at Metz to Philippe I, by prearrangement, after leaving her fathers realm but prior to arriving in France, she formally converted to Roman Catholicism. At the French court, her husband Philippe was known by the honorific of Monsieur. As his wife, Elisabeth Charlotte assumed the style of Madame, Elisabeth Charlotte was very close to her two stepdaughters Marie Louise and Anne Marie. When Marie Louise left France to marry Charles II of Spain in 1679, the homosexual proclivities of her husband were well known at court. Elisabeth Charlotte confided that he needed rosaries and holy medals draped in the places to perform the necessary act with her. Elisabeth Charlotte objected to money spent on his favourites and the exercise of their influence with him to enrich themselves. That is not at all pleasant, besides putting me in a position where, as God is my witness, we would have to live entirely on the Kings charity, Liselotte also had an apartment at the Kings private residence, the Château de Marly. In her dowager years she would stay at the Grand Trianon built by her brother-in-law, the marriage at first proved to be happy, with the birth of two male heirs. After the death of the couples first son, the Duke of Valois, she experienced depression, after this birth, the relationship between husband and wife was never as close as it had been. After the birth of their daughter Élisabeth Charlotte, the couple agreed to cease conjugal relations. Philippe turned to his minions, and Elisabeth Charlotte to writing and her letters to her aunt, Sophia of Hanover, and others, created not only a vivid picture of life during the reign of Louis XIV, but also of the regency era of her son, Philippe
Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine
–
Princess Palatine Elisabeth Charlotte
Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine
–
Signature
Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine
–
Elle the Elder, 1673: Elisabeth Charlotte, Duchesse d'Orléans, in hunting dress,
Deutsches Historisches Museum Berlin
Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine
–
Elisabeth Charlotte, Duchesse d'Orléans, with a moorish page
23.
Duke of Chartres
–
Originally, the Duchy of Chartres was the comté de Chartres, a County. The title of comte de Chartres thus became duc de Chartres and this duchy–peerage was given by Louis XIV of France to his nephew, Philippe II dOrléans, at his birth in 1674. Philippe II was the son and heir of the kings brother, Philippe de France. 882-886 Hastings, Norman Chief, beat Carloman II of France in 879, agreed to settle and he sold it in 886 to finance an expedition during which he disappeared. The northern portion of the County of Blois, bordering on Normandy, was sometimes alienated as the County of Chartres, but the Counts of Blois who possessed it did not use a separate title for it. In 1391, the death of the son of Guy II, Count of Blois prompted him to sell the inheritance of the County of Blois to Louis of Valois, Duke of Orléans. Married to Adela of Normandy 1102-1151 Theobald II, Count of Champagne, Count of Blois, Chartres and Meaux, married 1123 to Mathilde of Carinthia 1151-1191 Theobald V, Count of Blois, Count of Blois and Chartres, son of the former. In 1286, she sells the county of Chartres to Philip IV of France The kings of France installed Vidame of Chartres to administer the city and county, but it seems that the title was given to princes of blood. Renée de France, Duchesse de Chartres, daughter of Louis XII and Anne Brittany, married to Hercules dEste, Duke of Ferrara Alfonso II dEste, Duke of Ferrara, access to power in 1830 under the name of Louis-Philippe Ier. 1810-1830, Ferdinand-Philippe son of preceding Robert, a brother of the comte de Paris was titled duc de Chartres. The title is held, as a courtesy title, by Charles-Louis, duc de Chartres, son of the Orléanist claimant to the throne of France, Jacques
Duke of Chartres
–
The arms of the town of
Chartres in France, the town associated the titles Count and Duke of Chartres
24.
Rue de Richelieu
–
Rue de Richelieu is a long street of Paris, starting in the south of the 1st arrondissement, ending in the 2nd arrondissement. Parallel with it, is the Rue Vivienne and they are both pleasant streets, especially the former, which is much longer, and is rendered more striking by containing some of the finest hotels in Paris. Hosiers, artificial flower makers, clock-makers, and jewellers, are the principal tradesmen in the Rue de Richelieu, but it has no similarity with Bond-street. The Rue Vivienne is comparatively short, but it is pleasing, from the number of flowers, shrubs, is it because some few hundred thousand printed volumes are deposited therein. Today it is most notable for scattered coin dealers and currency changers, the name comes from Cardinal de Richelieu, Prime minister of King Louis XIII. The street was originally called Rue Royale, then rue de Richelieu soon after, the name was changed to Rue de la Loi during the French Revolution, its name was given back in 1806. The famous firearms played a role to the French Revolution by distributing arms to the people in 1789. The former Royal Palace hôtel which opened in 1909 was located in the building as the Fauré Le Page store. Palais Royal - Ministry of Culture database Bibliothèque nationale - Ministry of Culture database
Rue de Richelieu
–
La Bibliothèque nationale, 58 rue de Richelieu
Rue de Richelieu
–
Rue de Richelieu
Rue de Richelieu
–
The old Fauré Le Page store is located at 8, rue de Richelieu in Paris
Rue de Richelieu
–
The Royal Palace Hôtel -inaugurated in 1909
25.
Orleans Collection
–
The Orleans Collection was a very important collection of over 500 paintings formed by Philippe dOrléans, Duke of Orléans, mostly acquired between about 1700 and his death in 1723. Much of the collection has been dispersed, but significant groups remain intact, one such group is the Sutherland Loan or Bridgewater Loan, including sixteen works from the Orleans Collection, in the National Gallery of Scotland, and another is at Castle Howard, Yorkshire. There are twenty-five paintings formerly in the now in the National Gallery, London. The collection is of central interest for the history of collecting and it figured in two of the periods when art collections were most subject to disruption and dispersal, the mid-17th century and the period after the French Revolution. Granvelle had been the greatest private collector of his time, the friend and patron of Titian and Leoni and many other artists, the Swedes only skimmed the cream of the Habsburg collection, as the works now in Vienna, Madrid and Prague show. She was concerned that the collections would be claimed by her successor. The year after Odescalchis death in 1713, his heirs began protracted negotiations with the great French connoisseur and collector Pierre Crozat, acting as intermediary for Philippe, the sale was finally concluded and the paintings delivered in 1721. The French experts complained that Christina had cut down several paintings to fit her ceilings, the Orleans collection was housed in the magnificent setting of the Palais-Royal, the Paris seat of the Dukes of Orléans. He also inherited small but high quality collections from Henrietta Anne Stuart, his fathers first wife, in 1701 and his fathers lover, the Chevalier de Lorraine in 1702. The paintings were housed in two suites of rooms running side-by-side down the west or library wing of the palace, with the smaller Dutch. Rearrangements had been made to accommodate the paintings, connoisseurs particularly praised the Galerie à la Lanterne, with its even, sunless top light diffused from the cupola overhead. For most of the 18th century it was easy to visit the collection and this contained 495 paintings, though some continued to be added, and a few disposed of. The collection was most notable for Italian paintings of the High and Late Renaissance, especially Venetian works. The collection included no fewer than five of the poesies painted for Philip II of Spain, a series of four mythological allegories by Veronese are now divided between the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, and the Frick Collection and Metropolitan Museum in New York. Attributions no longer accepted, and probably regarded as even then were 2 Michelangelos. There were few works from the 15th century, except for a Giovanni Bellini, French works, of which the catalogued collection included relatively few, included a set of the Seven Sacraments and 5 other works by Poussin. The Flemish works were dominated by Rubens with 19 paintings, including a group of 12 studies now widely dispersed, van Dyck with 10 works and David Teniers with 9. The Dutch paintings included 6 Rembrandts,7 works by Caspar Netscher and 3 by Frans van Mieris that were highly regarded then than they are now
Orleans Collection
–
Jupiter and Io by
Correggio, one of the few paintings to leave the Orleans Collection before the French Revolution. (
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna)
Orleans Collection
–
Allegory of Wisdom and Strength (c. 1580) by
Veronese, originally painted for
Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor, now in the
Frick Collection, New York.
Orleans Collection
–
Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, 1552-1612, deposed by his family after he turned into a recluse
Orleans Collection
–
Christina of Sweden, 1626-1689, forced into exile when she converted to Catholicism
26.
Jules Hardouin-Mansart
–
Jules Hardouin-Mansart was a French architect whose work is generally considered to be the apex of French Baroque architecture, representing the power and grandeur of Louis XIV. Hardouin-Mansart was one of the most important European architects of the seventeenth century and he also learned from Libéral Bruant, architect of the royal veterans hospital in Paris known as Les Invalides. Hardouin-Mansart served as Louis XIVs chief architect, first enlarging the royal château of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and he became the surintendant des Bâtiments du Roi. Outside the château proper, he built the Grand Trianon and the Orangerie, as well as subsidiary royal dwellings not far away, most of these works still set their stamp on the character of Paris and can be seen by a modern-day tourist. A traditional French touch is the modest pedimented entrance flanked by projecting pavilions. Behind, the axis is extended between the former parterres, now grass. The park with formally shaped water was out by André Le Nôtre. The small scale makes it easier to compare to the approximately contemporary Het Loo and he died at Marly-le-Roi in 1708. 17th-century French art Herbermann, Charles, ed. Jules Mansard
Jules Hardouin-Mansart
–
Jules Hardouin-Mansart, marble bust by
Jean-Louis Lemoyne: a full-dress
Baroque portrait bust demonstrates that the King's architect is no mere craftsman
Jules Hardouin-Mansart
–
Château de Dampierre: a domesticated version of Baroque for a patron in Louis XIV's inner circle
Jules Hardouin-Mansart
–
Portrait of Hardouin-Mansart by
Hyacinthe Rigaud.
Jules Hardouin-Mansart
–
Portrait of Hardouin-Mansart by
François de Troy.
27.
Livre tournois
–
The livre tournois was, one of numerous currencies used in France in the Middle Ages, and a unit of account used in France in the Middle Ages and the early modern period. The denier tournois coin was minted by the abbey of Saint Martin in the Touraine region of France. The livre tournois was, in common with the original livre of Charlemagne, divided into 20 sols, between 1360 and 1641, coins worth one livre tournois were minted, known as francs. Other francs were minted under Charles V of France, Henri III of France, the use of the name franc became a synonym for livre tournois in accounting. The first French paper money, issued between 1701 and 1720, was denominated in livres tournois and this was the last time the name was used officially, as later notes and coins were denominated simply in livres, the livre parisis having finally been abolished in 1667. With many forms of domestic and international money circulating throughout Europe in the late Middle Ages and the modern period. In the world of banking of the 13th century, it was the florin. For example, the Louisiana Purchase treaty of 1803 specified the relative ratios of the franc, dollar and livre tournois. The official use of the livre tournois accounting unit in all contracts in France was legislated in 1549, since coins in Europe in the Middle Ages and the Early modern period did not have any indication of their value, their official value was determined by royal edicts. In cases of financial need, French kings could use the value for currency devaluation. By reversing these techniques, currencies could be reinforced, royal finance officers faced many difficulties. For more on issues, see Monetary policy and Greshams Law. French livre Livre parisis French franc Louis Luxembourgish livre Écu Roman currency
Livre tournois
–
John II of France
Livre tournois
–
Charles V of France
Livre tournois
–
La Banque Royale-100 livres Tournois (1720)
28.
Cardinal Fleury
–
André-Hercule de Fleury, Bishop of Fréjus was a French cardinal who served as the chief minister of Louis XV. He was born in Lodève, Hérault, the son of a tax farmer of a noble family and he was sent to Paris as a child to be educated by the Jesuits in philosophy and the Classics as much as in theology. He entered the priesthood nevertheless and through the influence of Cardinal Bonzi became almoner to Maria Theresa, queen of Louis XIV, in 1698 he was appointed bishop of Fréjus, but seventeen years in a provincial see eventually determined him to seek a position at court. On the death of the regent Philippe dOrléans in 1723, Louis XV came of age, Fleury, although already seventy years of age, deferred his own supremacy by suggesting the appointment of Louis Henri, duke of Bourbon, as first minister. Fleury was present at all interviews between Louis XV and his titular first minister, and on Bourbons attempt to break through this rule Fleury retired from court. Louis made Bourbon recall the tutor, who on 11 July 1726 took affairs into his own hands and secured the exile from court of Bourbon and of his mistress Madame de Prie. He continued to refuse the title of first minister, but his elevation to cardinal, in 1726. Fleury was impeturbable in his demeanor, frugal and prudent, Fleurys stringencies were enforced through the contrôleur général des finances Philibert Orry. By exacting forced labor from the peasants he improved Frances roads, social peace was seriously disturbed by the severities which Fleury exercised against the Jansenists. In foreign affairs, the maintenance of peace was a preoccupation he shared with Sir Robert Walpole, French diplomacy however was losing its military bite. Fleurys cagey double game with the Corsican revolutionaries under the elder Paoli, Fleury thus began the manipulations that landed Corsica in the arms of France in 1768. Fleurys economies in the army and navy, as elsewhere, found the nation poorly prepared when in 1733 war was forced upon France. Fleury was pressed by his advisor Germain Louis Chauvelin to more energetic measures, he concluded an alliance with the Spanish Bourbons. Military successes on the Rhine and in Italy secured the favorable terms of the treaty of Vienna, France had joined with the other powers in guaranteeing the succession of Maria Theresa under the pragmatic sanction. But by a diplomatic quibble, Fleury found an excuse on the death of Charles VI in 1740 for repudiating his engagements, when he found the party of war supreme in the kings counsels. After the disasters of the Bohemian campaign at the outbreak of the War of Austrian Succession he wrote in confidence a letter to the Habsburg general, Königsegg. Fleury disavowed his own letter, and died in Issy-les-Moulineaux, a few days after the French evacuation of Prague on 20 January 1743. He had enriched the library by many valuable oriental manuscripts, and was a member of the Académie française from 1717, of the Academy of Science
Cardinal Fleury
–
Cardinal de Fleury, official portrait by
Hyacinthe Rigaud, Château de Versailles.
Cardinal Fleury
–
The duc d'Orléans' Council with Cardinal Fleury
29.
Gobelins tapestry
–
The Manufacture des Gobelins is a tapestry factory located in Paris, France, at 42 avenue des Gobelins, near the Les Gobelins métro station in the 13th arrondissement. The factory is open for guided tours several afternoons per week by appointment as well as for casual visits every day except Mondays and some specific holidays. The Galerie des Gobelins is dedicated to exhibitions of tapestries from the French manufactures and furnitures from the Mobilier national. The Gobelins were a family of dyers who, in the middle of the 15th century, established themselves in the Faubourg Saint-Marcel, Paris, on the banks of the Bièvre. In 1629, their sons Charles de Comans and Raphaël de la Planche took over their fathers tapestry workshops and their partnership ended around 1650 and the workshops were split into two. Tapestries from this early, Flemish, period are sometimes called pre-gobelins, on account of Louis XIVs financial problems, the establishment was closed in 1694, but reopened in 1697 for the manufacture of tapestry, chiefly for royal use. It rivalled the Beauvais tapestry works until the French Revolution, when work at the factory was suspended, the factory was revived during the Bourbon Restoration and, in 1826, the manufacture of carpets was added to that of tapestry. In 1871 the building was burned down during the Paris Commune. The factory is still in operation today as a state-run institution, the Gobelins still produces some limited amount of tapestries for the decoration of French governmental institutions, with contemporary subjects. A branch of the manufactory was established in London probably in the early 18th-century in the area that is now Fulham High Street, around 1753 it appears to have been taken over by the priest and adventurer, Pierre Parisot, but closed only a few years later. Museums of Paris entry Paris. org entry This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
Gobelins tapestry
–
Manufacture des Gobelins, Paris.
Gobelins tapestry
–
Rear view of the Gobelin Manufactory, adjoining the
Bièvre river, in 1830.
Gobelins tapestry
–
Death of Constantine tapestry (one in a series) after a design by
Rubens woven by Filippe Maëcht and Hans Taye in the Comans-La Planche workshop, 1623-1625
Gobelins tapestry
–
Battle of Zama, Gobelin tapestry after
Jules Romain, manufactured for
Louis XIV in 1688-1690.
Louvre Museum.
30.
Overdoor
–
An overmantel serves a similar function above a fireplace mantel. Overdoors of such pieces, allegorical subjects, and landscapes were favoured through the end of the 18th century
Overdoor
–
Carved and inlaid Late Baroque supraporte in
Toruń, Poland
31.
Madame de Montespan
–
Her immediate contemporary was Barbara Villiers, mistress of King Charles II of England. She is an ancestress of several houses in Europe, including those of Spain, Italy, Bulgaria. From her father, she inherited the famous Mortemart esprit, as a young girl, she often travelled with her mother between the family estates and the court at the Louvre in Paris. At the age of twelve, she began her education at the Convent of St Mary at Saintes. She was very religious and took Communion once a week, a practise that she would continue as a young woman and her siblings were, Gabrielle, who married Claude Léonor Damas de Thianges, Marquis of Thianges and had children. Louis Victor, known as the Marquis of Vivonne, who was an enfant dhonneur, Marie Madeleine Gabrielle Adélaïde, who due to her relationship with Françoise-Athénaïs, was known as the Queen of Abbesses. At the age of twenty, Françoise-Athénaïs became a maid-of-honour to the kings sister-in-law, Princess Henrietta Anne of England, who was known at court by the traditional honorific of Madame. Later, because of the relationship between her mother and the dowager, Anne of Austria, Françoise-Athénaïs was appointed to be a lady-in-waiting to the kings wife. On 28 January 1663, Françoise married Louis Henri de Pardaillan de Gondrin, Marquis of Montespan, however, La Tremouille had to flee to Spain after a disastrous duel, and Françoise-Athénaïs was betrothed to Montespan. The wedding ceremony took place in a chapel at the Église Saint-Eustache in Paris, Françoise later recounted that as she had neglected to bring along the proper kneeling cushions for the ceremony, the couple had to kneel on dog cushions. She soon became pregnant with her first child, Christine, two weeks after her daughters birth she danced in a Court Ballet, and less than a year later her second child was born. The Montespan children were, Marie Christine de Pardaillan de Gondrin, Louis Antoine de Pardaillan de Gondrin, Marquis of Antin, later Duke of Antin. Louis Antoine had a relationship with his younger half-brothers, the Duke of Maine. The couple lived in a house close to the Louvre. She quickly established herself as the beauty of the court. Beauty, however, was one of Madame de Montespans many charms. She was a cultured and amusing conversationalist, who won the admiration of literary figures as letter-writer Madame de Sévigné. In addition, she kept abreast of political events and this had the effect of making her even more appealing to men of intellect and power
Madame de Montespan
–
Contemporary portrait of Françoise by an unknown artist
Madame de Montespan
–
Françoise while known as Mademoiselle de
Tonnay-Charente.
Madame de Montespan
–
Henrietta Anne of England, to whom Madame de Montespan was a lady-in-waiting.
Madame de Montespan
–
Mme de Montespan, by
Pierre Mignard, c 1670
32.
Palace of Versailles
–
The Palace of Versailles, Château de Versailles, or simply Versailles, is a royal château in Versailles in the Île-de-France region of France. Versailles is therefore not only as a building, but as a symbol of the system of absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime. First built by Louis XIII in 1623, as a lodge of brick and stone. The first phase of the expansion was designed and supervised by the architect Louis Le Vau and it culminated in the addition of three new wings of stone, which surrounded Louis XIIIs original building on the north, south, and west. After Le Vaus death in 1670, the work was taken over and completed by his assistant, charles Le Brun designed and supervised the elaborate interior decoration, and André Le Nôtre landscaped the extensive Gardens of Versailles. Le Brun and Le Nôtre collaborated on the fountains, and Le Brun supervised the design. During the second phase of expansion, two enormous wings north and south of the wings flanking the Cour Royale were added by the architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart. He also replaced Le Vaus large terrace, facing the garden on the west, with became the most famous room of the palace. The Royal Chapel of Versailles, located at the end of the north wing, was begun by Mansart in 1688. One of the most baffling aspects to the study of Versailles is the cost – how much Louis XIV, owing to the nature of the construction of Versailles and the evolution of the role of the palace, construction costs were essentially a private matter. Initially, Versailles was planned to be a residence for Louis XIV and was referred to as the kings house. Once Louis XIV embarked on his campaigns, expenses for Versailles became more of a matter for public record. To counter the costs of Versailles during the years of Louis XIVs personal reign. Accordingly, all materials that went into the construction and decoration of Versailles were manufactured in France, even the mirrors used in the decoration of the Hall of Mirrors were made in France. While Venice in the 17th century had the monopoly on the manufacture of mirrors, to meet the demands for decorating and furnishing Versailles, Colbert nationalised the tapestry factory owned by the Gobelin family, to become the Manufacture royale des Gobelins. In 1667, the name of the enterprise was changed to the Manufacture royale des Meubles de la Couronne, the Comptes meticulously list the expenditures on the silver furniture – disbursements to artists, final payments, delivery – as well as descriptions and weight of items purchased. Entries for 1681 and 1682 concerning the silver used in the salon de Mercure serve as an example. 5 In anticipation, For the silver balustrade for the bedroom,90,000 livres II
Palace of Versailles
–
Aerial view of the Palace from above the
Gardens of Versailles
Palace of Versailles
–
Bust of Louis XIV by
Bernini in the
Diana Salon of the Palace of Versailles
Palace of Versailles
–
View of the Palace from the garden
Palace of Versailles
–
Marble Court
33.
Turgot map of Paris
–
The Turgot map of Paris is a highly accurate and detailed map of the city of Paris as it appeared in 1734–1736. The Turgot map was published in 1739 as an atlas of 20 non-overlapping sectional birds-eye view maps in isometric perspective toward the southeast, additionally, there is one simplified general map with a 4 x 5 grid showing the layout of the 20 sectional maps. The atlas covers an area corresponding to the first eleven of the modern-day arrondissements. Each sectional map is 50 cm high by 80 cm wide, if the sectional maps are assembled, the composite is 250.5 cm high x 322.5 cm wide. It has been called the first all-comprising graphical inventory of the capital, down to the last orchard and tree, detailing every house and naming even the most modest cul-de-sac. He asked Louis Bretez, member of the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture and professor of perspective, to draw up the plan of Paris, by contract, Turgot requested a very faithful reproduction with great accuracy. Louis Bretez, was allowed to enter into the mansions, houses and gardens in order to take measurements, in the eighteenth century, the trend was to abandon portraits of cities for a geometric plan, more technical and mathematical. In 1736, Claude Lucas, engraver of the Royal Academy of Sciences, the plan was published in 1739, and the prints were bound in volumes offered to the King, the members of the Academy, and the Municipality. Additional copies were to serve as representations of France to foreigners, the 21 engraved brass plates are kept by the Chalcography of the Louvre, where they are even now used for re-printing employing the same techniques as two centuries ago. Commons, Turgot map of Paris Notes Sources Boutier, Jean, les Plans de Paris, second edition. Plan de Paris, commencé lanneé1734, dessiné et gravé sous les ordres de Messire Michel Étienne Turgot, Marquis de Sousmons at WorldCat
Turgot map of Paris
–
The Turgot map of Paris in its assembled form
Turgot map of Paris
34.
Louis XV of France
–
Louis XV, known as Louis the Beloved, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1 September 1715 until his death. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five, Cardinal Fleury was his chief minister from 1726 until the Cardinals death in 1743, at which time the young king took sole control of the kingdom. During his reign, Louis returned the Austrian Netherlands, territory won at the Battle of Fontenoy of 1745, Louis also ceded New France in North America to Spain and Great Britain at the conclusion of the Seven Years War in 1763. He incorporated the territories of Lorraine and Corsica into the kingdom of France and he was succeeded by his grandson Louis XVI in 1774. French culture and influence were at their height in the first half of the eighteenth century, however, many scholars believe that Louis XVs decisions damaged the power of France, weakened the treasury, discredited the absolute monarchy, and made it more vulnerable to distrust and destruction. Evidence for this view is provided by the French Revolution, which broke out 15 years after his death, norman Davies characterized Louis XVs reign as one of debilitating stagnation, characterized by lost wars, endless clashes between the Court and Parliament, and religious feuds. A few scholars defend Louis, arguing that his negative reputation was based on propaganda meant to justify the French Revolution. Jerome Blum described him as a perpetual adolescent called to do a mans job, Louis XV was born in the Palace of Versailles on 15 February 1710 during the reign of Louis XIV. His grandfather, Louis Le Grand Dauphin, had three sons with his wife Marie Anne Victoire of Bavaria, Louis, Duke of Burgundy, Philippe, Duke of Anjou, and Charles, Duke of Berry. Louis XV was the son of the Duke of Burgundy and his wife Marie Adélaïde of Savoy, the eldest daughter of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy. At birth, Louis XV received a title for younger sons of the French royal family. In April 1711, Louis Le Grand Dauphin suddenly died, making Louis XVs father, the Duke of Burgundy, at that time, Burgundy had two living sons, Louis, Duke of Brittany and his youngest son, the future Louis XV. A year later, Marie Adélaïde, Duchess of Burgundy, contracted smallpox and her husband, said to be heartbroken by her death, died the same week, also having contracted smallpox. Within a week of his death, it was clear that the two children had also been infected. The elder son was treated by bloodletting in an unsuccessful effort to save him. Fearing that the Dauphin would die, the Court had both the Dauphin and the Duke of Anjou baptised, the Dauphin died the same day,8 March 1712. His younger brother, the Duke of Anjou, was treated by his governess, Madame de Ventadour. The two year old Dauphin survived the smallpox, on 1 September 1715, Louis XIV died of gangrene, having reigned for 72 years
Louis XV of France
–
Louis XV by
Hyacinthe Rigaud (1730)
Louis XV of France
–
Signature
Louis XV of France
–
The duke of Brittany with his father Louis, Duke of Burgundy, his grandfather Louis, Le Grand Dauphin and his great-grandfather King Louis XIV in 1709. The future Louis XV, not yet born, is not on the painting.
Louis XV of France
–
Two
Louis d'or, 1717, depicting a very young Louis XV
35.
Tuileries Palace
–
The Tuileries Palace was a royal and imperial palace in Paris which stood on the right bank of the River Seine. It was the usual Parisian residence of most French monarchs, from Henry IV to Napoleon III, built in 1564, it was gradually extended until it closed off the western end of the Louvre courtyard and displayed an immense façade of 266 metres. After the accidental death of Henry II of France in 1559 and she sold the medieval Hôtel des Tournelles, where her husband had died, and began building the palace of Tuileries in 1564, using architect Philibert de lOrme. The name derives from the tile kilns or tuileries which had occupied the site. The palace was formed by a range of long, narrow buildings. During the reign of Henry IV, the building was enlarged to the south, so it joined the long gallery, the Grande Galerie. During the reign of Louis XIV major changes were made to the Tuileries Palace, from 1659 to 1661 it was extended to the north by the addition of the Théâtre des Tuileries. From 1664 to 1666 the architect Louis Le Vau and his assistant François dOrbay made other significant changes, a new grand staircase was installed in the entrance of the north wing of the palace, and lavishly decorated royal apartments were constructed in the south wing. The kings rooms were on the floor, facing toward the Louvre. At the same time, Louis gardener, André Le Nôtre, the Court moved into the Tuileries Palace in November 1667, but left in 1672, and soon thereafter went to the Palace of Versailles. The Tuileries Palace was virtually abandoned and used only as a theatre, the boy-king Louis XV was moved from Versailles to the Tuileries Palace on 1 January 1716, four months after ascending to the throne. He moved back to Versailles on 15 June 1722, three months before his coronation, both moves were made at the behest of the Regent, the duc dOrléans. The king also resided at the Tuileries for short periods during the 1740s, on 6 October 1789, during the French Revolution, Louis XVI and his family were forced to leave Versailles and brought to the Tuileries where they were kept under surveillance. For the next two years the palace remained the residence of the king. The Tuileries covered riding ring, the Salle du Manège, home to the royal equestrian academy, the royal family tried to escape after dark, on 20 June 1791, but were captured at Varennes and brought back to the Tuileries. The Paris National Guard defended the King, but the daughter of King Louis XVI claimed that many of the guard were already in favor of the revolution, in November 1792, the Armoire de fer incident took place at the Tuileries palace. This was the discovery of a place at the royal apartments. The incident created a scandal that served to discredit the King
Tuileries Palace
–
The Tuileries Palace and the
Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel circa 1860. The
Arc de Triomphe de l'Etoile can be seen in the background.
Tuileries Palace
–
The Tuileries Palace in the 1600s
Tuileries Palace
–
The old medieval Louvre (background) and the Tuileries (foreground) linked by the Grande Galerie along the River Seine, in 1615
Tuileries Palace
–
The Tuileries Palace and the
Louvre on the 1739
Turgot map of Paris, during the reign of
Louis XV
36.
Libertinism
–
Libertinism is described as an extreme form of hedonism. Libertines put value on physical pleasures, meaning those experienced through the senses, as a philosophy, libertinism gained new-found adherents in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, particularly in France and Great Britain. Notable among these were John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, the word Libertine was originally coined by John Calvin to negatively describe opponents of his policies in Geneva, Switzerland. This group, led by Ami Perrin, argued against Calvins insistence that church discipline should be enforced uniformly against all members of Genevan society and this was the last great political challenge Calvin had to face in Geneva. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the became more associated with debauchery. Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand wrote that Joseph Bonaparte sought only lifes pleasures, les Liaisons dangereuses, an epistolary novel by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, is a trenchant description of sexual libertinism. Wayland Young argues. the mere analysis of libertinism, carried out by a novelist with such a prodigious command of his medium. Was enough to condemn it and play a part in its destruction. The narrator subordinates reason to sense and it is based to some extent on Boileaus version of Juvenals eighth or fifteenth satire, and is also indebted to Hobbes, Montaigne, Lucretius and Epicurus, as well as the general libertine tradition. Confusion has arisen in its interpretation as it is ambiguous as to whether the speaker is Rochester himself and it criticises the vanities and corruptions of the statesmen and politicians of the court of Charles II. The libertine novel was an 18th century literary genre of which the lay in the European. The genre effectively ended with the French Revolution, themes of libertine novels were anti-clericalism, anti-establishment and eroticism. Authors include Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon, Denis Diderot, Marquis de Sade, Choderlos de Laclos, other famous titles are Histoire de Dom Bougre, Portier des Chartreux and Thérèse Philosophe. Precursors to the writers were Théophile de Viau and Charles de Saint-Evremond, who were inspired by Epicurus. Robert Darnton is a historian who has covered this genre extensively. Critics have been divided as to the merits of William Hazlitts Liber Amoris. The critic Vivian de Sola Pinto linked John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochesters libertinism to Hobbesian materialism, in Shakespeares play Hamlet, Ophelia refers to her brother Laertes as a puffd and reckless libertine. A play, The Libertine, was written by Stephen Jeffreys, the 2004 film The Libertine, based on Jeffreys play, starred Johnny Depp as Rochester
Libertinism
–
John Wilmot
Libertinism
–
Marquis de Sade
Libertinism
–
Playwrights
37.
Louise Henriette de Bourbon
–
Louise Henriette de Bourbon, Mademoiselle de Conti at birth, was a French princess, who, by marriage, became Duchess of Chartres, then Duchess of Orléans upon the death of her father-in-law. On 4 February 1752, her husband became the head of the House of Orléans, and the First Prince of the Blood, the new Duke of Orléans and his wife were then addressed as Monsieur le Prince and Madame la Princesse. Louise Henriette de Bourbon, Duchess of Orléans, was a grandmother of the French monarch Louis-Philippe King of the French and her descendants include the present-day pretenders to the throne of France and Italy and the kings of Spain and Belgium. Louise Henriette was born in Paris, the daughter of Louis Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti. Her father was the son of François Louis de Bourbon, Prince of Conti known as le Grand Conti. Her paternal grandmother and her grandfather being siblings, her parents were first cousins. Her mother was the oldest and favourite daughter of Louise-Françoise de Bourbon, herself the oldest of the surviving legitimised daughters of Louis XIV, as a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, Louise Henriette was a Princess of the Blood. In her youth she was known at court as Mademoiselle de Conti and her father died in 1727 due to a chest swelling. Her father was known to have been abusive to his wife, as such her oldest surviving brother Louis François de Bourbon became the Prince of Conti. At the time of her fathers death, she was one of three children, her brother the Prince, and another brother Louis Armand de Bourbon, the Duke of Mercœur. As a result, on 17 December 1743, at the age of seventeen, Louise Henriette married her second cousin, the Duke of Chartres, Louis Philippe dOrléans, in the chapel of the Palace of Versailles. In 1731, a marriage between the two families had taken place, that of Henriettes elder brother Louis François I de Bourbon. Among her extramarital affairs, she is said to have had a relationship with the Count of Melfort whom she met at the Château de Saint-Cloud after the birth of her son. During the Revolution of 1789, Philippe-Égalité publicly claimed that his father was not his mothers husband at all. Louise Henriette died on 9 February 1759 at age 32, with her husband and children at her side, at the Palais-Royal and her son and daughter were, respectively, eleven and eight years old. After her death, her husband had mistresses, ultimately finding the love of his life, the witty but married marquise de Montesson. At her death, her son inherited the title, which he held until it became extinct in 1792. In June 1759, shortly after his birthday, Louis Philippe, her only son, was presented before the court at Versailles, officially meeting King Louis XV
Louise Henriette de Bourbon
–
Louise Henriette in 1743 by
Jean-Marc Nattier
Louise Henriette de Bourbon
–
Signature
Louise Henriette de Bourbon
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Children of the Duke of Orléans (c.1755); Bathilde holding an angel, with her brother, the young
Duke of Chartres, on the far right. Painted by
François-Hubert Drouais.
38.
Marie Antoinette
–
Marie Antoinette (/ˈmæriˌæntwəˈnɛt/, /ˌɑ̃ːntwə-/, /ˌɑ̃ːtwə-/, US /məˈriː-/, French, born Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna, was the last Queen of France and Navarre before the French Revolution. She was born an Archduchess of Austria, and was the fifteenth and second youngest child of Empress Maria Theresa and Francis I, in April 1770, upon her marriage to Louis-Auguste, heir apparent to the French throne, she became Dauphine of France. After eight years of marriage, Marie Antoinette gave birth to a daughter, Marie-Thérèse Charlotte, the Diamond Necklace affair damaged her reputation further. On 10 August 1792, the attack on the Tuileries forced the family to take refuge at the Assembly. On 21 September 1792, the monarchy was abolished, after a two-day trial begun on 14 October 1793, Marie Antoinette was convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal of high treason, and executed by guillotine on Place de la Révolution on 16 October 1793. Maria Antonia was born on 2 November 1755, at the Hofburg Palace and she was the youngest daughter of Empress Maria Theresa, ruler of the Habsburg Empire, and her husband Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor. Her godparents were Joseph I and Mariana Victoria, King and Queen of Portugal, Archduke Joseph, shortly after her birth, she was placed under the care of the Governess of the Imperial children, Countess von Brandeis. Maria Antonia was raised with her older sister Maria Carolina. As to her relationship with her mother, it was difficult, despite the private tutoring she received, results of her schooling were less than satisfactory. At the age of ten she could not write correctly in German or in any language used at court, such as French. Under the teaching of Christoph Willibald Gluck, Maria Antonia developed into a good musician and she learned to play the harp, the harpsichord and the flute. During the familys gatherings in the evenings, she would sing and she also excelled at dancing, had an exquisite poise, and loved dolls. Following the Seven Years War and the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, Empress Maria Theresa decided to end hostilities with her longtime enemy, on 14 May she met her husband at the edge of the forest of Compiègne. Upon her arrival in France, she adopted the French version of her name, a further ceremonial wedding took place on 16 May 1770 in the Palace of Versailles and, after the festivities, the day ended with the ritual bedding. The lack of consummation of the marriage plagued the reputation of both Louis-Auguste and Marie Antoinette for the seven years. The initial reaction to the marriage between Marie Antoinette and Louis-Auguste was mixed, on the one hand, the Dauphine was beautiful, personable and well-liked by the common people. Her first official appearance in Paris on 8 June 1773 was a resounding success, on the other hand, those opposed to the alliance with Austria, and others, for personal reasons, had a difficult relationship with Marie Antoinette. Madame du Barry, for example, was Louis XVs mistress and had political influence over him
Marie Antoinette
–
Marie Antoinette with the Rose Portrait by
Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, 1783.
Marie Antoinette
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Archduchesses Maria Carolina (in blue dress) and Maria Antonia (in pink dress). Watercolor on ivory by Antonio Pencini, 1764. Vienna, Hofburg.
Marie Antoinette
–
Maria Antonia aged 12 by
Martin van Meytens, c. 1767-1768.
39.
Louis-Philippe of France
–
Louis Philippe I was King of the French from 1830 to 1848 as the leader of the Orléanist party. He spent 21 years in exile after he left France in 1793 and he was proclaimed king in 1830 after his cousin Charles X was forced to abdicate in the wake of the events of the July Revolution of that year. His government, known as the July Monarchy, was dominated by members of a wealthy French elite and he followed conservative policies, especially under the influence of the French statesman François Guizot during the period 1840–48. He also promoted friendship with Britain and sponsored colonial expansion, notably the conquest of Algeria and his popularity faded as economic conditions in France deteriorated in 1847, and he was forced to abdicate after the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1848. He lived out his life in exile in Great Britain, Louis Philippe was born in the Palais Royal, the residence of the Orléans family in Paris, to Louis Philippe, Duke of Chartres, and Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a Prince of the Blood and his mother was an extremely wealthy heiress who was descended from Louis XIV of France through a legitimized line. Louis Philippe was the eldest of three sons and a daughter, a family that was to have erratic fortunes from the beginning of the French Revolution to the Bourbon Restoration. Louis Philippes father was exiled from the court, and the Orléans confined themselves to studies of the literature. Louis Philippe was tutored by the Countess of Genlis, beginning in 1782 and she instilled in him a fondness for liberal thought, it is probably during this period that Louis Philippe picked up his slightly Voltairean brand of Catholicism. When Louis Philippes grandfather died in 1785, his father succeeded him as Duke of Orléans, from October 1788 to October 1789, the Palais Royal was a meeting-place for the revolutionaries. Louis Philippe grew up in a period that changed Europe as a whole and, following his fathers support for the Revolution. In his diary, he reports that he took the initiative to join the Jacobin Club. In June 1791, Louis Philippe got his first opportunity to become involved in the affairs of France, in 1785, he had been given the hereditary appointment of Colonel of the 14th Regiment of Dragoons. With war on the horizon in 1791, all proprietary colonels were ordered to join their regiments, Louis Philippe showed himself to be a model officer, and he demonstrated his personal bravery in two famous instances. The young colonel broke through the crowd and extricated the two priests, who then fled, at a river crossing on the same day, another crowd threatened to harm the priests. Louis Philippe put himself between a peasant armed with a carbine and the priests, saving their lives, the next day, Louis Philippe dove into a river to save a drowning local engineer. For this action, he received a crown from the local municipality. His regiment was moved north to Flanders at the end of 1791 after the Declaration of Pillnitz, Louis Philippe served under his fathers crony, the Duke of Biron, along with several officers who later gained distinction in Napoleons empire and afterwards
Louis-Philippe of France
–
Louis Philippe I; Painting by
Franz Xaver Winterhalter
Louis-Philippe of France
–
The duke of Chartres (dismounted) and his brother, the
Duke of Montpensier (on horseback), in
dragoon uniform at the
battle of Valmy (1792).
Louis-Philippe of France
–
Ferdinand, Duke of Orléans
Louis-Philippe of France
–
Louise d'Orléans
40.
Great Hall of the Palais-Cardinal
–
The theatre was used by the troupe of Molière from 1660 to 1673 and as an opera house by the Académie Royale de Musique from 1673 to 1763, when it was destroyed by fire. It was rebuilt and reopened in 1770, but again was destroyed by fire in 1781, the Palais-Royal was originally known as the Palais-Cardinal, since it was built in the 1630s as the principal residence of Cardinal Richelieu. In 1637 Richelieu asked his architect Jacques Le Mercier to begin work on the theatre, upon Richelieus death in 1642, he left the property to King Louis XIII, and it became known as the Palais-Royal, although the name Palais-Cardinal sometimes still continued to be used. The troupe of Molière and the troop of the Italians put on the shows here between 1660 and 1673, Molières most notable plays were performed here, including LÉcole des femmes, Tartuffe, Dom Juan, Le Misanthrope, LAvare, Le Bourgeois gentilhomme, and Le malade imaginaire. On the death of his old collaborator, Lully ejected Molières troupe to a new home at the Hôtel de Guénégaud and this replaced the old machinery designed by Giacomo Torelli in 1645. The stage was 9.4 meters across and 17 meters deep, several of Lullys operas were premiered at the Palais-Royal, including Alceste, Amadis, and Armide. In the 18th century many of Rameaus works were first performed here, including Hippolyte et Aricie, Les Indes galantes, Castor et Pollux, Dardanus, the Operas first theatre was destroyed by fire on 6 April 1763. The City of Paris, which was responsible for the opera house, in the meantime the company performed in the Salle des Machines in the Tuileries Palace, which was first reduced to a size more suitable for opera by the architect Jacques-Germain Soufflot. The new theatre in the Palais-Royal was designed by architect Pierre-Louis Moreau Desproux and was the first purpose-built opera house in Paris and it had a capacity of more than 2,000 spectators. The new theatre opened on 20 January 1770 with a performance of Rameaus Zoroastre, among the many other works premiered here are Piccinnis Atys, Grétrys Andromaque, Philidors Persée, and Piccinnis Iphigénie en Tauride. The theatre continued to be used by the Opera until 8 June 1781, the Théâtre de la Porte Saint-Martin, much further to the north on the Boulevard Saint-Martin, was hurriedly built in two months to replace it. In the meantime the company performed in the Salle des Menus-Plaisirs on the rue Bergère. Architectural drawings of the second Salle du Palais-Royal Hôtel de Bourgogne Théâtre du Marais Notes Sources Ayers, bjurström, Per. Giacomo Torelli and Baroque Stage Design, 2nd revised edition, translated from the Swedish. Volume One, Founding, Design and Production, lewiston, New York, The Edwin Mellen Press. Opera and Ballet in Seventeenth-Century French Theatres, Case Studies of the Salle des Machines, garreau, Joseph E. Molière, pp. 397–418 in McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Drama, Stanley Hochman, editor in chief. The Paris Opéra, An Encyclopedia of Operas, Ballets, Composers, the Paris Opera, An Encyclopedia of Operas, Ballets, Composers, and Performers. Opera in Context, Essays on Historical Staging from the Late Renaissance to the Time of Puccini, the New Grove Dictionary of Opera
Great Hall of the Palais-Cardinal
–
View of the Palais-Royal in 1679. The theatre was in the east wing (on the right).
Great Hall of the Palais-Cardinal
–
Plan of the Palais-Royal in 1679 with the location of the first theatre in blue (48°51′46″N 2°20′14″E / 48.862894°N 2.337255°E / 48.862894; 2.337255)
Great Hall of the Palais-Cardinal
–
Lully's Armide as performed at the first Salle du Palais-Royal in the revival of 1761
Great Hall of the Palais-Cardinal
–
Fire of 1763
41.
Jean-Baptiste Lully
–
Jean-Baptiste Lully was an Italian-born French composer, instrumentalist, and dancer who spent most of his life working in the court of Louis XIV of France. He is considered a master of the French baroque style, Lully disavowed any Italian influence in French music of the period. He became a French subject in 1661, Lully was born on November 28,1632 in Florence, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, to a family of millers. His general education and his training during his youth in Florence remain uncertain. He used to say that a Franciscan friar gave him his first music lessons and he also learned to play the violin. Guise took the boy to Paris, where the fourteen-year-old entered Mademoiselles service and he probably honed his musical skills by working with Mademoiselles household musicians and with composers Nicolas Métru, François Roberday and Nicolas Gigault. The teenagers talents as a guitarist, violinist, and dancer quickly won him the nicknames Baptiste, when Mademoiselle was exiled to the provinces in 1652 after the rebellion known as the Fronde, Lully begged his leave. Because he did not want to live in the country, by February 1653 Lully had attracted the attention of young Louis XIV, dancing with him in the Ballet royal de la nuit. By March 16,1653, Lully had been made royal composer for instrumental music and his vocal and instrumental music for court ballets gradually made him indispensable. In 1660 and 1662 he collaborated on performances of Francesco Cavallis Xerse. When Louis XIV took over the reins of government in 1661, in December 1661 the Florentine was granted letters of naturalization. The latter assertion was an untruth, from 1661 on, the trios and dances he wrote for the court were promptly published. When he became surintendant de la de la chambre du roi in 1661. He relied mainly on the Little Violins for court ballets and their collaboration began in earnest in 1664 with Le Mariage forcé. In 1672 Lully broke with Molière, who turned to Marc-Antoine Charpentier, having acquired Pierre Perrins opera privilege, Lully became the director of the Académie Royale de Musique, that is, the royal opera, which performed in the Palais-Royal. Between 1673 and 1687 he produced a new opera almost yearly and fiercely protected his monopoly over that new genre, after Queen Marie-Thérèses death in 1683 and the kings secret marriage to Mme de Maintenon, devotion came to the fore at court. The kings enthusiasm for opera dissipated, he was revolted by Lullys dissolute life, in 1686, to show his displeasure, Louis XIV made a point of not inviting Lully to perform Armide at Versailles. Lully died from gangrene, having struck his foot with his conducting staff during a performance of his Te Deum to celebrate Louis XIVs recovery from surgery
Jean-Baptiste Lully
–
Jean-Baptiste Lully
Jean-Baptiste Lully
–
Jean-Baptiste Lully, around 1670
Jean-Baptiste Lully
–
Garnier's engraving of Titon du Tillet's "French Parnassus", 1732
Jean-Baptiste Lully
–
Portrait of Several Musicians and Artists by François Puget [fr]. Traditionally the two main figures have been identified as the composer Jean-Baptiste Lully and the librettist Philippe Quinault. (
Musée du Louvre)
42.
Paris Opera
–
The Paris Opera is the primary opera company of France. Classical ballet as we know it today arose within the Paris Opera as the Paris Opera Ballet and has remained an integral, small scale and contemporary works are also staged in the 500-seat Amphitheatre under the Opéra Bastille. The companys annual budget is in the order of 200 million euros, with this money, the company runs the two houses and supports a large permanent staff, which includes the orchestra of 170, a chorus of 110 and the corps de ballet of 150. Each year, the Opéra presents about 380 performances of opera, ballet and other concerts, to an audience of about 800,000 people. In the 2012/13 season, the Opéra presented 18 opera titles,13 ballets,5 symphonic concerts, the companys training bodies are also active, with 7 concerts from the Atelier Lyrique and 4 programmes from the École de Danse. The poet Pierre Perrin began thinking and writing about the possibility of French opera in 1655 and he believed that the prevailing opinion of the time that the French language was fundamentally unmusical was completely incorrect. Seventeenth-century France offered Perrin essentially two types of organization for realizing his vision, an academy or a public theater. On 28 June 1669, Louis XIV signed the Privilège accordé au Sieur Perrin pour létablissement dune Académie dOpéra en musique and he was free to select business partners of his choice and to set the price of tickets. No one was to have the right of free entry including members of the royal court, although it was to be a public theatre, it retained its status as royal academy in which the authority of the king as the primary stakeholder was decisive. The monopoly, originally intended to protect the enterprise from competition during its phase, was renewed for subsequent recipients of the privilege up to the early French Revolution. As Victoria Johnson points out, the Opera was an organization by nature so luxurious and expensive in its productions that its survival depended on financial protection. His first opera Pomone with music by Robert Cambert opened on 3 March 1671, a second work, Les peines et les plaisirs de lamour, with a libretto by Gabriel Gilbert and music by Cambert, was performed in 1672. The institution was renamed the Académie Royale de Musique and came to be known in France simply as the Opéra. Because of legal difficulties Lully could not use the Salle de la Bouteille, during Lullys tenure, the only works performed were his own. The first productions were the pastorale Les fêtes de lAmour et de Bacchus, Lully greatly desired a better theatre and persuaded the king to let him use the one at the Palais-Royal free of charge. The Théâtre du Palais-Royal had been altered in 1660 and 1671, the first production in the new theatre was Alceste on 19 January 1674. The opera was bitterly attacked by those enraged at the restrictions that Lully had caused to be placed on the French, to mitigate the damage, Louis XIV arranged for new works to be premiered at the court, usually at the Chateau Vieux of the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye. This had the advantage of subsidizing the cost of rehearsals, as well as most of the machinery, sets, and costumes
Paris Opera
–
Front of the
Palais Garnier illuminated at night
Paris Opera
–
Le Grand Foyer, at the Palais Garnier
Paris Opera
–
View of the Salle du Bel-Air
Paris Opera
–
Vigarani's plan of the Salle du Palais-Royal
43.
Pierre-Louis Moreau Desproux
–
Pierre-Louis Moreau-Desproux was a pioneering French neoclassical architect. Though he did not gain the Prix de Rome that was the gateway to a prominent French career in architecture. A colossal order of Ionic pilasters distinguished its façade, where the two floors were articulated by a banding of Greek key fret. Officially Moreau-Desproux was appointed architect-in-charge to the city of Paris in 1763 and his great-uncle Jean-Baptiste-Augustin Beausire had formerly held the position. His position enabled him to influence the appointment of Jean Chalgrin to a place in the office of works. Among his private commissions was the distinctly Neo-Palladian pavilion erected for M. Nicholas Carré de Baudouin on the heights of Ménilmontant in 1770, for the auditorium of the theatre he used an oval plan and introduced structural iron. He also designed new façades for the Palais-Royal on the rue Saint-Honoré, the novel entrance screen incorporated arcades which recapitulated those of the opera house facade. Moreau-Desprouxs theatre was destroyed by a fire on 8 June 1781, one of his sisters married the architect Marie-Joseph Peyre. Moreau-Desproux met his end under the guillotine during the Terror, louis-Philippe-Joseph dOrléans, du Palais-Royal à lhôtel de Montesson, pp. 123–143, in Le Palais Royal, catalog of the exhibition held from 9 May to 4 September 1988
Pierre-Louis Moreau Desproux
–
Moreau-Desproux's
Neoclassical screen across the
cour d'entrée of the
Palais-Royal, Paris
Pierre-Louis Moreau Desproux
–
Facade of the Palais-Royal and
Moreau's opera house
Pierre-Louis Moreau Desproux
–
Elevation of the Palais-Royal on the rue Saint-Honoré, 1790
Pierre-Louis Moreau Desproux
–
Elevation of the facade of Moreau's opera house
44.
Victor Louis
–
Victor Louis was a French architect, disqualified on a technicality from winning the Prix de Rome in architecture in 1755. Louis masterpiece is the Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux of 1780 and he also designed other theatres, including the theatre of the Comédie-Française on the rue de Richelieu and the Théâtre National de la rue de la Loi. Other buildings include the Intendance in Besançon, the galleries of the Palais-Royal in Paris. A full biography by Charles Marionneau was published in Bordeaux in 1881, in 1770 he married the pianist and composer Marie-Emmanuelle Bayon. The Architecture of the French Enlightenment, Louis, Victor in Turner 1998, vol. Le Grand-Théâtre de Bordeaux, ou L’Opéra des Vendanges, photographs by Dominique Thillard, Paris, Caisse nationale des monuments historiques et des sites. Victor Louis, Architecte du Théâtre de Bordeaux, Sa vie, Bordeaux, G. Gounouilhou View at Google Books. Les salles de spectacle construites par Victor Louis à Bordeaux, au Palais-Royal et à la place Louvois, Paris, Librairie de la construction moderne. The Dictionary of Art, reprinted with corrections,34 volumes
Victor Louis
–
Victor Louis
Victor Louis
–
Grand Théâtre de
Bordeaux
Victor Louis
–
Central staircase of the Théâtre de Bordeaux
Victor Louis
–
Comédie-Française (as designed by Louis)
45.
French Revolution
–
Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
French Revolution
–
The
August Insurrection in 1792 precipitated the last days of the monarchy.
French Revolution
–
The French government faced a fiscal crisis in the 1780s, and King Louis XVI was blamed for mishandling these affairs.
French Revolution
–
Caricature of the Third Estate carrying the First Estate (clergy) and the Second Estate (nobility) on its back.
French Revolution
–
The meeting of the Estates General on 5 May 1789 at Versailles.
46.
Boulevard du Temple
–
The Boulevard du Temple, formerly nicknamed the Boulevard du Crime, is a thoroughfare in Paris that separates the 3rd arrondissement from the 11th. It runs from the Place de la République to the Place Pasdeloup, the Boulevard du Temple follows the path of the city wall constructed by Charles V and demolished under Louis XIV. The boulevard, lined with trees, was built between 1656 and 1705, from the time of Louis XVI until the July Monarchy in 1830, the Boulevard du Temple was popular and fashionable. It was a place for walking and recreation, cafés and theatres previously located at the Saint-Laurent and Saint-Germain fairs moved here. After a time, it was nicknamed the Boulevard du Crime after the crime melodramas that were so popular in its many theatres, in 1782, Philippe Curtius, Madame Tussauds tutor in wax modelling, opened his second exhibition on this Boulevard. On this boulevard, on 28 July 1835, Giuseppe Fieschi made an attempt on the life of the king, the attempt failed, but it resulted in 18 dead and 23 injured. Gustave Flaubert spent several months each winter at 42, boulevard du Temple from 1856 to 1869, the image is one of the earlier Daguerreotypes, and it is thus believed to be the earliest surviving photograph showing a person. The history of the names of the theatres at various sites on the boulevard du Temple is summarized in the following list, unless otherwise noted the names and dates are from Lecomte, and the street addresses are based on the 1861 Paris guide of Lehaguez. The building on the boulevard du Temple was demolished sometime thereafter, Théâtre de Madame Saqui Théâtre du Temple Théâtre des Délassements-Comiques Théâtre du boulevard du Temple The building on this site was later demolished. The building on the boulevard du Temple was demolished on 18 July 1862,1827, Cirque-Olympique located at 66 boulevard du Temple Opéra-National Théâtre National du Cirque Théâtre Impérial du Cirque The building on this site was later demolished. 1846, Théâtre Historique located at 72 boulevard du Temple Opéra-National Théâtre Lyrique Théâtre Historique This building was demolished in 1863, histoire des petits théâtres de Paris, new edition, volume one. La Musique à Paris en 1830-1831, Goncourt, Edmond de, Goncourt, Jules de. Journal des Goncourt, volume 1, 1851–1857, hemmings, F. W. J. Theatre and State in France, 1760–1905. Lehaguez, M. Le nouveau Paris et ses environs, from the Greek Mimes to Marcel Marceau and Beyond. Popular Theatres of Nineteenth Century France, a New Picture of Paris, or, The Strangers Guide to the French Metropolis. London, Samuel Lee and Baldwin, Craddock, some of the information on this page has been translated from its French equivalent
Boulevard du Temple
–
Boulevard du Temple
Boulevard du Temple
Boulevard du Temple
–
Louis Daguerre, "The Boulevard du Temple" (1838)
Boulevard du Temple
–
The theatres of the boulevard du Temple (ca. 1862)
47.
First French Republic
–
In the history of France, the First Republic, officially the French Republic, was founded on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. The First Republic lasted until the declaration of the First Empire in 1804 under Napoleon, under the Legislative Assembly, which was in power before the proclamation of the First Republic, France was engaged in war with Prussia and Austria. The foreign threat exacerbated Frances political turmoil amid the French Revolution and deepened the passion, in the violence of 10 August 1792, citizens stormed the Tuileries Palace, killing six hundred of the Kings Swiss guards and insisting on the removal of the king. A renewed fear of action prompted further violence, and in the first week of September 1792, mobs of Parisians broke into the citys prisons. This included nobles, clergymen, and political prisoners, but also numerous common criminals, such as prostitutes and petty thieves, many murdered in their cells—raped, stabbed and this became known as the September Massacres. The resulting Convention was founded with the purpose of abolishing the monarchy. The Conventions first act, on 10 August 1792, was to establish the French First Republic, the King, by then a private citizen bearing his family name of Capet, was subsequently put on trial for crimes of high treason starting in December 1792. On 16 January 1793 he was convicted, and on 21 January, throughout the winter of 1792 and spring of 1793, Paris was plagued by food riots and mass hunger. The new Convention did little to remedy the problem until late spring of 1793, despite growing discontent with the National Convention as a ruling body, in June the Convention drafted the Constitution of 1793, which was ratified by popular vote in early August. The Committees laws and policies took the revolution to unprecedented heights, after the arrest and execution of Robespierre in July 1794, the Jacobin club was closed, and the surviving Girondins were reinstated. A year later, the National Convention adopted the Constitution of the Year III and they reestablished freedom of worship, began releasing large numbers of prisoners, and most importantly, initiated elections for a new legislative body. On 3 November 1795, the Directory was established, the period known as the French Consulate began with the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799. Members of the Directory itself planned the coup, indicating clearly the failing power of the Directory, Napoleon Bonaparte was a co-conspirator in the coup, and became head of the government as the First Consul. He would later proclaim himself Emperor of the French, ending the First French Republic and ushering in the French First Empire
First French Republic
–
Napoleon Bonaparte seizes power during the Coup of 18 Brumaire
First French Republic
–
Flag
48.
Neoclassicism
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The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, laterally competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th, European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c.1760 in opposition to the then-dominant Baroque and Rococo styles. Each neo-classicism selects some models among the range of classics that are available to it. They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of Late Antiquity, the Rococo art of ancient Palmyra came as a revelation, through engravings in Woods The Ruins of Palmyra. While the movement is described as the opposed counterpart of Romanticism. The case of the main champion of late Neoclassicism, Ingres, demonstrates this especially well. The revival can be traced to the establishment of formal archaeology, the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts. With the advent of the Grand Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe, Neoclassicism in each art implies a particular canon of a classical model. In English, the term Neoclassicism is used primarily of the arts, the similar movement in English literature. This, which had been dominant for decades, was beginning to decline by the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation in French literature was similar, in music, the period saw the rise of classical music, and Neoclassicism is used of 20th-century developments. Ingress coronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival, much Neoclassical painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else. A fierce, but often very badly informed, dispute raged for decades over the merits of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann. The work of artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style. Unlike Carstens unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable and his main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern. Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the success of Jacques-Louis Davids Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal government, David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of government patronage in art
Neoclassicism
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Antonio Canova 's
Psyche Revived by Love's Kiss
Neoclassicism
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Henry Fuseli, The artist moved to despair at the grandeur of antique fragments, 1778–79
Neoclassicism
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Johann Joachim Winckelmann, often called "the father of archaeology"
Neoclassicism
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Print of a drawing by
John Flaxman of a scene in
Homer 's
Iliad, 1795
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Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Jacques Lemercier". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "
