1.
Nir Galim
–
Nir Galim is a religious moshav shitufi in south-central Israel, adjacent to the city of Ashdod. Located in the coastal plain, it falls under the jurisdiction of Hevel Yavne Regional Council. In 2015 it had a population of 1,395.7 The village was established in 1949, the founders were Holocaust survivors from Hungary and Central Europe, including set of twins who survived Josef Mengeles experiments. The Testimony House for the Heritage of the Holocaust was established on the moshav in 2009
2.
Yehud attack
–
The Yehud attack was an attack on a civilian house in the village of Yehud carried out by a Palestinian Fedayeen squad on October 12,1953. Three Jewish civilians were killed in the event, on Monday,12 October 1953, a Palestinian Fedayeen squad infiltrated into Israel from Jordan. The militants reached the Jewish village Yehud, located about 13 kilometers east of Tel Aviv, in the event a Jewish woman, Suzanne Kinyas, and her two children are killed. The tracks of the led to the Palestinian village of Rantis, then in the control of Jordan. About 130 IDF soldiers participated in the reprisal codenamed Operation Shoshana, the IDF force arrived at the village of Qibya, threw grenades and fired through the windows and doors of the houses. Then blew up 45 houses, a school, and a mosque, about 60 civilians, mostly women and children, were killed. The act was condemned by the U. S. State Department, the UN Security Council, Jordan lets Israelis track killer of 3 - Published on The New York Times on October 14,1953
3.
Ma'ale Akrabim massacre
–
The Maale Akrabim massacre, known in English as the Scorpion Pass Massacre, was an attack on an Israeli passenger bus, carried out on 17 March 1954, in the middle of the day. Eleven passengers were shot dead by the attackers who ambushed and boarded the bus, four passengers survived, two of whom had been injured by the gunmen. Scorpions Pass is a narrow, winding grade on the old road connecting Eilat and Beersheba, just south of Makhtesh Katan, the pass was on the primary route between Eilat and central Israel in 1954. On the Israeli-Jordanian border lines, infiltrations, unarmed and armed, were not infrequent from both sides, according to Israeli sources, between June 1949 and the end of 1952, a total of 57 Israelis, mostly civilians, were killed by infiltrators from Jordan. The Israeli death toll for the first 9 months of 1953 was 32, similar attacks, carried out largely by Palestinian commandos likely with some Egyptian support, originated from across the Egyptian border and the Gaza strip. Israel historian Benny Morris states that between 1949 and 1956 between 200 and 250 Israelis were killed by infiltrators and a number of Israeli soldiers were killed in action. Other sources give a total of 1,300 killed over this period, in the Negev, Israel embarked on development projects, which became the target of theft by Bedouins. Israeli security forces shooting of these Bedouin had created blood feuds in the area, on the night of 16 March, a bus operated by the Egged Israel Transport Cooperative Society on an unscheduled journey carrying 14 passengers made its way from Eilat to Tel Aviv. The male driver, Efraim Firstenberg, was killed, along with eight male passengers, the four survivors were two Israeli soldiers, a woman, and a five-year-old girl, Miri Firstenberg, after one of the soldiers riding the bus defended her with his body. The next day, Israeli trackers assisted by dogs and accompanied by UN observers followed the attackers tracks to a point 6 miles west of the Jordanian border. Relying on informants, Israeli intelligence sources named 3 suspects from the Jordanian village of Safi as the perpetrators, the Jordanians continued in their endeavours to discover the perpetrators of the attack. Israel requested that the Jordan–Israel Mixed Armistice Commission denounce Jordan for the crime, as a result, Israel left the HJK/IMAC. Hutchison suggested that the attackers were either Gaza Bedouin or Israeli Bedouin, john Bagot Glubb suggested that the culprits were from Gaza. This theory gained credibility when, in 1956, an ID from the Ma’ale Akrabim incident was found in Gaza, many believe that Glubb had been right and Israel wrong, and that the Maale Akrabim killers had indeed come from Egyptian-controlled territory rather than Jordan. In 2007, a bus was placed in the Eilat City Museum. Morris, Benny Israels Border Wars, 1949–1956, Arab Infiltration, Israeli Retaliation,1967 Avi Plascov, The Palestinian Refugees in Jordan 1948–1957, 1948–1957 By Published by Routledge,1981 ISBN 0-7146-3120-5
4.
Qibya massacre
–
At least sixty-nine Palestinian Arab villagers were killed. Forty-five houses, a school, and a mosque were destroyed, the act was condemned by the U. S. State Department, the UN Security Council, and by Jewish communities worldwide. The operation was codenamed Operation Shoshana by the Israel Defense Forces and it was carried out by two Israeli units at night, a paratroop company and Unit 101, a special forces unit of the IDF. The attack took place in the context of border clashes between Israel and neighbouring states, which had begun almost immediately after the signing of the 1949 Armistice Agreements, along the 1949 armistice line, infiltrations, armed or otherwise, were frequent from both sides. Many infiltrations from Jordanian territory in the West Bank consisted of unarmed Palestinian refugees attempting to rejoin their families, during 1948–49, most of the infiltrators crossed the borders to harvest crops left behind, to plant new crops in their abandoned lands, or to retrieve goods. Many others came to resettle in their old villages or elsewhere inside Israel, or to visit relatives, or simply to get a glimpse of their abandoned homes and fields. During the following years the vast majority came to steal crops, irrigation pipes, farm animals, or other property belonging to settlers, or to graze their flocks. Some engaged in smuggling goods or mail—certain items, such as Bedouin clothing, were unavailable in Israel. Others moved through Israeli territory in order to reach other Arab countries, most of the infiltrators were unarmed individuals, though it appears that the proportion who came armed and in groups steadily increased after 1950. This marked reduction was in part the result of increased Jordanian efficiency in patrolling. Between June 1949 and the end of 1952, a total of 57 Israelis, the Israeli death toll for the first nine months of 1953 was 32. Over roughly the time, the Mixed Armistice Commission condemned Israeli raids 44 times. For the same period, 1949–1953, Jordan maintained that it alone suffered 629 killed and injured from Israeli incursions, meanwhile, Palestinian guerilla raids into Israel continued. The attack initially drew a rebuke to Jordan from the Mixed Armistice Commission. Moshe Sharett said later that the Commander of the Jordan Legion, for the first time, Israel accepted Jordans offer of assistance and the tracks of the perpetrator were traced to a point 1400m over the border, to a road near Rantis, but dried up there. The Chief of Staff of the Arab Legion in Amman flew to Jerusalem to ask that no retaliatory actions take place that might compromise Jordanian investigations underway on their side of the border. Defense Minister Pinhas Lavon gave the order, in coordination with Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion.30 pm, later sources state the force consisted of 130 IDF troops of whom a third came from Unit 101. The American chairman of the Mixed Armistice Commission in his report to the UN Security Council estimated that between 250 and 300 Israeli soldiers were involved in the attack, the attack began with a mortar barrage on the village until Israeli forces reached the outskirts of the village
5.
Operation Black Arrow
–
Operation Black Arrow was an Israeli military operation carried out in Gaza on 28 February 1955. The operation targeted the Egyptian army, thirty-eight Egyptian soldiers were killed during the operation as were eight Israelis. The 1948 Arab–Israeli War resulted in a decisive Israeli victory, however, the Arab nations remained intransigent and were only willing to sign armistice agreements with Israel. Thus, a situation of “no war, no peace. Moreover, hundreds of thousands of Arab refugees now camped alongside Israel’s porous borders, the refugees lived in squalor, were kept under martial law and were prevented from gaining citizenship in their respective Arab host countries. Arab governments, but in particular Egypt, sensing the refugees’ discontent, at first, the infiltrations and border transgressions took the form of petty banditry and thievery. However, by 1954, Egyptian military intelligence was taking a role in providing various forms of support for Palestinian fedayeen activity. After an attack by the fedayeen, Israel decided to take action against Egypt for its sponsorship of the Palestinians. On February 25,1955, Arab infiltrators murdered an Israeli civilian in the town of Rehovot, one of the militants who was pursued and killed by Israeli forces was found to be in possession of documents linking him to Egyptian military intelligence. Defense Minister David Ben-Gurion and Chief of Staff Moshe Dayan demanded a response directed against those believed to have sponsored the atrocity. Prime Minister Moshe Sharett was more hesitant but demurred, on February 28, Ariel Sharon, commander of the Paratroop Brigade was issued the go-ahead to initiate Operation Black Arrow. That night, a force of 150 paratroops, led by Aharon Davidi, an Egyptian military relief convoy was ambushed en route. In total, either thirty-seven or thirty-eight Egyptian soldiers were killed, in Egypt there was a sense of humiliation. Not since the Arab-Israeli war of 1948 had the Egyptians suffered such a humiliating blow, the Israeli attack was unanimously condemned by the United Nations Security Council. In response President Nasser of Egypt decided to close the Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping and he also increased support for Palestinian fedayeen raids, which invited even harsher Israeli retaliatory raids such as Operation Elkayam and Operation Volcano
6.
Operation Elkayam
–
Operation Elkayam also known as the Khan Yunis raid, was an Israeli military operation that targeted Egyptian military positions in the Khan Yunis area. The successful operation resulted in the destruction of Egyptian military installations as well as the deaths of seventy-two Egyptian soldiers, the 1948 Arab-Israeli War resulted in a decisive Israeli victory. However, the Arab nations remained intransigent and were willing to sign armistice agreements with Israel. Thus, a situation of “no war, no peace. Moreover, hundreds of thousands of Arab refugees now camped alongside Israel’s porous borders, the refugees lived in squalor, were kept under martial law and were prevented from gaining citizenship in their respective Arab host countries. Arab governments, but in particular Egypt, sensing the refugees’ discontent, at first, the infiltrations and border transgressions took the form of petty banditry and thievery. However, by 1954, Egyptian military intelligence was taking a role in providing various forms of support for Palestinian terrorist activity. After one such atrocity, Israel decided to take action against Egypt for its sponsorship of terror. Despite its success, Operation Black Arrow did not put a halt to Egyptian sponsorship of terror raids. In late August 1955, attacks by Egyptian sponsored fedayeen near the Israeli towns of Rishon LeZion and it was therefore decided that an operation, larger in scope and size than anything previously embarked upon, was warranted. On the night of August 31,1955 paratroops of Israel’s vaunted 890th Battalion assembled to attack Egyptian military installations in Khan Yunis, among their objectives was a Tegart fort which housed a company of infantry as well as headquarters personnel. A second objective was the taking of an Egyptian emplacement, code-named Position 132, the raid was code-named Operation Elkayam, in tribute to Saadya Elkayam, a company commander who died in the Black Arrow operation. During the late evening, a force led by commander Mordechai Motta Gur set out for the fort. Another force set up a site in case the Egyptians decided to send a relief column. At 22,45 hours, the fort and surrounding emplacements had been secured, Position 132 had been abandoned by the Egyptians and the Israelis destroyed the Egyptian emplacements there. Explosive charges were set and the Tergart fort along with other nearby Egyptian emplacements were dynamited and reduced to rubble, Operation Elkayam was the first time that the Israelis employed mounted armor in their reprisal raids. The raid itself was a success and the lopsided casualty count in Israel’s favor was a clear reflection of that. The operation prompted the Egyptians to reassess their sponsorship of fedayeen terrorism, president Nasser halted fedayeen infiltration from the Egyptian border resulting in a temporary lull in fedayeen attacks
7.
Operation Egged
–
The operation was a success and resulted in the destruction of the post. Twelve Egyptian soldiers were killed and twenty-nine were taken prisoner, on October 26,1955 Egyptian forces raided a small Israeli outpost at Beerotayim, located in the southern sector of the Nitzana/El-Auja demilitarized zone. One Israel Defense Forces soldier was killed and two were captured, concurrent with this action, sizable Egyptian forces took control of positions in the southern corner of the Demilitarized Zone near El-Sabcha. Elements of this force also penetrated one kilometer into Israeli territory and occupied positions near a strategic hill, moshe Dayan, Israel’s Chief of Staff, authorized an immediate retaliation for the Egyptian border transgression but in an entirely different sector. The chosen target was an Egyptian military post near Kuntilla, one-hundred miles south of the Demilitarized Zone, on the night of October 28–29,1955 two-hundred paratroopers commanded by Ariel Sharon attacked the Kuntilla post killing twelve Egyptian soldiers and capturing twenty-nine others. Two Israeli soldiers, Yaakov Mizrahi and Amnon Abukai, were killed, both were issued posthumous medals for their daring conduct during the assault. Operation Egged merely served as a diversion for the main Israeli assault which was directed at Egyptian positions in. On the night of November 2–3, Israel initiated Operation Volcano, Israeli paratroopers as well as additional infantry from the Golani and Nahal Brigades attacked Egyptian positions at El-Sabcha, killing eighty-one Egyptian soldiers and capturing fifty-five others. Following the Sabcha operation, there were no more Egyptian incursions into the Demilitarized Zone
8.
Operation Volcano (Israeli raid)
–
The operation was successful and resulted in the permanent expulsion of Egyptian forces from the Demilitarized Zone. Eighty-one Egyptian soldiers were killed and fifty-five others were taken prisoner, el-Auja, also known in Hebrew as Nitzana, is a strategic location that sits along the border between Israel and Egypt. It contains a network of four major arteries, one of which leads directly into Israel toward the vicinity of Beer Sheva. During the 1948 Israeli War of independence, Egypt invaded Israel through this region, on December 22,1948 Israeli forces launched a counter-offensive, code-named Operation Horev, against the Egyptians and succeeded in ejecting them from Nitzana. On November 24,1949 Israel and Egypt signed an armistice whereby the Nitzana region, the armistice agreement also stipulated that on the Egyptian side of the border no Egyptian defensive positions shall be closer to El Auja than El Qouseima and Abou Aoueigila. Egypt believed that the Nitzana demilitarized zone belonged to neither Israel nor Egypt, Israel contended that the zones demilitarized status did not affect Israels sovereignty over it and that Nitzana was an integral part of Israel. In 1953 Israel established the Nahal settlement of Givat Rachel in the zone, though technically a violation of the armistice, it proved an effective counter-measure to Bedouin smuggling and Egyptian sponsored fedayeen infiltrations and sabotage operations. A smaller Israeli post just south of Givat Rachel was established in Beerotaim and these were the only two Israeli positions in the Nitzana/Auja region. In early 1955, Israel, in coordination with Egyptian officials, the task was completed on August 5,1955 and Israel regarded these borders as permanent. However, following the marking of the border, it clear that two Egyptian positions were within Israeli territory, a claim corroborated by United Nations officials. Egypt nevertheless refused to recognize the newly placed markers and destroyed them in early September 1955, on September 21, Israel sent a force into the zone and evicted Egyptian military personnel stationed adjacent to the UN headquarters, injuring two. The IDF vacated the zone after securing an agreement from the Egyptians not to interfere with the border marking endeavor, however, Egypt now demanded the expulsion of all Israeli presence, civilian as well as military, from the demilitarized zone in order to establish facts concerning sovereignty. By October 1955 tensions along the Egyptian-Israeli border were palpably high, Egypt had initiated a blockade of the Gulf of Eilat, preventing Israeli shipping from entering. In addition, Egypt continued to sponsor fedayeen terrorist infiltrations into Israel, in addition, a large force of Egyptian soldiers reinforced with artillery, armor and anti-aircraft cannon, took up positions on both sides of the demilitarized zone near Sabcha and Ras-Siram. Elements of the Egyptian force penetrated one kilometer into Israeli territory and entrenched themselves near a strategic hill, Israels response to the Egyptian provocation was swift but took place in an unexpected sector. Twelve Egyptian soldiers were killed and another twenty-nine were taken prisoner for the loss of two Israelis, the Kuntilla raid, code-named Operation Egged, merely served as a diversion for the main Israeli assault on Egyptian emplacements in and around Sabcha. Operation Volcano began on November 2 at 20,00 hrs, the attack was supported by mortar and artillery fire. The mission was completed in the morning hours of November 3
9.
Operation Olive Leaves
–
The raid was prompted by repeated Syrian attacks on Israeli fishing in the Sea of Galilee. The successful operation resulted in the destruction of the Syrian emplacements, the Syrians also sustained fifty-four killed in action. Disputes soon arose concerning sovereignty over the DMZs leading to periodic border clashes, moreover, there were a number of border transgressions involving Syrian fishermen and farmers, who, under the protection of Syrian guns, continued utilize the sea for fishing and irrigation. Israeli patrol boats sent to enforce Israeli sovereignty rights were frequently fired on from Syrian emplacements east of the shoreline, on the day before the operation, an Israeli police boat approaching the seas northwestern shore was fired on by Syrian guns. In addition, the Israelis hoped to take Syrian prisoners who could be exchanged for four Israelis held captive by Syria under brutal, ariel Sharon was given overall command of the operation. Foreign Minister Moshe Sharett was in the United States to negotiate a possible purchase at the time. On the night of 11–12 December 1955 the operation began, Sharon directed the operation from a small plane circling the battle area. The combined force raided Syrian emplacements along the Kinnerets northeastern shoreline north of Kibbutz Ein Gev until the Jordan River estuary, the Syrians suffered fifty-four killed in action and another thirty Syrian soldiers were taken prisoner. The Israelis lost six soldiers, with another ten wounded and his death notwithstanding, the mission was regarded as an unmitigated success. Political fallout generated by the operation would later prompt Ben-Gurion to comment, somewhat sarcastically, though militarily successful, political fallout from the operation was immediate. It drew a United Nations rebuke and it resulted in the postponement of Foreign Minister Moshe Sharetts arms request and it also killed the prospect of direct US military assistance for the time being. Sharett himself was outraged upon hearing of the operation, Sharett also expressed suspicion to Abba Eban that Ben-Gurion had deliberately ordered the raid to deny him a personal victory in the arms request. Upon his return home, Sharett berated Ben-Gurions military secretary when the latter greeted him at the airport, in Israel, Sharett continued to sharply criticize Ben-Gurion for ordering the raid, once remarking that Satan himself could not have chosen a worse timing. He bitterly complained that Ben-Gurion exceeded his authority when he failed to consult the Cabinet, Cabinet ministers were also stunned by the raid, and were critical of the scope and timing of the raid. Ministers demanded that in the future, all proposed military operations be brought before the cabinet for approval, nonetheless, the operation was a tactical success and achieved two important objectives. First, it impressed upon the Syrians the might which Israel could bring to bear if provoked, indeed, it has been suggested that Syrias failure to act militarily on behalf of its Egyptian ally during Israels Operation Kadesh was a consequence of Operation Olive Leaves. Second, Israels capture of numerous Syrian soldiers during the raid helped facilitate the release of its four captives held by Syria, on March 29,1956, a prisoner exchange was effectuated and the four were returned to Israel after enduring fifteen months of captivity in Syria
10.
Shafrir synagogue shooting attack
–
The Shafrir synagogue shooting attack was an attack carried out by Palestinian terrorists on April 11,1956. A Palestinian Arab militant squad infiltrated Israel from Egypt and they entered the village Kfar Chabad during the evening of 11 April 1956. Two armed militants entered the synagogue of the village and opened fire into a crowd of 46 children aged 9–16, three children and an instructor were killed in the incident. Five children were injured, three of them in serious condition, Israel Says Arabs Made Night Attack - published on Star-News on April 11,1956
11.
1956 Eilat bus ambush
–
The 1956 Eilat bus ambush was an attack on an Egged bus traveling from Tel-Aviv to Eilat on August 16,1956. The Israeli civilian bus was ambushed by a Fedayeen squad on August 16,1956, four passengers were killed and three were injured. On Thursday,16 August 1956, a Palestinian Fedayeen squad infiltrated into Israel from Jordan, the militants reached Beer Menucha in the Arava region and prepared an ambush in a ditch on the side of the road. Around noon, the weekly Egged bus #391 from Tel-Aviv to Eilat, three Israeli soldiers and a female civilian were killed. In addition, three passengers were injured. Four Israelis Die In Ambush - The StarPhoenix, August 16,1956
12.
Ein Ofarim killings
–
The Ein Ofarim killings was a terrorist attack which occurred on Wednesday night,12 September 1956. On Wednesday night,12 September 1956, a Palestinian Fedayeen squad infiltrated into Israel from Jordan, the militants reached the Ein Ofarim facility near the village Hatzeva where they stabbed to death 3 Druze guardsmen. As a result, Israel made a decision to retaliate in response to the Ein Ofarim killings, the Arendall station was chosen as the destination for the counterattack. 13 Israeli paratroopers participated in the counterattack codenamed Operation Shoshana in which they attacked the fortified Arendall station, during the operation 16 Jordanian soldiers were killed. IDF casualties in the operation included one dead soldier and 12 wounded soldiers, Israel Cites Jordan Raid - published on Sarasota Herald-Tribune on September 14,1956
13.
Ramat Rachel shooting attack
–
Four Jewish archaeologists were killed in the event and 16 others were wounded. On Sunday,23 September 1956, a tour was held for a group of Israeli archaeologists at the excavations near Kibbutz Ramat Rachel. During the tour machine-gun fire was opened on the archaeologists from Jordanian positions at Mar Elias Monastery near the Jerusalem-Bethlehem road, the fire killed four people, including the archaeologist Jacob Pinkerfeld, and 16 others were wounded. Another person who was injured in the shooting died eventually of his wounds five years later. Jordan, Jordan expressed regret for the incident and blamed a single soldier who was taken by madness. Gunfire Kills Three Israelis - Published in Milwaukee Journal on September 23,1956
14.
Negev desert road ambush
–
The Negev desert road ambush was a terrorist attack which occurred on Thursday,4 October 1956. During the afternoon of 4 October 1956, a squad of 10 armed Palestinian Fedayeen militants infiltrated Israel from Jordan, the vehicle were carrying employees of the Solel Boneh company. The militants began by attacking the first vehicle with machine gun fire, afterwards the militants attacked the second vehicle. One of the passengers in the car jumped out in an attempt to escape the militants. The militants killed him as well with machine-gun fire, only one person, an American engineer who was driving the second car, managed to escape the incident. Gabriel Benjamin Dahan Ephraim Waldman Arie Lahav Jacob Lustig The squad members were arrested on their return to Jordan by a Jordanian police force, shortly thereafter, King Hussein of Jordan ordered the release of the assailants. An Israeli Foreign Ministry spokesman blamed the killings on a trained and organized group from Jordan. He also stated that the incident shows a continuation of Jordans policy of aggression, on October 10 The Israeli military conducted a counterattack codenamed Operation Samaria in which the IDF attacked the Qalqilya police station at the Tegart fort. After a fierce battle the fort was blown up,18 IDF soldiers died in the operation and 68 were injured. About 88 Jordanians were killed and 15 were wounded, arabs Are Accused - published on Milwaukee Journal on October 5,1956
15.
Israel
–
Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
16.
Gaza Strip
–
Gaza, together with the West Bank, comprise the Palestinian territories claimed by the Palestinians as the State of Palestine. The territories of Gaza and the West Bank are separated from each other by Israeli territory, both fall under the jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, but Gaza has since June 2007 been governed by Hamas, a Palestinian Islamic organization which came to power in free elections in 2006. It has been placed under an Israeli and U. S. -led international economic, the territory is 41 kilometers long, and from 6 to 12 kilometers wide, with a total area of 365 square kilometers. With around 1.85 million Palestinians on some 362 square kilometers, an extensive Israeli buffer zone within the Strip renders much land off-limits to Gazas Palestinians. Gaza has a population growth rate of 2. 91%, the 13th highest in the world. The population is expected to increase to 2.1 million in 2020, by that time, Gaza may be rendered unliveable, if present trends continue. Due to the Israeli and Egyptian border closures and the Israeli sea and air blockade, Sunni Muslims make up the predominant part of the Palestinian population in the Gaza Strip. Israel maintains direct control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza, it controls Gazas air and maritime space. It reserves the right to enter Gaza at will with its military, Gaza is dependent on Israel for its water, electricity, telecommunications, and other utilities. When Hamas won the Palestinian legislative election,2006, Fatah refused to join the proposed coalition, when this collapsed under joint Israeli and United States pressure, the Palestinian Authority instituted a non-Hamas government in the West Bank while Hamas formed a government on its own in Gaza. Further economic sanctions were imposed by Israel and the European Quartet against Hamas, a brief civil war between the two groups had broken out in Gaza when, apparently under a U. S. -backed plan, Fatah contested Hamas’s administration. Hamas emerged the victor and expelled Fatah-allied officials and members of the PAs security apparatus from the Strip, since 2007, the Gaza Strip has been de facto governed by Hamas, which claims to represent the Palestinian National Authority and the Palestinian people. Israel maintains direct control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza, it controls Gazas air and maritime space. It reserves the right to enter Gaza at will with its military, Gaza is dependent on Israel for its water, electricity, telecommunications, and other utilities. The Gaza Strip acquired its current northern and eastern boundaries at the cessation of fighting in the 1948 war, article V of the Agreement declared that the demarcation line was not to be an international border. At first the Gaza Strip was officially administered by the All-Palestine Government, All-Palestine in the Gaza Strip was managed under the military authority of Egypt, functioning as a puppet state, until it officially merged into the United Arab Republic and dissolved in 1959. From the time of the dissolution of the All-Palestine Government until 1967, Israel captured the Gaza Strip from Egypt in the Six-Day War in 1967. In 2005, Israel withdrew from the Gaza Strip under their unilateral disengagement plan, in July 2007, after winning the 2006 Palestinian legislative election, Hamas became the elected government
17.
All-Palestine Protectorate
–
The Protectorate was declared on September 1948 in the Gaza city and All-Palestine Government was formed. The Prime Minister of the Gaza-seated administration was Ahmed Hilmi Pasha, in December 1948, just three months after declaration, the All-Palestine Government was relocated to Cairo and was never allowed to return to Gaza, making it a government in exile. Ernest A. Gross, a senior U. S. State Department legal adviser, authored a memorandum for the United States government titled Recognition of New States and Governments in Palestine, dated 11 May 1948. Gross also said the law of nations recognizes an inherent right of people lacking the agencies, though this is a generally accepted principle of international law, Gross opinion was only internal US government advice. In any event, the British Mandate did expire on 15 May 1948, other than the Arab Higher Committee, which was re-established in 1945 by the Arab League, the Palestinian Arab community had no government, and no administrative or unified military structure. It relied on the objective declared by the Arab League on 12 April 1948, as the war progressed, however, the ineffectiveness of the Committee became obvious. When it appeared that the Arab forces would not defeat the Israeli forces, by the end of the war, however, the Arab Higher Committee had become politically irrelevant. The All-Palestine Protectorate relied entirely on the Egyptian government for funding and it was finally dissolved in 1959 by decree of Nasser. The 1948 Arab-Israeli War came to an end with the Israel-Egypt Armistice Agreement of 24 February 1949, the All-Palestine Government was not a party to the Agreement nor involved in its negotiation. In reality, during most of its existence the All-Palestine Protectorate was under de facto Egyptian administration, Egypt did not offer the Gazan Palestinians citizenship. Palestinians living in the Gaza Strip and Egypt were issued All-Palestine passports, however, these passports were only recognized by six Arab countries. The passports ceased to be issued when the All-Palestine Government was dissolved, the All-Palestine Government was established by the Arab League on 22 September 1948 during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War to govern the All-Palestine Protectorate. It was soon recognized by all Arab League members except Transjordan, though jurisdiction of the Government was declared to cover the whole of the former Mandatory Palestine, its effective jurisdiction was limited to the All-Palestine Protectorate. The Prime Minister of the Gaza-seated administration was Ahmed Hilmi Pasha, the All-Palestine Government revived the Holy War Army with the declared aim of liberating Palestine. The Army, however, has never recovered the defeat of the 1948 War and was in fact a collection of Palestinian fedayeen militias. The Gaza Strip was the area of the former British Mandate territory that was under the nominal control of the All-Palestine Government. The rest of the British Mandate territory became part of Israel or the West Bank. Free Lebanon State Jordanian occupation of the West Bank Shlaim, Avi, the rise and fall of the All-Palestine Government in Gaza
18.
Palestinian return to Israel
–
Palestinian return to Israel refers to the movement of Palestinians into the territory of Israel. The period from 1948 to 1956 saw extensive attempts by Palestinians to cross the border, during the 1990s, following numerous attacks against Israeli citizens by Palestinians, escalating policies of closure of the Green Line replaced labor mobility. In the 2000s, this policy has been supplemented by physical barriers in the West Bank and Gaza, Israeli policy to prevent the refugees returning to their homes was initially formulated by David Ben-Gurion and Yosef Weitz and formally adopted by the Israeli cabinet in June 1948. Despite much of the community, including the US President Harry Truman, insisting that the repatriation of Palestinian refugees was essential. Alan Baker, then legal adviser to the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, said that from 1948 until 2001, the then deputy minister of the Israeli Ministry of Public Security, Gideon Ezra, said that 57,000 Jordanian came illegally under the three years to 2001. An expert in the Ministry of Labor said that number is totally illogical, Palestinian infiltration refers to numerous border-crossings by Palestinians considered illegal by the Israeli authorities, during the first years of Israeli statehood. Between 30,000 and 90,000 Palestinian refugees returned to Israel as a result, in 1951, Palestinian infiltrators killed an Israeli teenage girl at her home in Jerusalem. On June 9,1953 Palestinian infiltrators attacked Hadera and Lod killing a Lod resident, the attacks came just one day after Jordan agreed to prevent armed infiltration to Israel. During June 1953, infiltrators destroyed a house in Mishmar Ayalon, in the same month Palestinian gunmen killed a couple in Kfar Hess. During May 1954, Arab militants attacked an Israeli bus killing its passengers one by one, the attack known as Maale Akrabim massacre, resulted in the death of 11 passengers and according to the testimonies of the survivors, the bodies of the victims were desecrated. During 1955, infiltrators killed two hikers at Judean Hills and a girl attending a wedding party. In 1956, infiltrators opened fire at a synagogue in the community of Shafrir killing three children. Also in the year, a resident of Ashkelon was killed. During September and October 1956, many Israeli civilians, including four archeologists, were killed in series of attacks, Israeli leadership came to the conclusion that only retaliatory strikes would be able to create the necessary factor of deterrence, that would convince the Arab armies to prevent infiltration. This was the cause for the establishment in August 1953 of Unit 101, during the years 1954–1956, a number of such raids took place. The reprisals led to more Arab hatred and the infiltrations became increasingly more violent, the tactical success of the raids led to the establishment of a very unstable balance of threat, which essentially left Israel in a state of border warfare. The Israeli government has accused the Arab governments of supporting and sponsoring the infiltrations, the non-prevention of armed infiltration over an agreed border is widely considered an act of war, therefore Israel argued that their retaliatory strikes, which were also acts of war, were justified. The terms of the Armistice Agreement restricted Egypts use and deployment of armed forces in the Gaza
19.
Suez Crisis
–
The Suez Crisis, also named the Tripartite Aggression and the Kadesh Operation or Sinai War, was an invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by the United Kingdom and France. The aims were to regain Western control of the Suez Canal, after the fighting had started, political pressure from the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations led to a withdrawal by the three invaders. The episode humiliated Great Britain and France and strengthened Nasser, on October 29, Israel invaded the Egyptian Sinai. Britain and France issued a joint ultimatum to cease fire, which was ignored, on November 5, Britain and France landed paratroopers along the Suez Canal. The Egyptian forces were defeated, but they did block the canal to all shipping and it later became clear that the Israeli invasion and the subsequent Anglo-French attack had been planned beforehand by the three countries. The three allies had attained a number of their objectives, but the Canal was now useless and heavy political pressure from the United States. U. S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower had strongly warned Britain not to invade, historians conclude the crisis signified the end of Great Britains role as one of the worlds major powers. The Suez Canal was closed from October 1956 until March 1957, Israel fulfilled some of its objectives, such as attaining freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran. The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, after ten years of work financed by the French, the canal instantly became strategically important, as it provided the shortest ocean link between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. The canal eased commerce for trading nations and particularly helped European colonial powers to gain, in 1875, as a result of debt and financial crisis, the Egyptian ruler was forced to sell his shares in the canal operating company to the British government of Benjamin Disraeli. They were willing buyers and obtained a 44 percent share in the operations for less than £4 million. With the 1882 invasion and occupation of Egypt, the United Kingdom took de facto control of the country as well as the canal proper, the 1888 Convention of Constantinople declared the canal a neutral zone under British protection. In ratifying it, the Ottoman Empire agreed to international shipping to pass freely through the canal, in time of war. The Convention came into force in 1904, the year as the Entente cordiale between Britain and France. Following the Japanese surprise attack on the Russian Pacific Fleet based at Port Arthur, the British denied the Russian fleet use of the canal and forced it to steam around Africa, giving the Japanese forces time to consolidate their position in East Asia. The importance of the canal as an intersection was again apparent during the First World War. The attempt by German and Ottoman forces to storm the canal in February 1915 led the British to commit 100,000 troops to the defense of Egypt for the rest of the war. The canal continued to be strategically important after the Second World War as a conduit for the shipment of oil, petroleum business historian Daniel Yergin wrote of the period, In 1948, the canal abruptly lost its traditional rationale
20.
Palestinians
–
Despite various wars and exoduses, roughly one half of the worlds Palestinian population continues to reside in historic Palestine, the area encompassing the West Bank, the Gaza Strip and Israel. Of the Palestinian population who live abroad, known as the Palestinian diaspora, the history of a distinct Palestinian national identity is a disputed issue amongst scholars. Palestinian was used to refer to the nationalist concept of a Palestinian people by Palestinian Arabs in a limited way until World War I, Modern Palestinian identity now encompasses the heritage of all ages from biblical times up to the Ottoman period. Founded in 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organization is an organization for groups that represent the Palestinian people before the international community. Since 1978, the United Nations has observed an annual International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People, herodotus also employs the term as an ethnonym, as when he speaks of the Syrians of Palestine or Palestinian-Syrians, an ethnically amorphous group he distinguishes from the Phoenicians. Herodotus makes no distinction between the Jews and other inhabitants of Palestine, the Greek word reflects an ancient Eastern Mediterranean-Near Eastern word which was used either as a toponym or ethnonym. In Ancient Egyptian Peleset/Purusati has been conjectured to refer to the Sea Peoples, among Semitic languages, Akkadian Palaštu is used of Philistia and its 4 city states. Biblical Hebrews cognate word Plištim, is usually translated Philistines, the Arabic word Filastin has been used to refer to the region since the time of the earliest medieval Arab geographers. It appears to have used as an Arabic adjectival noun in the region since as early as the 7th century CE. The Arabic newspaper Falasteen, published in Jaffa by Issa and Yusef al-Issa, the first Zionist bank, the Jewish Colonial Trust, was founded at the Second Zionist Congress and incorporated in London in 1899. The JCT was intended to be the instrument of the Zionist Organization. On 27 February 1902, a subsidiary of this Trust called the Anglo-Palestine Company was established in London with the assistance of Zalman David Levontin and this Company was to become the future Bank Leumi. Following the 1948 establishment of Israel, the use and application of the terms Palestine and Palestinian by, for example, the English-language newspaper The Palestine Post, founded by Jews in 1932, changed its name in 1950 to The Jerusalem Post. Jews in Israel and the West Bank today generally identify as Israelis, Arab citizens of Israel identify themselves as Israeli and/or Palestinian and/or Arab. Anyone born, after that date, of a Palestinian father – whether in Palestine or outside it – is also a Palestinian. Thus, the Jews of Palestine were/are also included, although limited only to the Jews who had resided in Palestine until the beginning of the Zionist invasion. The Charter also states that Palestine with the boundaries it had during the British Mandate, is a territorial unit. The although the timing and causes behind the emergence of a distinctively Palestinian national consciousness among the Arabs of Palestine are matters of scholarly disagreement
21.
Yehoshafat Harkabi
–
Yehoshafat Harkabi was chief of Israeli military intelligence from 1955 until 1959 and afterwards a professor of International Relations and Middle East Studies at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Harkabi had a command of Arabic, a deep knowledge of Arab civilization and history. He developed from an uncompromising hardliner to supporter of a Palestinian state who recognized the PLO as a negotiations partner, following his military career, Harkabi served as a visiting professor at Princeton University and guest scholar at the Brookings Institution. He was Maurice Hexter professor and director of the Leonard Davis Institute of International Relations, in 1993, Harkabi was awarded the Israel Prize, for political science. The Palestinian National Covenant, An Israeli Commentary, the Bar Kokhba Syndrome, Risk and Realism in International Relations. In The Israel-Arab Reader, A Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict, the Arab-Israeli Conflict on the Threshold of Negotiations. Center of International Studies, Princeton University, ISBN 99924-0-953-3 List of Israel Prize recipients On Making Peace Despite the Risks - Zeev Schiff Heads of Aman, Mossad, & Shin Bet
22.
Military Intelligence Directorate (Israel)
–
The Directorate of Military Intelligence, often abbreviated to Aman, is the central, overarching military intelligence body of the Israel Defense Forces. Aman was created in 1950, when the Intelligence Department was spun off from the IDFs General Staff, Aman is an independent service, and not part of the ground forces, Navy or the Air Force. It is one of the entities of the Israeli Intelligence Community, along with Mossad. It is currently headed by Major General Herzi Halevi and it includes the special forces unit Sayeret Matkal, and the elite training course Havatzalot Program. The IDFs Intelligence Corps, abbreviated as Haman and headed by a general, has been detached from Aman since the Yom Kippur War. In April 2000, the newest IDF corps was founded, the Combat Intelligence Collection Corps and it was designed to fulfill some of Amans former combat intelligence functions, and is also headed by a Brigadier General. Although it falls under the jurisdiction of the GOC Army Headquarters it also falls under Amans professional jurisdiction. Field security at the level of the General Staff, and the training, direction and operation of the Collection Agencies. Drawing maps, providing the direction and supervision for the dissemination of maps, the development of special measures for intelligence work. The development of doctrine in the realms of research, collection. Staff responsibility for military attachés overseas, Yadlin, who had been serving as the IDFs military attaché in Washington, D. C. was a combat pilot, former head of the air forces Air Intelligence Directorate, and Halutzs deputy. Yadlin was appointed as Aman Director on January 5,2006, in November 2010 Yadlin was replaced by Major General Aviv Kochavi. org on Aman Israeli Intelligence in the 1967 War, By Doron Geller, JUICE, The Jewish Agency for Israel, Education Dept. Israeli Intelligence and the Yom Kippur War of 1973, By Doron Geller, JUICE, The Jewish Agency for Israel, the Yom Kippur War, the IDF version, by Amir Oren, for Haaretz Intelligence service under scrutiny, by Dan Baron, for the Jewish Telegraphic Agency
23.
David Ben-Gurion
–
David Ben-Gurion was the primary founder of the State of Israel and the first Prime Minister of Israel. Ben-Gurions passion for Zionism, which early in life, led him to become a major Zionist leader. On 14 May 1948, he proclaimed the establishment of the State of Israel, and was the first to sign the Israeli Declaration of Independence. Ben-Gurion led Israel during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and united the various Jewish militias into the Israel Defense Forces, subsequently, he became known as Israels founding father. Following the war, Ben-Gurion served as Israels first Prime Minister and Minister of Defense, as Prime Minister, he helped build the state institutions, presiding over various national projects aimed at the development of the country. He also oversaw the absorption of vast numbers of Jews from all over the world, a centerpiece of his foreign policy was improving relationships with the West Germans. He worked very well with Konrad Adenauers government in Bonn, in 1954 he resigned as both Prime Minister and Minister of Defense, although he remained a member of the Knesset. However, he returned as Minister of Defense in 1955 after the Lavon Affair resulted in the resignation of Pinhas Lavon, later in the year he became Prime Minister again, following the 1955 elections. He stepped down from office in 1963, and retired from life in 1970. He then moved to Sde Boker, a kibbutz in the Negev desert, posthumously, Ben-Gurion was named one of Time magazines 100 Most Important People of the 20th century. David Ben-Gurion was born in Płońsk in Congress Poland – then part of the Russian Empire and his father, Avigdor Grün, was a lawyer and a leader in the Hovevei Zion movement. His mother, Scheindel, died when he was 11 years old, Ben-Gurions birth certificate, when rediscovered in Poland in 2003, indicated that he had a twin brother who died shortly after birth. At the age of 14 he and two formed a youth club, Ezra, promoting Hebrew studies and emigration to the Holy Land. In 1905, as a student at the University of Warsaw and he was arrested twice during the Russian Revolution of 1905. Ben-Gurion discussed his hometown in his memoirs, saying, For many of us, I personally never suffered anti-Semitic persecution. Płońsk was remarkably free of it, nevertheless, and I think this very significant, it was Płońsk that sent the highest proportion of Jews to Eretz Israel from any town in Poland of comparable size. We emigrated not for reasons of escape but for the positive purpose of rebuilding a homeland. Life in Płońsk was peaceful enough, there were three main communities, Russians, Jews and Poles
24.
Ariel Sharon
–
Ariel Sharon was an Israeli general and politician who served as the 11th Prime Minister of Israel from March 2001 until April 2006. Sharon was incapacitated by a stroke in January 2006, Sharon was a commander in the Israeli Army from its creation in 1948. As Minister of Defense, he directed the 1982 Lebanon War, Sharon was considered the greatest field commander in Israels history, and one of the countrys greatest military strategists and tacticians. After his assault of the Sinai in the Six-Day War and his encirclement of the Egyptian Third Army in the Yom Kippur War, the Israeli public nicknamed him The King of Israel. Upon retirement from the military, Sharon entered politics, joining the Likud and he became the leader of the Likud in 2000, and served as Israels prime minister from 2001 to 2006. From the 1970s through to the 1990s, Sharon championed construction of Israeli settlements in the West Bank, however, as Prime Minister, in 2004–05 Sharon orchestrated Israels unilateral disengagement from the Gaza Strip. Facing stiff opposition to this policy within the Likud, in November 2005 he left Likud to form a new party, Kadima. He had been expected to win the election and was widely interpreted as planning on clearing Israel out of most of the West Bank. After suffering a stroke on January 4,2006, Sharon remained in a permanent vegetative state until his death in January 2014. Sharon was born on February 26,1928 in Kfar Malal and his mother, Vera, was from a family of Russian Subbotnik Jewish origin. His parents met while at university in Tiflis, where Sharons father was studying agronomy and they immigrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1922 in the wake of the Russian Communist governments growing persecution of Jews in the region. The family arrived with the Third Aliyah and settled in Kfar Malal, although his parents were Mapai supporters, they did not always accept communal consensus, The Scheinermans eventual ostracism. They were expelled from the local clinic and village synagogue. The cooperatives truck wouldnt make deliveries to their farm nor collect produce, Sharon grew up to be bilingual in both Hebrew and Russian languages. Four years after their arrival at Kfar Malal, the Sheinermans had a daughter, Ariel was born two years later. At age 10, he joined the youth movement HaNoar HaOved VeHaLomed, as a teenager, he began to take part in the armed night-patrols of his moshav. Sharons unit of the Haganah became engaged in serious and continuous combat from the autumn of 1947, without the manpower to hold the roads, his unit took to making offensive hit-and-run raids on Arab forces in the vicinity of Kfar Malal. In units of thirty men, they would hit constantly at Arab villages, bridges and bases, Sharon wrote in his autobiography, We had become skilled at finding our way in the darkest nights and gradually we built up the strength and endurance these kind of operations required
25.
Unit 101
–
Commando Unit 101 was a special forces unit of the Israeli Defense Forces, founded and commanded by Ariel Sharon on orders from Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion in August 1953. Members of the unit were recruited only from agricultural kibbutzim and moshavim, membership in the unit was by invitation only, and any new member had to be voted on by all existing members before they were accepted. They are considered to have had a significant influence on the development of subsequent Israeli infantry-oriented units, following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Israel was faced with cross-border raids and infiltrations by Arab militants and non-militants respectively. Many of these were small scale infiltrations that consisted of unarmed Palestinian refugees attempting to rejoin their families, according to Israel, about 9,000 attacks were launched from 1949 to 1956, resulting in hundreds of Israeli civilian casualties. At the same time the IDF was ill-prepared to respond to these raids, the Palmach, its three best combat units of the 1948 war, had been disbanded at Ben-Gurions instruction. Many experienced officers had left the army after the war, as a result the IDF did not have any units capable of effective reprisal, and did not perform well in offensive operations. The Palestinians must learn that they pay a high price for Israeli lives. As a response to this problem the IDF formed Unit 30 in 1951—a secret unit that belonged to the IDF Southern Command and their purpose was to execute retribution missions while operating in compact and well-trained teams. Unfortunately for the IDF the officers lacked the training and executed their duties poorly. One of Sharons final operations before leaving the army in 1952 was the semi-successful Operation Bin Nun Alef into Jordan. During the operation he suffered injuries, after which Sharon had recommended to the General Staff that an elite force, trained in commando tactics. After a series of unsuccessful retribution infiltrations by existing IDF units and this was Israels first, and reservist Ariel Sharon was recalled to duty. Sharon was given the rank of Major and chosen to command the company-sized unit, the unit was to consist of 50 men, most of them former Tzanhanim and Unit 30 personnel. The new unit began a process of day and night training. Some of their exercises frequently took them across the border, as enemy engagement was seen as the best preparation, the recruits went on forced marches and undertook weapons and sabotage training at their base camp at Sataf, a depopulated Arab village just west of Jerusalem. No other unit ever before received its orders directly from the IDF General Staff—the IDF High Command MATKAL, originally Tzanhanim companys officers were the biggest opposition against the creation of Unit 101. The reason for this was simply that they didnt want another competitor for retaliation missions, before the formation of Unit 101 only they undertook these missions. One of the tactical commanders was Meir Har-Zion, who was later awarded the rank of an officer solely for his conduct in battle
26.
Politics of Israel
–
The politics of Israel is dominated by Zionist parties. They traditionally fall into three camps, the first two being the largest, Labor Zionism, Revisionist Zionism and Religious Zionism, there are also several non-Zionist Orthodox religious parties, non-Zionist left-wing groups, as well as non-Zionist and anti-Zionist Israeli Arab parties. Golda Meir, Prime Minister of Israel from 1969 to 1974, once joked that in Israel, the prevalent balance between the largest parties means that the smaller parties can have strong influence disproportionate to their size. Due to their ability to act as tie breakers, they use this status to block legislation or promote their own agenda. From the founding of Israel in 1948 until the election of May 1977, from 1967 to 1970, a national unity government included all of Israels parties except for the two factions of the Communist Party of Israel. After the 1977 election, the Revisionist Zionist Likud bloc came to power, forming a coalition with the National Religious Party, Agudat Israel, Netanyahu subsequently formed a predominantly right-wing coalition government publicly committed to pursuing the Oslo Accords, but with an emphasis on security first and reciprocity. His coalition included the Likud party, allied with the Tzomet and Gesher parties in a single list, the latter was the first significant party formed expressly to represent the interests of Israels new Russian immigrants. The Gesher party withdrew from the coalition in January 1998 upon the resignation of its leader, David Levy, barak was forced to call for early elections, the only prime ministerial elections not held alongside Knesset elections. On 17 February 2001, elections resulted in a new national unity government, led by Ariel Sharon of the Likud. This government fell when Labor pulled out, and new elections were held 28 January 2003, based on the election results, Sharon was able to form a right-wing government consisting of the Likud, Shinui, the National Religious Party and the National Union. The coalition focused on improving Israeli security through fighting against terror, Sharons attempt to add the Haredi United Torah Judaism to the coalition drove Shinui out, and forced Sharon to bring the Labor Party back into his coalition. Since not all Likud Knesset members supported Sharons disengagement plan, he lacked a clear majority in the Knesset. Apparently calculating that his popularity was greater than that of the party, Sharon pulled out of the Likud on 21 November 2005. He was joined only days later by Shimon Peres, who pulled out of the Labor party to join Sharon in a bid for a new government. This represented a cataclysmic realignment in Israeli politics, with the former right, on 4 January 2006 Prime Minister Sharon suffered a massive stroke and went into a coma, and subsequently died in 2014. Designated Acting Prime Minister Ehud Olmert took power, becoming interim Prime Minister 100 days after Sharons incapacitation and he did not become full Prime Minister due to elections being held in March and a new government being formed. Following the March 2006 elections, which left Kadima as the largest party in the Knesset and he included Labour, Shas and Gil in a 67-seat coalition. In November 2006, Yisrael Beiteinu also joined the government, faced with internal opposition due to mounting corruption charges, Olmert announced that he would not seek reelection in the next elections held in February 2009
27.
Moshe Dayan
–
Moshe Dayan was an Israeli military leader and politician. He was the child born on the first kibbutz, but he moved with his family in 1921. In the 1930s he was trained by Orde Wingate to set traps for Palestinian-Arabs fighting the British, Dayan was close to David Ben-Gurion and joined him in setting up Rafi in 1965 with Shimon Peres. They eventually rejoined Mapai becoming Defence Minister in the 1967 Six-Day War, Moshe Dayan was born on 20 May 1915 on Kibbutz Degania Alef, near the Sea of Galilee in what was then Ottoman Syria or Palestine, within the Ottoman Empire. Dayans parents, Shmuel and Devorah Dayan, were Jewish immigrants from Ukraine, Kibbutz Degania Alef, with 11 members, was the first kibbutz, and would become part of the State of Israel. Dayan was the child born at Degania, after Gideon Baratz. He was named Moshe after Moshe Barsky, the first member of Degania to be killed in an Arab attack, soon afterward, Dayans parents moved to Nahalal, the first moshav, or farming cooperative, to be established. Dayan attended the school there. He spoke Hebrew, Arabic, and English, at the age of 14, he joined the Jewish defence force Haganah. In 1938, he joined the British-organised irregular Supernumerary Police and led a small motorized patrol, one of his military heroes was the British pro-Zionist intelligence officer Orde Wingate, under whom he served in several Special Night Squads operations. On 3 October 1939, he was the instructor for Haganah Leaders courses held at Yavniel when two British Palestine Police officers discovered a quantity of illegal rifles. Haganah HQ ordered the camp evacuated, leading a group of 43 men through Wadi Bira, early the following morning,12 to 15 Arab members of the Transjordan Frontier Force arrested them. Questions were asked about how such a force was arrested by a much smaller one. Moshe Carmel, the deputy commander, was also critical of Dayans willingness to talk to his interrogators in Acre prison. On 30 October 1939, most of the group were sentenced to 10 years in prison, seven months later, Dayan was replaced as the prisoners representative after it was discovered that moves were being made to get him an individual pardon. On 16 February 1941, after Chaim Weizmanns intervention in London, Dayan was assigned to a small Australian-Palmach-Arab reconnaissance task force, formed in preparation for the Allied invasion of Syria and Lebanon and attached to the Australian 7th Division. Using his home kibbutz of Hanita as a base, the unit frequently infiltrated Vichy French Lebanon, wearing traditional Arab dress. On 7 June 1941, the night before the invasion of the Syria–Lebanon Campaign, Dayans unit crossed the border and secured two bridges over the Litani River
28.
Arab League
–
The Arab League, formally the League of Arab States, is a regional organization of Arab countries in and around North Africa, the Horn of Africa and Arabia. It was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 with six members, Kingdom of Egypt, Kingdom of Iraq, Transjordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Yemen joined as a member on 5 May 1945. Currently, the League has 22 members, but Syrias participation has been suspended since November 2011, the League has served as a platform for the drafting and conclusion of many landmark documents promoting economic integration. One example is the Joint Arab Economic Action Charter, which outlines the principles for economic activities in the region, each member state has one vote in the League Council, and decisions are binding only for those states that have voted for them. Furthermore, the signing of an agreement on Joint Defence and Economic Cooperation on 13 April 1950 committed the signatories to coordination of military defence measures. In March 2015, the Arab League General Secretary announced the establishment of a Joint Arab Force with the aim of counteracting extremism, the decision was reached while Operation Decisive Storm was intensifying in Yemen. Participation in the project is voluntary, and the army intervenes only at the request of one of the member states. The growing militarization of the region and the increase in violent civil wars as well as terrorist movements are the reason behind the creation of the JAF, financed by the rich Gulf countries. In the early 1970s, the Economic Council of the League of Arab States put forward a proposal to create the Joint Arab Chambers of Commerce across the European states and that led, under the decree of the League of Arab States no. Following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945 and it aimed to be a regional organisation of Arab states with a focus to developing the economy, resolving disputes and coordinating political aims. Other countries later joined the league, each country was given one vote in the council. It was followed by the creation of a defence treaty two years later. A common market was established in 1965, the Arab League member states cover over 13,000,000 km2 and straddles two continents, Africa and Asia. The area largely consists of deserts, such as the Sahara. The area comprises deep forests in southern Arabia and parts of the worlds longest river, the Charter of the Arab League, also known as the Pact of the League of Arab States, is the founding treaty of the Arab League. Adopted in 1945, it stipulates that the League of Arab States shall be composed of the, starting with only six members in 1945, the Arab League now occupies an area spanning around 14 million km² and counts 22 members, and 4 observer states. The 22 members today include three of the largest African countries and the largest country in the Middle East, there was a continual increase in membership during the second half of the 20th century, with an additional 15 Arab states being admitted. Syria was suspended following the 2011 uprising, as of 2016, there are a total of 22 member states
29.
Sinai Peninsula
–
The Sinai Peninsula or simply Sinai is a peninsula in Egypt, situated between the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Red Sea to the south, serving as a land bridge between Asia and Africa. It is the part of Egyptian territory located in Asia. Sinai has an area of about 60,000 km2. The bulk of the peninsula is divided administratively into two of Egypts 27 governorates, the Sinai Peninsula has been a part of Egypt from the First Dynasty of ancient Egypt. In periods of occupation, the Sinai was, like the rest of Egypt, also occupied and controlled by foreign empires, in more recent history the Ottoman Empire. Israel invaded and occupied Sinai during the Suez Crisis of 1956, on 6 October 1973, Egypt launched the Yom Kippur War to retake the peninsula, which was the site of fierce fighting between Egyptian and Israeli forces. Today, Sinai has become a tourist destination due to its setting, rich coral reefs. Mount Sinai is one of the most religiously significant places in Abrahamic faiths, in addition to its formal name, Egyptians also refer to it as Arḍ ul-Fairūz. The ancient Egyptians called it Ta Mefkat, or land of turquoise, Sinai is triangular in shape, with northern shore lying on the southern Mediterranean Sea, and southwest and southeast shores on Gulf of Suez and Gulf of Aqaba of the Red Sea. It is linked to the African continent by the Isthmus of Suez,125 kilometres wide strip of land, the eastern isthmus, linking it to the Asian mainland, is around 200 kilometres wide. The peninsulas eastern shore separates the Arabian plate from the African plate, the southernmost tip is the Ras Muhammad National Park. Most of the Sinai Peninsula is divided among the two governorates of Egypt, South Sinai and North Sinai, together, they comprise around 60,000 square kilometres and have a population of 597,000. Three more governates span the Suez Canal, crossing into African Egypt, Suez is on the end of the Suez Canal, Ismailia in the centre. The largest city of Sinai is Arish, capital of the North Sinai, other larger settlements include Sharm el-Sheikh and El-Tor, on the southern coast. Inland Sinai is arid, mountainous and sparsely populated, the largest settlements being Saint Catherine, Sinai is one of the coldest provinces in Egypt because of its high altitudes and mountainous topographies. Winter temperatures in some of Sinais cities and towns reach −16 °C, the mines were worked intermittently and on a seasonal basis for thousands of years. Modern attempts to exploit the deposits have been unprofitable and these may be the first historically attested mines. According to the Hebrew Bible, the peninsula was crossed by the Israelites during the Exodus from Egypt and this included numerous halts over a 40-year period of travel sometime towards the end of the Bronze Age
30.
Egyptian Army
–
The Egyptian Army is the largest service branch within the Egyptian Armed Forces, and is the largest army in Africa. The modern army was established during the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha, the Egyptian army was also engaged heavily in the protracted North Yemen Civil War, and the brief Libyan-Egyptian War in July 1977. As of 2014, the army has a strength of 310,000 soldiers, of which, approximately 90. For most parts of its history, ancient Egypt was unified under one government. The main military concern for the nation was to keep enemies out, the arid plains they wanted to get rid of and deserts surrounding Egypt were inhabited by nomadic tribes who occasionally tried to raid or settle in the fertile Nile river valley. Nevertheless, the expanses of the desert formed a barrier that protected the river valley and was almost impossible for massive armies to cross. The Egyptians built fortresses and outposts along the borders east and west of the Nile Delta, in the Eastern Desert, small garrisons could prevent minor incursions, but if a large force was detected a message was sent for the main army corps. Most Egyptian cities lacked city walls and other defenses, the history of ancient Egypt is divided into three kingdoms and two intermediate periods. During the three kingdoms Egypt was unified under one government, during the intermediate periods government control was in the hands of the various nomes and various foreigners. The geography of Egypt served to isolate the country and allowed it to thrive and this circumstance set the stage for many of Egypts military conquests. They weakened their enemies by using small projectile weapons, like bows and arrows and they also had chariots which they used to charge at the enemy. Following his seizure of power in Egypt, and declaration of himself as khedive of the country, Muhammad Ali Pasha set about establishing a bona fide Egyptian military. Prior to his rule, Egypt had been governed by the Ottoman Empire, to further this aim, he brought in European weapons and expertise, and built an army that defeated the Ottoman Sultan, wresting control from the Porte of the Levant, and Hejaz. Egypt was involved in the long-running 1881–99 Mahdist War in the Sudan, during Muhammad Ali Pashas reign, the Egyptian army became a much more strictly regimented and professional army. The recruits were separated from daily life and a sense of the impersonal of law was imposed. Muhammad Ali Pasha previously attempted to create an army of Sudanese slaves and Mamluks, instead, the Pasha enforced conscription in 1822 and the new military recruits were mostly Egyptian farmers, also known as fellah. Because of harsh military practices, the 130,000 soldiers conscripted in 1822 revolted in the south in 1824, the Pashas goal was to create military order through indoctrination by two new major key practices, isolation and surveillance. In previous times, the wives and family were allowed to follow the army wherever they camped and this was no longer the case
31.
Egyptian Armed Forces
–
In addition, Egypt maintains large paramilitary forces. The Central Security Forces comes under the control of the ministry of interior, the Border Guard Forces, and The National Guard, comes under the control of the Ministry of Defence. The Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, the uniformed officer, is Field Marshal Mohamed Hussein Tantawi. The Armed Forces inventory includes equipment from different countries around the world, to bolster stability and moderation in the region, Egypt has provided military assistance and training to a number of other African and Arab states. Although not a NATO member, Egypt remains a strong military, the Egyptian military is one of the strongest in the region, and gives Egypt regional military supremacy rivaled only by Israel, besides being one of the strongest in Africa. Egypt is one of the few countries in the Middle East, the Armed Forces enjoy considerable power and independence within the Egyptian state. They are also influential in business, engaging in road and housing construction, consumer goods, resort management, much military information is not made publicly available, including budget information, the names of the general officers and the military’s size. According to journalist Joshua Hammer, as much as 40% of the Egyptian economy is controlled by the Egyptian military. The inventory of the Egyptian armed forces includes equipment from the United States, France, Brazil, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, conscripts with a General Secondary School Degree serve two years as enlisted personnel. Conscripts with a university degree serve one year as enlisted personnel or three years as a reserve officer, officers for the army are trained at the Egyptian Military Academy. The Egyptian Air Force or EAF is the branch of the Egyptian Armed Forces. Currently, the backbone of the EAF is the F-16, the EAF is considered to be the strongest in Africa and one of the strongest in the Middle East. The Mirage 2000 is the other modern interceptor used by the EAF, the Egyptian Air Force has 216 F-16s making it the 4th largest operator of the F-16 in the World. The Air Force is undergoing massive modernization, mikoyan confirmed that talks with Egypt are underway for the sale of 40 Mig-29SMT jet-fighters with a possible additional batch of 60-80 planes. The Egyptian Air Defense Command or ADF is Egypts military command responsible for air defense and its commander is Lieutenant General Abd El Aziz Seif-Eldeen. Although the Egyptian Navy is the smallest branch of the military, the Egyptian Navy is known to be the strongest in the African continent, and the largest in the Middle East in spite of the rapid growth of other countries navies within the region. Some fleet units are stationed in the Red Sea, but the bulk of the remains in the Mediterranean. Navy headquarters and the operational and training base are located at Ras el Tin near Alexandria
32.
Israel Defense Forces
–
The Israel Defense Forces, commonly known in Israel by the Hebrew acronym Tzahal, are the military forces of the State of Israel. They consist of the forces, air force, and navy. It is the military wing of the Israeli security forces. The IDF is headed by its Chief of General Staff, the Ramatkal, subordinate to the Defense Minister of Israel, Lieutenant general Gadi Eizenkot has served as Chief of Staff since 2015. The number of wars and border conflicts in which the IDF has been involved in its history makes it one of the most battle-trained armed forces in the world. The Israel Defense Forces differs from most armed forces in the world in many ways, differences include the mandatory conscription of women and its structure, which emphasizes close relations between the army, navy, and air force. Since its founding, the IDF has been designed to match Israels unique security situation. The IDF is one of Israeli societys most prominent institutions, influencing the economy, culture. In 1965, the Israel Defense Forces was awarded the Israel Prize for its contribution to education, the Uzi submachine gun was invented in Israel and used by the IDF until December 2003, ending a service that began in 1954. The Israeli cabinet ratified the name Israel Defense Forces, Tzva HaHagana LeYisrael, literally army for the defense of Israel, the other main contender was Tzva Yisrael. The name was chosen because it conveyed the idea that the role was defense, and because it incorporated the name Haganah. Among the primary opponents of the name were Minister Haim-Moshe Shapira, the IDF traces its roots to Jewish paramilitary organizations in the New Yishuv, starting with the Second Aliyah. The first such organization was Bar-Giora, founded in September 1907 and it was converted to Hashomer in April 1909, which operated until the British Mandate of Palestine came into being in 1920. Hashomer was an elitist organization with narrow scope, and was created to protect against criminal gangs seeking to steal property. During World War I, the forerunners of the Haganah/IDF were the Zion Mule Corps, after the Arab riots against Jews in April 1920, the Yishuvs leadership saw the need to create a nationwide underground defense organization, and the Haganah was founded in June of the same year. The Haganah became a defense force after the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine with an organized structure. During World War II the successor to the Jewish Legion of World War I was the Jewish Brigade, the IDF was founded following the establishment of the State of Israel, after Defense Minister and Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion issued an order on 26 May 1948. The order called for the establishment of the Israel Defense Forces, although Ben-Gurion had no legal authority to issue such an order, the order was made legal by the cabinet on 31 May
33.
Khan Yunis
–
Khan Yunis is a city in the southern Gaza Strip. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, Khan Yunis had a population of 142,637 in 2007 and 202,000 in 2010 and 350,000 in 2012, the Constituency of Khan Yunis had five members on the Palestinian Legislative Council. Following the Palestinian legislative election,2006, there were three Hamas members, including Yunis al-Astal, and two Fatah members, including Mohammed Dahlan, the city is now under the Hamas administration of Gaza. Before the 14th century, Khan Yunis was a known as Salqah. To protect caravans, pilgrims and travelers a vast khan was constructed there by the emir Yunus al-Nûrûzi in 1387-88, the khan and the growing town surrounding it were named Khan Yunis after him. In 1389 Yunus was killed in battle, Yunus ibn Abdallah an-Nuzuri ad-Dawadar was the executive secretary, one of the high-ranking officials of the Mamluk sultan Barquq. The town became an important center for trade and its weekly Thursday market drew traders from neighboring regions, the khan served as resting stop for couriers of the barid, the Mamluk postal network in Palestine and Syria. In late 1516 Khan Yunis was the site of a battle in which the Egypt-based Mamluks were defeated by Ottoman forces under the leadership of Sinan Pasha. The Ottoman sultan Selim I then arrived in the area where he led the Ottoman army across the Sinai Peninsula to conquer Egypt, during the 17th and 18th centuries the Ottomans assigned an Azeban garrison associated with the Cairo Citadel to guard the fortress at Khan Yunis. Pierre Jacotin named the village Kan Jounes on his map from 1799, in 1863 French explorer Victor Guérin visited Khan Yunis. He found it had about a thousand inhabitants, and that many fruit trees, at the end of the 19th-century the Ottomans established a municipal council to administer the affairs of Khan Yunis, which had become the second largest town in the Gaza District after Gaza itself. In 1945 Khan Yunis had a population of 11,220,11,180 Muslims and 40 Christians, with 2,302 and 53,820 dunams of land, according to an official land and population survey. Of this,4,172 dunams were plantations and irrigable land,23,656 used for cereals, during the night of 31 August 1955, three Israeli paratroop companies attacked the British-built Tegart fort in Khan Yunis from where attacks had been carried out against Israelis. The police station, a station and several buildings in the village of Abasan were destroyed, as well as railway tracks. In heavy fighting,72 Egyptian soldiers were killed, one Israeli soldier was killed and 17 were wounded. The operation led to a ceasefire on September 4, forcing President Gamal Abdel Nasser, one of the mechanized companies was commanded by Rafael Eitan. Before the Suez War, Khan Yunis was officially administered by the All-Palestine Government, seated in Gaza, after a fierce firefight, the Sherman tanks of the IDF 37th Armored Brigade broke through the heavily fortified lines outside of Khan Yunis held by the 86th Palestinian Brigade. It was the site in the Gaza strip where the Egyptian army put up any resistance to the Israeli invasion of Gaza
34.
Rafah
–
Rafah is a Palestinian city and refugee camp in the southern Gaza Strip. It is the capital of the Rafah Governorate, located 30 kilometers south of Gaza City. Rafahs population of 152,950 is overwhelmingly made up of Palestinian refugees, Rafah camp and Tall as-Sultan camp form separate localities. When Israel withdrew from the Sinai in 1982, Rafah was split into a Gazan part, the core of the city was destroyed by Israel and Egypt to create a large buffer zone. Rafah is the site of the Rafah Border Crossing, the crossing point between Egypt and the State of Palestine. Gazas only airport, Yasser Arafat International Airport, was located just south of the city, the airport operated from 1998 to 2001, until it was bombed and bulldozed by the Israeli military after the killing of Israeli soldiers by members of Hamas. After World War I Palestine was also under British control, from the mid-1930s the British enhanced the border control and Rafah evolved as a small boundary town which functioned as a trade and services centre for the semi-settled Beduin population. During the Second World War it became an important British base, following the Armistice Agreement of 24 February 1949, Rafah was located in Egypt-occupied Gaza and consequently, a Gaza–Egypt border did no longer exist. Rafah could grow without any consideration being taken of the old 1906 international boundary, in the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel conquered the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip from Egypt and all of the city now was under Israeli occupation. In 1979, Israel and Egypt signed a treaty that returned the Sinai. In the Peace Treaty, the re-created Gaza–Egypt border was drawn across the city of Rafah, Rafah was divided into an Egyptian and a Palestinian part, splitting up families, separated by barbed-wire barriers. Families were separated, property was divided and many houses and orchards were cut across and destroyed by the new boundary, bulldozed, Rafah became one of the three border points between Egypt and Israel. In 1922, Rafahs population was 599, which increased to 2,220 in 1945, in 1982, the total population was approximately 10,800. In the 1997 Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics census, Rafah and its adjacent camp had a population of 91,181. Refugees made up 80. 3% of the entire population, in the 1997 census, Rafahs gender distribution was 50. 5% male and 49. 5% female. In the 2006 PCBS estimate, Rafah city had a population of 71,003, Rafah camp and Tall as-Sultan form separate localities for census purposes, having populations of 59,983 and 24,418, Rafah has a history stretching back thousands of years. It was first recorded in an inscription of Egyptian Pharaoh Seti I, from 1303 BCE as Rph, and as the first stop on Pharaoh Shoshenq Is campaign to the Levant in 925 BC. In 720 BCE it was the site of the Assyrian king Sargon IIs victory over the Egyptians, Rafah is mentioned in Strabo, the Antonine Itinerary, and is depicted on the Map of Madaba
35.
Six-Day War
–
The Six-Day War, also known as the June War,1967 Arab–Israeli War, or Third Arab–Israeli War, was fought between June 5 and 10,1967 by Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Relations between Israel and its neighbours had never fully normalised following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, in the period leading up to June 1967, tensions became dangerously heightened. In reaction to the mobilisation of Egyptian forces along the Israeli border in the Sinai Peninsula, the Egyptians were caught by surprise, and nearly the entire Egyptian air force was destroyed with few Israeli losses, giving the Israelis air superiority. Simultaneously, the Israelis launched an offensive into the Gaza Strip and the Sinai. After some initial resistance, Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser ordered the evacuation of the Sinai, Israeli forces rushed westward in pursuit of the Egyptians, inflicted heavy losses, and conquered the Sinai. Nasser induced Syria and Jordan to begin attacks on Israel by using the initially confused situation to claim that Egypt had defeated the Israeli air strike. Israeli counterattacks resulted in the seizure of East Jerusalem as well as the West Bank from the Jordanians, on June 11, a ceasefire was signed. Arab casualties were far heavier than those of Israel, fewer than a thousand Israelis had been killed compared to over 20,000 from the Arab forces. Israels military success was attributed to the element of surprise, an innovative and well-executed battle plan, Israel seized control of the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. Israeli morale and international prestige was greatly increased by the outcome of the war, across the Arab world, Jewish minority communities were expelled, with refugees going to Israel or Europe. After the 1956 Suez Crisis, Egypt agreed to the stationing of a United Nations Emergency Force in the Sinai to ensure all parties would comply with the 1949 Armistice Agreements, in the following years there were numerous minor border clashes between Israel and its Arab neighbors, particularly Syria. In early November 1966, Syria signed a defense agreement with Egypt. Jordanian units that engaged the Israelis were quickly beaten back, King Hussein of Jordan criticized Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser for failing to come to Jordans aid, and hiding behind UNEF skirts. In May 1967, Nasser received false reports from the Soviet Union that Israel was massing on the Syrian border, the right of innocent, maritime passage must be preserved for all nations. On May 30, Jordan and Egypt signed a defense pact, the following day, at Jordans invitation, the Iraqi army began deploying troops and armoured units in Jordan. They were later reinforced by an Egyptian contingent, on June 1, Israel formed a National Unity Government by widening its cabinet, and on June 4 the decision was made to go to war. The next morning, Israel launched Operation Focus, a surprise air strike that was the opening of the Six-Day War. Before the war, Israeli pilots and ground crews had trained extensively in rapid refitting of aircraft returning from sorties and this has contributed to the Arab belief that the IAF was helped by foreign air forces
36.
1949 Armistice Agreements
–
The United Nations established supervising and reporting agencies to monitor the established armistice lines. In addition, discussions related to the enforcement, led to the signing of the separate Tripartite Declaration of 1950 between the United States, Britain, and France. In it, they pledged to take action within and outside the United Nations to prevent violations of the frontiers or armistice lines. It also outlined their commitment to peace and stability in the area, their opposition to the use or threat of force and these lines held until the 1967 Six-Day War. On 6 January 1949, Dr. Ralph Bunche announced that Egypt had finally consented to start talks with Israel on an armistice, the talks began on the Greek island of Rhodes on 12 January. Shortly after their commencement, Israel agreed to the release of a besieged Egyptian brigade in Faluja, at the end of the month, the talks floundered. Israel demanded that Egypt withdraw all its forces from the area of Mandate Palestine. The deadlock culminated on 12 February 1949 with the murder of Hassan al-Banna, Israel threatened to abandon the talks, whereupon the United States appealed to the parties to bring them to a successful conclusion. On 24 February the Israel–Egypt Armistice Agreement was signed in Rhodes, the Egyptian forces besieged in the Faluja Pocket were allowed to return to Egypt with their weapons, and the area was handed over to Israeli military control. A zone on both sides of the border around Uja al-Hafeer was to be demilitarized, and became the seat of the armistice committee. The agreement with Lebanon was signed on 23 March 1949, the main points were, The provisions of this agreement being dictated exclusively by military considerations. The armistice line was drawn along the boundary between Lebanon and Mandatory Palestine. Israel withdrew its forces from 13 villages in Lebanese territory, which were occupied during the war, the agreement with Jordan was signed on 3 April 1949. Jordanian forces remained in most positions held by them, particularly East Jerusalem which included the Old City, Jordan withdrew its forces from their front posts overlooking the Plain of Sharon. In return, Israel agreed to allow Jordanian forces to take over positions previously held by Iraqi forces, exchange of territorial control, Israel received control in the area known as Wadi Ara and the Little Triangle in exchange for territory in the southern hills of Hebron. The operation allowed Israel to renegotiate the cease fire line in the Wadi Ara area in an agreement reached on 23 March 1949. The green line was redrawn in blue ink on the southern map to give the impression that a movement into green line had been made. The events that led to a change in the Green Line was an exchange of land in the Bethlehem area to Israeli control
37.
United Nations Security Council
–
The Security Council held its first session on 17 January 1946. Like the UN as a whole, the Security Council was created following World War II to address the failings of an international organization. The Security Council consists of fifteen members, the great powers that were the victors of World War II—the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, Republic of China, and the United States—serve as the bodys five permanent members. These permanent members can veto any substantive Security Council resolution, including those on the admission of new member states or candidates for Secretary-General, the Security Council also has 10 non-permanent members, elected on a regional basis to serve two-year terms. The bodys presidency rotates monthly among its members, Security Council resolutions are typically enforced by UN peacekeepers, military forces voluntarily provided by member states and funded independently of the main UN budget. As of 2016,103,510 peacekeeping soldiers and 16,471 civilians are deployed on 16 peacekeeping operations and 1 special political mission. Following the catastrophic loss of life in World War I, the Paris Peace Conference established the League of Nations to maintain harmony between the nations, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. The term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. The most contentious issue at Dumbarton and in successive talks proved to be the rights of permanent members. At the conference, H. V. Evatt of the Australian delegation pushed to further restrict the power of Security Council permanent members. Due to the fear that rejecting the strong veto would cause the conferences failure, the UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 upon ratification of the Charter by the five then-permanent members of the Security Council and by a majority of the other 46 signatories. On 17 January 1946, the Security Council met for the first time at Church House, Westminster, in London, United Kingdom. The Security Council was largely paralysed in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and USSR and their allies, and the Council generally was only able to intervene in unrelated conflicts. Cold War divisions also paralysed the Security Councils Military Staff Committee, the committee continued to exist on paper but largely abandoned its work in the mid-1950s. By the 1970s, the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its budget for peacekeeping. After the Cold War, the UN saw an expansion in its peacekeeping duties. Between 1988 and 2000, the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled, undersecretary-General Brian Urquhart later described the hopes raised by these successes as a false renaissance for the organization, given the more troubled missions that followed. In 1994, the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the Rwandan Genocide in the face of Security Council indecision, in the late 1990s, UN-authorised international interventions took a wider variety of forms
38.
Jewish Agency for Israel
–
The Jewish Agency for Israel is the largest Jewish nonprofit organization in the world. Its mission is to inspire Jews throughout the world to connect with their people, heritage, and land, and empower them to build a thriving Jewish future and a strong Israel. It is best known as the organization responsible for the immigration and absorption of Jews. Since 1948, the Jewish Agency for Israel has been responsible for bringing 3 million immigrants to Israel, the Jewish Agency played a central role in the founding and the building of the State of Israel. David Ben Gurion was the Chairman of its Executive Committee from 1935 and he became Israels first Prime Minister. In the years before and after the creation of the State and it serves as the main link between Israel and Jewish communities around the world. For example, it conducts intensive Hebrew-language immersion programs in Israel, by law, the Jewish Agency is a para-statal organization but it does not receive core funding from the Israeli government. The Jewish Agency is funded by The Jewish Federations of North America, Keren Hayesod, major Jewish communities and federations, the dozens of programs it supports or operates benefit well over a million Israelis and Jews worldwide every year. In 2008, The Jewish Agency won the Israel Prize for its contribution to Israel. As of 2016, The Jewish Agency sponsors dozens of programs that connect Jews to Israel, the Agency organizes the programs into four different categories, Israel Experiences, Israel in Your Community, Jewish Social Action, and Aliyah. Some programs, According to its website, the Israel Experience programs bring young Jews from around the globe to Israel to get to know the country, Taglit-Birthright Israel provides ten-day educational trips to Israel for Jews ages 18 to 26 from around the world, completely free of charge. Onward Israel organizes 6-to-10-week professional internships in Israel for students and young professionals who have previously visited Israel on Taglit-Birthright or another group tour, participants come in groups, all from the same community or organization. Masa Israel Journey is an organization founded in 2004 by the Government of Israels Office of the Prime Minister, together with The Jewish Agency. It includes a portfolio of more than 200 programs in Israel for Jews aged 18–30, including programs, service programs. It sponsors over 10,000 participants per year, masa provides significant scholarships to participants, performs outreach, and operates alumni activities. Israel Tech Challenge is a partnership of The Jewish Agency with the National Cyber Bureau and it offers trips to Israel of varying lengths for students and young professionals with knowledge in the field of computer science and programming. The programs offer visits with Israeli hi-tech professionals and academics, along with experience or training in coding and it was founded in 1946 by the World Zionist Organization. As of 2013, it had 12,000 alumni from South America, the United States, South Africa, Australia, North Africa, naale allows Jewish teenagers from the diaspora to study in Israel and earn a high school diploma
39.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
40.
Routledge
–
Routledge is a British multinational publisher. The company publishes approximately 1,800 journals &5,000 new books each year, Routledge is claimed to be the largest global academic publisher within humanities and social sciences. Following the merger of Informa and T&F in 2004, Routledge become a publishing unit, the firm originated in 1836, when Camden bookseller George Routledge published an unsuccessful guidebook, The Beauties of Gilsand with his brother-in-law W H Warne as assistant. The company was restyled in 1858 as Routledge, Warne & Routledge when George Routledges son, Robert Warne Routledge, Frederick Warne eventually left the company after the death of his brother W. H. Warne in May 1859. Gaining rights to titles, he founded Frederick Warne & Co in 1865. In July 1865, his son Edmund Routledge became a partner, by 1902 the company was running close to bankruptcy. Following a successful restructuring, however, it was able to recover and began to acquire and merge with other publishing companies including J. C. In 1912 the company merged with Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. the descendant of companies founded by Charles Kegan Paul, Alexander Chenevix Trench, Nicholas Trübner and it was soon particularly known for its titles in the social sciences. In 1985, Routledge & Kegan Paul joined with Associated Book Publishers, just two year later, Cinven and Routledges directors accepted a deal for Routledges acquisition by Taylor & Francis Group, with the Routledge name being retained as an imprint and subdivision. In 2004, T&F became a division within Informa plc after a merger, Routledge has grown considerably as a result of organic growth and acquisitions of other publishing companies and other publishers titles by its parent company. Humanities and social sciences acquired by T&F from other publishers are rebranded under the Routledge imprint. The famous English publisher Fredric Warburg was an editor at Routledge during the early 20th century. Novelist Nina Stibbe author of Love, Nina worked at the company as a Commissioning Editor in the 1990s, the republished works of these authors have appeared as part of the Routledge Classics and Routledge Great Minds series. Competitors to the series are Verso Books Radical Thinkers, Penguin Classics, Taylor and Francis closed down the Routledge print encyclopaedia division in 2006. Some of its publications were, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, by Edward Craig, in 10 volumes, Encyclopedia of Ethics, by Lawrence C. Reference Works by Europa Publications, published by Routledge, Europa World Year Book, many of Routledges reference works are published in print and electronic formats as Routledge Handbooks and have their own dedicated Web site, Routledge Handbooks Online. Records of Routledge & Kegan Paul - Correspondence files covering the period 1935 to 1990, as well as review files 1950s-1990s, Special Collections, archives of George Routledge & Company 1853-1902, Chadwyck-Healey Ltd,1973. 6 reels of microfilm and printed index, archives of Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Henry S. King 1858-1912, Chadwyck-Healey Ltd,1973
41.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
