1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
Northwestern United States
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The Northwestern United States is an informal geographic region of the United States. The region consistently includes the states of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho—and usually Montana, some sources include southeast Alaska in the Northwest. The related but distinct term Pacific Northwest generally excludes areas from the Rockies eastward, the Northwestern United States is a subportion of the Western United States. In contrast, states included in the regions and Utah are not simultaneously considered part of both regions. Like the southwestern United States, the Northwest definition has moved westward over time, the current area includes the old Oregon Territory. The region is similar to Federal Region X, which comprises Oregon, Washington, Idaho and it is home to over 14.2 million citizens. As the US westward expansion, the western border also shifted westward. In the early years of the United States, newly colonized lands lying immediately west of the Allegheny Mountains were detached from Virginia, during the decades that followed, the Northwest Territory covered much of the Great Lakes region east of the Mississippi River. Together, these states have a population of 14,273,965. The largest cities and metropolitan areas in the Northwest are, Lavender, land of Giants, The Drive to the Pacific Northwest, 1750-1950 online Schwantes, Carlos. The Pacific Northwest, An Interpretive History online Warren, Sidney, farthest Frontier, The Pacific Northwest online Winther, Oscar Osburn
3.
Eastern Washington
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Eastern Washington is the portion of the US state of Washington east of the Cascade Range. The region contains the city of Spokane, the Tri-Cities, the Columbia River and the Grand Coulee Dam, the Hanford Nuclear Reservation and the farmlands of the Yakima Valley. Unlike in Western Washington, the climate is dry, including some desert environments, a significant difference between Eastern Washington and the western half of the state is its climate. While the west half of the state is located in an oceanic climate. Also, due to being farther from the sea, the east side has both hotter summers and colder winters than the west, most communities in Eastern Washington, for example, have significant yearly snowfall, while in the west snowfall is minimal and not seen every year. The east and west do still have some traits in common, though, more rainfall in winter than summer, a lack of severe storms. There is some variation in rainfall throughout Eastern Washington. Generally, lower elevations are hotter and drier than higher elevations. This is easily seen in the comparison between low-elevation Richland with higher elevation Spokane, compared to Western Washington, Eastern Washington has roughly twice the land area and one-third the population. According to the U. S. Census Bureau the population estimate as of July 2014 was 1,547,303, the population growth rate between the two is roughly the same. Of Washingtons nine Congressional districts, Eastern Washington exactly encompasses two, aside from a portion of the 4th in Skamania County. Eastern Washington hosts a number of world-renowned universities including three of the five public universities. Bills in the Washington State Legislature which would have requested the United States Congress to take up the question were proposed in 1996,1999,2005, proposed names for the new state have included Lincoln, Columbia, Liberty, or simply Eastern Washington. Many of these proposals were to include the Idaho Panhandle as part of the state of Lincoln. Eastern Washington tends to vote Republican, whereas Western Washington usually supports the Democrats
4.
Washington (state)
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It was admitted to the Union as the 42nd state in 1889. Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State or the State of Washington to distinguish it from Washington, Washington is the 18th largest state with an area of 71,362 square miles, and the 13th most populous state with over 7 million people. Washington is the second most populous state on the West Coast and in the Western United States, Mount Rainier, an active stratovolcano, is the states highest elevation at almost 14,411 feet and is the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States. Washington is a leading lumber producer and its rugged surface is rich in stands of Douglas fir, hemlock, ponderosa pine, white pine, spruce, larch, and cedar. Manufacturing industries in Washington include aircraft and missiles, shipbuilding and other equipment, lumber, food processing, metals and metal products, chemicals. Washington has over 1,000 dams, including the Grand Coulee Dam, built for a variety of purposes including irrigation, power, flood control, the Washington Territory was named after George Washington, the first President of the United States. The area was part of a region called the Columbia District after the Columbia River. The area was renamed Washington in order to avoid confusion with the District of Columbia, Washington is the only U. S. state named after a president. To distinguish it from the U. S. capital, which is named for George Washington, Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State, or, in more formal contexts. Washingtonians and other residents of the Pacific Northwest refer to the state simply as Washington, calling the nations capital Washington, D. C. or, often, Washington is the northwestern-most state of the contiguous United States. Washington is bordered by Oregon to the south, with the Columbia River forming the western part, to the west of Washington lies the Pacific Ocean. The high mountains of the Cascade Range run north-south, bisecting the state, from the Cascade Mountains westward, Western Washington has a mostly marine west coast climate, with mild temperatures and wet winters, autumns and springs, and relatively dry summers. The Cascade Range contains several volcanoes, which reach altitudes significantly higher than the rest of the mountains, from the north to the south, these major volcanoes are Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, Mount Rainier, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Adams. Mount Rainier, the tallest mountain in the state, is 50 miles south of the city of Seattle and it is also covered with more glacial ice than any other peak in the contiguous 48 states. Western Washington also is home of the Olympic Mountains, far west on the Olympic Peninsula and these deep forests, such as the Hoh Rainforest, are among the only temperate rainforests in the continental United States. Eastern Washington – the part of the state east of the Cascades – has a dry climate. It includes large areas of steppe and a few truly arid deserts lying in the rain shadow of the Cascades. Farther east, the climate becomes less arid, with annual rainfall increasing as one goes east to 21.2 inches in Pullman, the Okanogan Highlands and the rugged Kettle River Range and Selkirk Mountains cover much of the northeastern quadrant of the state
5.
North Central Idaho
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North Central Idaho is an area which spans the central part of the state of Idaho and borders Oregon, Montana, and Washington. It is the half of the Idaho Panhandle region and is rich in agriculture. Lewis and Clark travelled through this area on their journey to the Pacific Ocean in 1805-06, the primary cities in this region are Lewiston and Moscow, home of the University of Idaho. North Central Idaho consists of the counties, Clearwater Idaho Latah Lewis Nez Perce With the exception of the southern portion of Idaho County. South of the western-flowing Salmon River, Idaho observes Mountain Time, Lewiston, inland port on the Snake River, first capital of Idaho Territory in 1863. Moscow, home of the University of Idaho, established in 1889
6.
Idaho
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Idaho is a state in the northwestern region of the United States. It borders the state of Montana to the east and northeast, Wyoming to the east, Nevada and Utah to the south, to the north, it shares a small portion of the Canadian border with the province of British Columbia. With a population of around 1.7 million people and an area of 83,569 square miles, Idaho is the 14th largest, the states capital and largest city is Boise. Idaho prior to European settlement was inhabited solely by Native American peoples, in the early 19th century, Idaho was considered part of the Oregon Country, an area disputed between the U. S. and the United Kingdom. Idaho was eventually admitted to the Union on July 3,1890, forming part of the Pacific Northwest, Idaho is divided into several distinct geographic and climatic regions. In the states north, the relatively isolated Idaho Panhandle is closely linked with Eastern Washington, the states south includes the Snake River Plain, while the south-east incorporates part of the Great Basin. Idaho is quite mountainous, and contains several stretches of the Rocky Mountains, additionally, around 38 percent of Idahos land is held by the United States Forest Service, the most of any state. Industries significant for the economy include manufacturing, agriculture, mining, forestry. Idahos agricultural sector supplies a number of different products, but the state is best known for its potato crop, the official state nickname is the Gem State, which references Idahos reputation for gemstones and, more broadly, its many wilderness areas. The exact origin of the remains a mystery. Willing later claimed that he had invented the name. Congress ultimately decided to name the area Colorado Territory when it was created in February 1861, thinking they would get a jump on the name, locals named a community in Colorado Idaho Springs. However, the name Idaho did not fall into obscurity, the same year Congress created Colorado Territory, a county called Idaho County was created in eastern Washington Territory. The county was named after a steamship named Idaho, which was launched on the Columbia River in 1860 and it is unclear whether the steamship was named before or after Willings claim was revealed. Regardless, a portion of Washington Territory, including Idaho County, was used to create Idaho Territory in 1863. Despite this lack of evidence for the origin of the name, the name Idaho may be derived from the Plains Apache word ídaahę́, which means enemy. The Comanches used this word to refer to the Idaho Territory, a 1956 Idaho history textbook says, Idaho is a Shoshoni Indian exclamation. The word consists of three parts, the first is Ee, which in English conveys the idea of coming down
7.
Oregon
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Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Oregon is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by Washington, on the south by California, on the east by Idaho, the Columbia River delineates much of Oregons northern boundary, and the Snake River delineates much of the eastern boundary. The parallel 42° north delineates the boundary with California and Nevada. Oregon was inhabited by indigenous tribes before Western traders, explorers. An autonomous government was formed in the Oregon Country in 1843 before the Oregon Territory was created in 1848, Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14,1859. Today, at 98,000 square miles, Oregon is the ninth largest and, with a population of 4 million, the capital of Oregon is Salem, the second most populous of its cities, with 164,549 residents. Portland is Oregons most populous city, with 632,309 residents, Portlands metro population of 2,389,228 ranks the 23rd largest metro in the nation. The Willamette Valley in western Oregon is the states most densely populated area, the tall conifers, mainly Douglas fir, along Oregons rainy west coast contrast with the lighter-timbered and fire-prone pine and juniper forests covering portions to the east. Abundant alders in the west fix nitrogen for the conifers, stretching east from central Oregon are semi-arid shrublands, prairies, deserts, steppes, and meadows. At 11,249 feet, Mount Hood is the states highest point, Oregons only national park, Crater Lake National Park, comprises the caldera surrounding Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. The state is home to the single largest organism in the world, Armillaria ostoyae. Because of its landscapes and waterways, Oregons economy is largely powered by various forms of agriculture, fishing. It is also the top timber-producer of the lower 48 states, Technology is another one of the states major economic forces, which began in the 1970s with the establishment of the Silicon Forest and the expansion of Tektronix and Intel. Sportswear company Nike, Inc. headquartered in Beaverton, is the states largest public corporation with a revenue of $30.6 billion. The earliest evidence of the name Oregon has Spanish origins and this chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name Oregon. There are also two other sources with Spanish origins such as the name Oregano which grows in the part of the region. Another early use of the name, spelled Ouragon, was in a 1765 petition by Major Robert Rogers to the Kingdom of Great Britain, the term referred to the then-mythical River of the West. By 1778 the spelling had shifted to Oregon, in his 1765 petition, Rogers wrote, The rout. is from the Great Lakes towards the Head of the Mississippi, and from thence to the River called by the Indians Ouragon
8.
Agriculture
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Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time
9.
Wheat
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Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region but now cultivated worldwide. In 2016, world production of wheat was 749 million tonnes, making it the second most-produced cereal after maize, since 1960, world production of wheat and other grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st Century. This grain is grown on land area than any other commercial food. World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined, globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetal protein in human food, having a protein content of about 13%, which is relatively high compared to other major cereals and staple foods. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BCE. In a small part of the population, gluten – the major part of wheat protein – can trigger coeliac disease, non-coeliac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia. Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains, in domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting. In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter, as the traits that improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plants natural seed dispersal mechanisms, highly domesticated strains of wheat cannot survive in the wild. Cultivation of wheat began to spread beyond the Fertile Crescent after about 8000 BCE, jared Diamond traces the spread of cultivated emmer wheat starting in the Fertile Crescent sometime before 8800 BCE. Archaeological analysis of wild emmer indicates that it was first cultivated in the southern Levant with finds dating back as far as 9600 BCE, Genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadag Mountains in southeastern Turkey. Dated archeological remains of wheat in settlement sites near this region, including those at Abu Hureyra in Syria. With the anomalous exception of two grains from Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 date for einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years BCE. Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8600 and 8400 BCE, that is, in the Neolithic period and these remains were dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BCE. They also concluded that the settlers of Tell Aswad did not develop this form of emmer themselves, the cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and India by 6500 BCE, Egypt shortly after 6000 BCE, and Germany and Spain by 5000 BCE. The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven, by 3000 BCE, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia. A millennium later it reached China, the oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through DNA analysis of wheat seeds, dating to around 6400-6200 BCE, recovered from Çatalhöyük. The first identifiable bread wheat with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been identified using DNA analysis in samples from a dating to approximately 1350 BCE at Assiros in Macedonia. From Asia, wheat continued to spread throughout Europe, in the British Isles, wheat straw was used for roofing in the Bronze Age, and was in common use until the late 19th century
10.
Legume
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A legume is a plant or its fruit or seed in the family Fabaceae. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for their grain seed called pulse, for forage and silage. Well-known legumes include alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, lentils, lupin bean, mesquite, carob, soybeans, peanuts, Fabaceae is the most common family found in tropical rainforests and in dry forests in the Americas and Africa. A legume fruit is a dry fruit that develops from a simple carpel. A common name for type of fruit is a pod, although the term pod is also applied to a number of other fruit types, such as that of vanilla. Legumes are notable in that most of them have symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in structures called root nodules, for that reason, they play a key role in crop rotation. The term pulse, as used by the United Nations Food and this excludes green beans and green peas, which are considered vegetable crops. Also excluded are seeds that are grown for oil extraction. However, in usage, these distinctions are not always clearly made. Some Fabaceae, such as Scotch broom and other Genisteae, are leguminous but are not called legumes by farmers. Farmed legumes can belong to many classes, including forage, grain, blooms, pharmaceutical/industrial, fallow/green manure. Most commercially farmed species fill two or more roles simultaneously, depending upon their degree of maturity when harvested, grain legumes are cultivated for their seeds. The seeds are used for human and animal consumption or for the production of oils for industrial uses, grain legumes include beans, lentils, lupins, peas, and peanuts. Like other plant-based foods, pulses contain no cholesterol and little fat or sodium, Legumes are also an excellent source of resistant starch which is broken down by bacteria in the large intestine to produce short-chain fatty acids used by intestinal cells for food energy. Preliminary studies in humans include the potential for regular consumption of legumes in a diet to affect metabolic syndrome. There is evidence that a portion of pulses in a diet may lower blood pressure and reduce LDL cholesterol levels. Some, like alfalfa, clover, vetch, stylo, or Arachis, are sown in pasture, other forage legumes such as Leucaena or Albizia are woody shrub or tree species that are either broken down by livestock or regularly cut by humans to provide livestock feed. Legume species grown for their flowers include lupins, which are farmed commercially for their blooms as well as being popular in gardens worldwide, industrially farmed legumes include Indigofera and Acacia species, which are cultivated for dye and natural gum production, respectively
11.
Oregon Trail
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The Oregon Trail is a 2, 170-mile historic east–west, large-wheeled wagon route and emigrant trail that connected the Missouri River to valleys in Oregon. The eastern part of the Oregon Trail spanned part of the state of Kansas. The western half of the trail spanned most of the states of Idaho. The Oregon Trail was laid by fur traders and traders from about 1811 to 1840, by 1836, when the first migrant wagon train was organized in Independence, Missouri, a wagon trail had been cleared to Fort Hall, Idaho. From the early to mid-1830s the Oregon Trail and its offshoots were used by about 400,000 settlers, farmers, miners, ranchers. The eastern half of the trail was used by travelers on the California Trail, Mormon Trail. Use of the trail declined as the first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, making the trip west substantially faster, cheaper, and safer. Today, modern highways, such as Interstate 80 and Interstate 84, follow parts of the same course westward and pass through towns originally established to serve those using the Oregon Trail. Although Lewis and William Clark found a path to the Pacific Ocean, it was not until 1859 that a direct and practicable route, the first land route across what is now the United States was mapped by the Lewis and Clark Expedition between 1804 and 1806. On the return trip in 1806 they traveled from the Columbia River to the Snake River and they then traveled overland up the Blackfoot River and crossed the Continental Divide at Lewis and Clark Pass and on to the head of the Missouri River. This was ultimately a shorter and faster route than the one they followed west and this route had the disadvantages of being much too rough for wagons and controlled by the Blackfoot Indians. They did show the way for the men, who within a decade would find a better way across. Founded by John Jacob Astor as a subsidiary of his American Fur Company in 1810, two movements of PFC employees were planned by Astor, one detachment to be sent to the Columbia River by the Tonquin and the other overland under an expedition led by Wilson Price Hunt. Hunt and his party were to find possible routes and trapping territories for further fur trading posts. Upon arriving at the river in March 1811, the Tonquin crew began construction of what became Fort Astoria, the ship left supplies and men to continue work on the station and ventured north up the coast to Clayoquot Sound for a trading expedition. While anchored there, Jonathan Thorn insulted an elder Tla-o-qui-aht who was elected by the natives to negotiate a mutually satisfactory price for animal pelts. Soon after the vessel was attacked and overwhelmed by the indigenous before being blown up, killing all the crew, from there they went over the Teton Range via Teton Pass and then down to the Snake River into modern Idaho. They abandoned their horses at the Snake River, made dugout canoes, after a few days travel they soon discovered that steep canyons, waterfalls and impassable rapids made travel by river impossible
12.
Puget Sound
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Puget Sound /ˈpjuːdʒɪt/ is a sound along the northwestern coast of the U. S. state of Washington, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean, and part of the Salish Sea. Flow through Deception Pass is approximately equal to 2% of the tidal exchange between Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Puget Sound extends approximately 100 miles from Deception Pass in the north to Olympia and its average depth is 450 feet and its maximum depth, off Point Jefferson between Indianola and Kingston, is 930 feet. The depth of the basin, between the southern tip of Whidbey Island and Tacoma, Washington, is approximately 600 feet. Since 2009, the term Salish Sea has been established by the United States Board on Geographic Names as the waters of Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Sometimes the terms Puget Sound and Puget Sound and adjacent waters are used for not only Puget Sound proper but also for waters to the north, such as Bellingham Bay and the San Juan Islands region. The term Puget Sound is used not just for the body of water, major cities on the sound include Seattle, Tacoma, Olympia, and Everett, Washington. Puget Sound is also the second largest estuary in the United States, in 1792 George Vancouver gave the name Pugets Sound to the waters south of the Tacoma Narrows, in honor of Peter Puget, a Huguenot lieutenant accompanying him on the Vancouver Expedition. This name later came to be used for the north of Tacoma Narrows as well. The USGS defines Puget Sound as all the south of three entrances from the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The main entrance at Admiralty Inlet is defined as a line between Point Wilson on the Olympic Peninsula, and Point Partridge on Whidbey Island. The second entrance is at Deception Pass along a line from West Point on Whidbey Island, to Deception Island, the third entrance is at the south end of the Swinomish Channel, which connects Skagit Bay and Padilla Bay. Under this definition, Puget Sound includes the waters of Hood Canal, Admiralty Inlet, Possession Sound, Saratoga Passage and it does not include Bellingham Bay, Padilla Bay, the waters of the San Juan Islands or anything farther north. Another definition, given by NOAA, subdivides Puget Sound into five basins or regions, four of these correspond to areas within the USGS definition, but the fifth one, called Northern Puget Sound includes a large additional region. It is defined as bounded to the north by the boundary with Canada. Kruckeberg uses the term Puget Sound and adjacent waters, continental ice sheets have repeatedly advanced and retreated from the Puget Sound region. The most recent glacial period, called the Fraser Glaciation, had three phases, or stades. S. Since each new advance and retreat of ice erodes away much of the evidence of ice ages
13.
Land-grant university
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A land-grant university is an institution of higher education in the United States designated by a state to receive the benefits of the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890. The Morrill Acts funded educational institutions by granting federally controlled land to the states for them to sell, to funds, to establish. This mission was in contrast to the practice of higher education to focus on an abstract liberal arts curriculum. Ultimately, most land-grant colleges became large public universities that offer a full spectrum of educational opportunities. However, some land-grant colleges are schools, including Cornell University. The concept of publicly funded agricultural and technical educational institutions first rose to attention through the efforts of Jonathan Baldwin Turner in the late 1840s. The first land-grant bill was introduced in Congress by Representative Justin Smith Morrill of Vermont in 1857, the bill passed in 1859, but was vetoed by President James Buchanan. Morrill resubmitted his bill in 1861, and it was enacted into law in 1862. Upon passage of the federal land-grant law in 1862, Iowa was the first state legislature to accept the provisions of the Morrill Act, Iowa subsequently designated the State Agricultural College as the land grant college on March 29,1864. The first land-grant institution actually created under the Act was Kansas State University, which was established on February 16,1863, the oldest school that currently holds land-grant status is Rutgers University, founded in 1766 and designated the land-grant college of New Jersey in 1864. The oldest school to ever hold land-grant status was Yale University and this designation was later stripped by the Connecticut legislature under populist pressure and transferred to what would become the University of Connecticut. A second Morrill Act was passed in 1890, aimed at the former Confederate states and this act required each state to show that race was not an admissions criterion, or else to designate a separate land-grant institution for persons of color. Among the seventy colleges and universities which eventually evolved from the Morrill Acts are several of historically black colleges and universities. In imitation of the land-grant colleges focus on agricultural and mechanical research, Congress later established programs of sea grant colleges, space grant colleges and it is also the smallest land-grant university in the country. The Farmers High School of Pennsylvania, later to become The Pennsylvania State University, michigan State and Penn State were subsequently designated as the federal land-grant colleges for their states in 1863. Older state universities – such as the University of Georgia, which was established with a grant of land in 1784 – were also funded through the use of land grants. Indeed, land grants to institutions are a practice inherited from Europe. These earlier examples, however, offered a different mission than the education offered by land-grant institutions established under the Morrill Act
14.
University of Idaho
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The University of Idaho is the U. S. state of Idahos oldest public university, located in the city of Moscow in Latah County in the northern portion of the state. It is the states land-grant and primary research university, the University of Idaho was the states sole university for 71 years, until 1963, and its College of Law, established in 1909, was first accredited by the American Bar Association in 1925. Formed by the legislature on January 30,1889, the university opened its doors in 1892 on October 3. The first graduating class in 1896 contained two men and two women and it presently has an enrollment exceeding 12,000, with over 11,000 on the Moscow campus. The university offers 142 degree programs, from accountancy to wildlife resources, including bachelors, masters, doctoral, certificates of completion are offered in 30 areas of study. The school is home to the Idaho Vandals, who compete on the Division I FBS level through the 2017 season. In addition to the campus in Moscow, the UI has branch campuses in Coeur dAlene, Boise, Twin Falls. It also operates a park in Post Falls and dozens of extension offices statewide. The east-facing Administration Building, with its 80-foot clock tower and Collegiate Gothic-style structure, was built from 1907–09 and has become an icon of the university, the building holds classrooms, an auditorium, and administrative offices, including the offices of the President and Provost. Multiple expansions were made, with the wing added in 1912, the south wing in 1916. The UI library was housed in the Admin, Building until 1957, when the Library building was completed. The original Administration Building, with a tall spire reaching to 163 feet, was constructed through the decade of the 1890s. Unfortunately, it was reduced to embers on March 30,1906, the cause of the fire, which began in the basement, was never precisely determined, but was likely accidental. After the fire, there was whether to rebuild from the remains or start from scratch. The original buildings steps were saved and currently climb the hill immediately southeast of the south wing. In the meantime, classes were held at sites in Moscow, the Carnegie library, the Methodist church. Insurance policies paid $135,000, but the new building cost twice that, to appease the state legislature, the UI Regents decided to build Morrill Hall first, use it for classrooms, and finance the new administration building over three years. Building was designed by prominent Boise architect John E. Tourtellotte and he designed the states Roman Revival capitol building in Boise and other buildings, both public and private
15.
Moscow, Idaho
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Moscow is a city in northern Idaho along the state border with Washington, with a population of 23,800 at the 2010 census. It is the city in the Moscow, Idaho Micropolitan Statistical Area. The city contains over 60% of the population, and while the university is Moscows dominant employer. Along with the rest of northern Idaho, Moscow is in the Pacific Time Zone, major highways serving the city are US-95 and Highway 8, both of which are routed through central Moscow. Limited commercial air service is four miles west at the Pullman-Moscow Regional Airport, Main Street runs north-south through Moscow along the 117th meridian west. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 6.85 square miles. Moscow lies on the edge of the Palouse region of north central Idaho in the Columbia River Plateau. East of the city is a valley within the mountains of the Palouse Range to the northeast, the less prominent Paradise Ridge at 3,702 feet and Tomer Butte at 3,474 feet are southeast of the city. There is a variety of flora and fauna within the vicinity of Moscow, an amphibian, the Rough-skinned Newt, has a disjunctive population at Moscow, this species is found typically along the Pacific coast of the USA. The city sits at the boundary between the Palouse grasslands and wheat fields, and the forests of the Rocky Mountains to the east. Miners and farmers began arriving in the northern Idaho area after the Civil War, the first permanent settlers came to the Moscow area 146 years ago in 1871. The abundance of camas bulbs, a favorite fodder of pigs brought by the farmers, when the first US post office opened in 1872, the town was called Paradise Valley, but the name was changed to Moscow in 1875. The precise origin of the name Moscow has been disputed, there is no conclusive proof that it has any connection to the Russian city, though various accounts suggest it was purposely evocative of the Russian city or named by Russian immigrants. Another account claims that the name derives from a Native American tribe named Masco and it was reported by early settlers that five men in the area met to choose a proper name for the town, but could not come to agreement on a name. The postmaster Samuel Neff then completed the papers for the town. Interestingly, Neff was born in Moscow, Pennsylvania and later moved to Moscow, the business district was established by 1875 and the town was a center of commerce for the region. By 1890, the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Companys rail line, copy of a letter from Northern Pacific Railway agent in Moscow, likely R. W. Morris, to C. E. Arney, the Northern Pacifics Western Immigration and Indian Agent in Spokane, Washington. Arney wrote all station agents in Idaho on May 12,1922, requesting the origin of the names of their stations for the NPs travel publication Wonderland, edited by Olin D. Wheeler
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Washington State University
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Washington State University is a public research university located in Pullman, Washington, in the Palouse region of the northwest United States. It is ranked in the top 140 universities in America with high research activity, with an undergraduate enrollment of 24,470 and a total enrollment of 29,686, it is the second largest institution of higher education in Washington state behind the University of Washington. The university also operates campuses across Washington known as WSU Spokane, WSU Tri-Cities, in 2012, WSU launched an Internet-based Global Campus, which includes its online degree program, WSU Online. These campuses award primarily bachelors and masters degrees, freshmen and sophomores were first admitted to the Vancouver campus in 2006 and to the Tri-Cities campus in 2007. Total enrollment for the four campuses and WSU Online exceeds 29,686 students, WSUs athletic teams are called the Cougars and the school colors are crimson and gray. Six mens and nine womens varsity teams compete in NCAA Division I in the Pac-12 Conference, both mens and womens indoor track teams compete in the Mountain Pacific Sports Federation. Washington State College was established by the Washington Legislature on March 28,1890, the institution was one of the land-grant colleges created under the 1862 federal Morrill Act signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln. The federal land grants for the new institution included 90,000 acres of land for an agricultural college and 100,000 acres for a school of science. After an extended search for a location, the states new land-grant college opened in Pullman on January 13,1892, the year 1897 saw the first graduating class of seven men and women. The school changed its name from Washington Agricultural College and School of Science to State College of Washington in 1905, the name was changed by the state legislature to Washington State University 58 years ago in 1959. Prior to Bryans arrival, the university suffered through significant organizational instability. Bryan guided WSU toward respectability and is arguably the most influential figure in the history of the university, the landmark clock tower in the center of campus is his namesake. WSUs role as an institution became clear in 1894 with the launch of its first Agricultural Experiment Station west of the Cascade Mountains near Puyallup. WSU has subsequently established extension offices and research centers in all regions of the state, with research facilities in Prosser, Mount Vernon. In 1989, WSU officially gained branch campuses in Spokane, the Tri-Cities, overall, the Federal Government and the State of Washington have entrusted 190,000 acres of land to WSU for agricultural and scientific research throughout the Pacific Northwest. The veterinary school was elevated to status in 1916, becoming the College of Veterinary Medicine in 1925. Graduate education began in the years and, in 1902, the first masters degree was conferred. In 1917, the institution was organized into five colleges and four schools, in 1922 a Graduate School was created
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Pullman, Washington
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Pullman is the largest city in Whitman County, located in southeastern Washington state within the Palouse region of the Pacific Northwest. The population was 29,799 at the 2010 census, estimated to have reached 31,682 in 2014, originally incorporated as Three Forks, the city was later renamed after industrialist George Pullman. Pullman is noted as a fertile agricultural area known for its many miles of rolling hills. It is best known as the home to Washington State University, Pullman is located eight miles from Moscow, Idaho, home to the University of Idaho, and is served by the Pullman-Moscow Regional Airport. In 2011 Bloomberg Businessweek selected Pullman as the Best Place to Raise Kids in Washington, factors included affordability, safety, a family-friendly lifestyle, the quality of Pullman High School, the presence of Washington State University, and the natural beauty of the area. Within the year, Dan McKenzie and William Ellsworth arrived to stake claims for adjoining land and they named the first post office located here as Three Forks. In the spring of 1881, Orville Stewart opened a general store, Pullman was incorporated 131 years ago in 1886 with a population of about 200 people. It was originally named Three Forks, after the three rivers that converge there, Missouri Flat Creek, Dry Fork, and the South Fork of the Palouse River. In 1884, Dan McKenzie and Charles Moore replatted the site, on March 28,1890, the Washington State Legislature established the states land grant college, but did not designate a location. Pullman leaders were determined to secure the new college and offered 160 acres of land for its campus, Idaho Territory had established its land grant college in 1889, the University of Idaho was to be located in neighboring Moscow. On April 18,1891, the site selection commission appointed by Washingtons governor chose Pullman, on January 13,1892, the institution opened with 59 students under the name Washington Agricultural College and School of Science. It was renamed the State College of Washington in 1905, more known as Washington State College. In 1961, Pullman became a code city under the Mayor-Council form of government. The city has a mayor with an elected seven-member council and an appointed administrative officer. The WSU campus is located on College Hill, and part of the area is a district listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The historic character of College Hill is manifest in its many early-twentieth century craftsman-style bungalows, see Red Brick Roads of Pullman, Washington. Companies associated with an expanding high-tech industry are located at the end of the city. The lab company was founded by Edmund Schweitzer, a Ph. D. graduate of WSU, SEL and other firms are located within the 107-acre Pullman Industrial Park, run by the Port of Whitman County
18.
Walla Walla, Washington
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Walla Walla is the largest city in and the county seat of Walla Walla County, Washington, United States. The population of the city itself was 31,731 at the 2010 census, the population of Walla Walla and its two suburbs, the town of College Place and unincorporated East Walla Walla, is about 45,000. Walla Walla is in the region of Washington, approximately four and a half hours away by car from Portland, Oregon, and Seattle, Washington. Recorded history in this begins with the establishment of Fort Nez Perce in 1818 by the North West Company to trade with the Walla Walla people. At the time, the term Nez Perce was used more broadly than today, Fort Nez Perce had its name shift to Fort Walla Walla. It was located significantly west of the present city, on September 1,1836, Marcus Whitman arrived with his wife Narcissa Whitman. Here they established the Whitman Mission in an attempt to convert the local Walla Walla tribe to Christianity. Following a disease epidemic, both were killed by the Cayuse who believed that the missionaries were poisoning the native peoples, Whitman College was established in their honor. The original North West Company and later Hudsons Bay Company Fort Nez Percés fur trading outpost, the fort has been restored with many of the original buildings preserved. The current Fort Walla Walla contains these buildings, albeit in a different location from the original, the origins of Walla Walla at its present site begin with the establishment of Fort Walla Walla by the United States Army here in 1856. The Walla Walla River, where it adjoins the Columbia River, was the point for the Mullan Road. John Mullan, connecting the head of navigation on the Columbia at Walla Walla with the head of navigation on the Missouri-Mississippi at Fort Benton, Walla Walla was incorporated on January 11,1862. As a result of a rush in Idaho, during this decade the city became the largest community in the territory of Washington. Following this period of growth, agriculture became the citys primary industry. In 1846, the Catholic Church established the Diocese of Walla Walla, in 1850, the see of Walla Walla was abandoned and its territory assigned to the new Diocese of Nesqually, with Blanchet as its bishop and its episcopal see in Vancouver. Walla Walla is a Native American name that means Place of Many Waters, the original name of the town was Steptoeville named after Colonel Edward Steptoe. In 1855 the name was changed to Waiilatpu, and then by 1859 had been changed again, Walla Walla is located at 46°3′54″N 118°19′49″W. Walla Walla is also located in the Walla Walla Valley, with the rolling Palouse hills, various creeks meander through town before combining to become the Walla Walla River, which drains into the Columbia River about 30 miles west of town
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University of Idaho Arboretum and Botanical Garden
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The University of Idaho Arboretum and Botanical Garden is a major arboretum and botanical garden on the campus of the University of Idaho in Moscow, Idaho. Located within a valley south of the Presidents Residence on Nez Perce Drive and adjacent to the UI Golf Course, its 63 acres are open to the public daily without charge. The universitys first arboretum was established 107 years ago in 1910 by Dr. Charles Houston Shattuck, the universitys first professor of forestry and he began planting a 14-acre slope with hundreds of introduced trees and shrubs. The New Arboretum was conceived in the late 1970s with its first plantings in the former hayfield in 1982 and it is divided into four geographical areas of plant origin, Asia, Europe, Eastern North America, and Western North America. In addition, there are sections for display plantings and a xeriscape garden, the arboretum contains 829 species and 1799 taxa of trees and woody shrubs, with planting continuing at a sustained pace. For example, a total of 132 species and 270 taxa were planted in 2004. Conifers, ornamental species and cultivars of pear, forsythia, cherry, crabapple, lilac, shrub rose, mock orange, magnolia, tree peony, maple, oak, there are also dozens of unusual specimens. Some of the common trees for the region include Dawn Redwood, Ginkgo, Camperdown Elms. The arboretum has many walking trails and benches, the distance around the arboretum is about 1.4 miles. The first wedding held in the new arboretum was in July 1991, the bride was university president Elisabeth Zinser
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Palus people
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The Palus /pəˈluːs/ are a Sahaptin tribe recognized in the Treaty of 1855 with the Yakamas, negotiated at the 1855 Walla Walla Council. A variant spelling is Palouse, which was the source of the name for the prairie of Washington. Today they are enrolled in the federally recognized Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation and are represented by the Colville Confederated Tribes. The people are one of the Sahaptin speaking groups of Native Americans living on the Columbia Plateau in eastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, the people of the region lived in three main groups, the Upper, Middle, and Lower bands. Traditional lands included areas around such as the Columbia, Snake. The ancestral people were nomadic, following food sources through the seasons, the Palus people gathered with other native peoples for activities such as food-gathering, hunting, fishing, feasting, trading, and celebrations that included dancing, sports and gambling. They lived near other groups including the Nez Perce, Wanapum, Walla Walla, in October 1805, Lewis and Clark met with the tribe, although most were away from the area for fall food-gathering and hunting. Lewis and Clark presented one of the expeditions silver peace medals to Chief Kepowhan, the Diaries of the Corps of Discovery describe the people as a separate and distinct group from the Nez Perce. The people were expert horsemen and the term Appaloosa is probably a derivation of the term Palouse horse, hundreds of tribal horses were slaughtered to cripple the tribe during the Indian Wars in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Chalfant, Stuart A. Ethnohistorical reports on land use and occupancy, Spokan Indians, Palus Indians, Columbia Salish. Note, S. A. Chalfants report was presented before the United States Indian Claims Commission as docket no, the conquest of the Coeur dAlenes, Spokanes and Palouses, the expeditions of Colonels E. J. Steptoe and George Wright against the northern Indians in 1858, trafzer, Clifford E. and Richard D. Scheuerman. Renegade Tribe, The Palouse Indians and the Invasion of the Inland Pacific Northwest, great battle of the Spokane plains, Washington Territory. Note, One and a half columns of text published in the September 23,1858 issue of The Press, Philadelphia. The newspaper story quotes dispatches sent by Col. G. Wright regarding an expedition against Northern Indians, camp on the Spokane River, one, spokane-Coeur dAlene-Paloos War Yakima War Cayuse War Okanagan Trail Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation National Geographic article
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French Canadians
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French Canadians are an ethnic group who trace their ancestry to French colonists who settled in Canada from the 17th century onward. Today, French Canadians constitute the main French-speaking population in Canada, today, French Canadians live across North America. The province of Quebec has the largest population of French-Canadian descent, though smaller communities exist throughout Canada, between 1840 and 1930, roughly 900,000 French Canadians emigrated to the United States, mostly to the New England region. Other terms for French Canadians who continue to reside in the province of Quebec, are Quebecers or Québécois, the other major group of French Canadians are the Acadians who reside in the Maritime Provinces. In total, those who identify as French Canadian, French, Québécois, the French Canadians get their name from Canada, the most developed and densely populated region of New France during the period of French colonization in the 17th and 18th century. The original use of the term Canada referred to the area along the St. From 1535 to the 1690s, the French word Canadien had referred to the First Nations the French had encountered in the St. Lawrence River valley at Stadacona, at the end of the 17th century, Canadien became an ethnonym distinguishing the inhabitants of Canada from those of France. French Canadians living in Canada express their identity using a number of terms. The Ethnic Diversity Survey of the 2006 Canadian census found that French-speaking Canadians identified their ethnicity most often as French, French Canadians, Québécois, the latter three were grouped together by Jantzen as French New World ancestries because they originate in Canada. Canadien was used to refer to the French-speaking residents of New France beginning in the last half of the 17th century, the English-speaking residents who arrived later from Great Britain were called Anglais. This usage continued until Canadian Confederation in 1867 and those reporting French New World ancestries overwhelmingly had ancestors that went back at least four generations in Canada. Fourth generation Canadiens and Québécois showed considerable attachment to their group, with 70% and 61%, respectively. The generational profile and strength of identity of French New World ancestries contrast with those of British or Canadian ancestries, which represent the largest ethnic identities in Canada. As a result, their identification with their ethnicity is weaker, for example, only 50% of third generation Canadians strongly identify as such, bringing down the overall average. The survey report notes that 80% of Canadians whose families had been in Canada for three or more generations reported Canadian and provincial or regional ethnic identities and these identities include French New World ancestries such as Québécois, Acadian. Since the 1960s, French Canadians in Quebec have generally used Québécois or Québécoise to express their cultural and national identity, rather than Canadien français, francophones who self-identify as Québécois and do not have French-Canadian ancestry may not identify as French Canadian. Those who do have French or French-Canadian ancestry, but who support Quebec sovereignty and this is a reflection of the strong social, cultural, and political ties that most Quebeckers of French-Canadian origin, who constitute a majority of francophone Quebecers, maintain within Quebec. French Canadians outside Quebec are more likely to self-identify as French Canadian, identification with provincial groupings varies from province to province, with Franco-Ontarians, for example, using their provincial label far more frequently than Franco-Columbians do
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Snake River
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The Snake River is a major river of the greater Pacific Northwest in the United States. At 1,078 miles long, it is the largest tributary of the Columbia River and its drainage basin encompasses parts of six U. S. states, and its average discharge is over 54,000 cubic feet per second. Rugged mountains divided by rolling plains characterize the physiographically diverse watershed of the Snake River, the Snake River Plain was created by a volcanic hotspot which now lies underneath Yellowstone National Park, where the headwaters of the Snake River arise. Two of these flooding events significantly affected the river and its surrounds. More than 11,000 years ago, prehistoric Native Americans lived along the Snake, Salmon from the Pacific Ocean spawned by the millions in the river. These fish were central to the lives of the people along the Snake below Shoshone Falls, by the time Lewis and Clark crossed the Rockies and sighted the valley of a Snake tributary, the Nez Perce and Shoshone were the most powerful peoples in the region. Some tribes adopted use of horses after contact with Europeans, which reshaped their hunting, later explorers and fur trappers further changed and used the resources of the Snake River basin. At one point, a sign made by the Shoshones representing fish was misinterpreted to represent a snake. By the middle 19th century, the Oregon Trail, a trail of which a major portion followed the Snake River, had been established by aspiring settlers and traders. Steamboats and railroads moved agricultural products and minerals along the river throughout the 19th, several of these have been proposed for removal in order to restore some of the rivers once-tremendous salmon runs. Its first 50-mile run through the valley of Jackson Hole, which cuts between the Teton Range and the Continental Divide, there it is also met by the Salt River at the mouth of Star Valley. Southwest of the city of Rexburg, the Snake receives from the right the Henrys Fork, the confluence with the Henrys Fork takes the river southwards through downtown Idaho Falls, rounding the Fort Hall Indian Reservation and into American Falls Reservoir, receiving the Portneuf River. Close to Twin Falls, the Snake approaches the southernmost point in its entire course, after which it starts to flow generally northwest. Shortly after it passes within 30 miles of the Idaho state capital of Boise, there were hundreds of rapids in Hells Canyon, some of which have been stilled by the three dams of the Hells Canyon Hydroelectric Project, Hells Canyon, Oxbow, and Brownlee. The Salmon River, the largest tributary of the Snake River, meets it in one of the most remote areas of its entire course, the confluence of the Snake and Columbia rivers has been submerged in Lake Wallula, the reservoir of McNary Dam. The Columbia River flows about 325 miles further west to the Pacific Ocean, as recently as 165 million years ago, most of western North America was still part of the Pacific Ocean. Even larger lava flows of Columbia River basalts issued over eastern Washington, forming the Columbia Plateau southeast of the Columbia River, separate volcanic activity formed the northwestern portion of the plain, an area far from the path of the hotspot which now lies beneath Yellowstone National Park. At this point, the Snake River watershed was beginning to take shape, the Snake River Plain and the gap between the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range formed a moisture channel, running as far inland as the headwaters of the Snake River
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Clearwater River (Idaho)
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The Clearwater River is a 74. 8-mile-long river in north central Idaho, which flows westward from the Bitterroot Mountains along the Idaho-Montana border, and joins the Snake River at Lewiston. In October 1805, the Lewis and Clark Expedition descended the Clearwater River in dugout canoes, putting in at Canoe Camp, by average discharge, the Clearwater River is the largest tributary of the Snake River. The River got its name for the Niimiipuutímt naming as Koos-Koos-Kai-Kai - “clear water”, the drainage basin of the Clearwater River is 9,645 square miles. From the confluence the Clearwater flows northwest, passing the Heart of the Monster site of the Nez Perce National Historical Park, U. S. Route 12 follows the river to Kamiah, where it is joined by Lawyer Creek. The river then continues northwest through a canyon to the confluence with Lolo Creek and it soon passes the town of Greer and receives Jim Ford Creek from the right. After the North Fork contributes its flow, the Clearwater trends west and receives Big Canyon Creek from the left, lapwai Creek joins from the left where the river passes close to Spalding. Here, U. S. Highway 95 crosses the Clearwater while Highway 12 continues running along the north shore, the river soon widens and slows into the slack water of Lower Granite Lake as it approaches Lewiston. Just as it crosses the Idaho-Washington state line, it joins its waters with the Snake River, dworshak Dam is on the North Fork of the Clearwater River, and is just northwest of Orofino. There is no fish ladder, the dam blocks salmon and steelhead passage, the border between Washington and Idaho was defined as the meridian running north from the confluence of the Clearwater River and the Snake River. Although this border is referred to as the 117th meridian west longitude. List of rivers of Idaho List of longest streams of Idaho Clearwater River
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Camas prairie
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Camas bulbs were an important food source for Native Americans. Named for the blue flowering camas—an important food source for all Native Americans in the interior Northwest—the Camas Prairie is a traditional Nez Perce gathering place in north central Idaho. From the Nez Perce National Historical Park, Camas Prairie is interpreted at a highway pullout on the side of U. S. Highway 95. This large prairie was a Nez Perce gathering place, where camas roots were harvested for thousands of years, several nontreaty bands gathered at Tolo Lake in early June 1877 in anticipation of moving to the Nez Perce reservation. In response to the move and other hostile actions, several young Nez Perce people took actions that precipitated the Nez Perce War. Camas Prairie is an area, mostly privately owned, that extends many miles between the Salmon and Clearwater River drainages. Most of the area is agricultural and the section is within the Nez Perce Indian Reservation. Similar to the opening of lands in Oklahoma, the U. S. government opened the reservation for white settlement on November 18,1895, the proclamation had been signed less than two weeks earlier by President Cleveland. The area was home to the subdivision of the Camas Prairie Railroad, known as the railroad on stilts due to its numerous trestles. Breakheart Pass, a 1975 film starring Charles Bronson, was filmed on portions of the railroad on the Camas Prairie, the railroad ceased operations in the late 1990s. Gertrude Monastery of St. Gertrude Glacial Lake Missoula. org – Camas Prairie ripple marks in Montana
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Spokane, Washington
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Spokane is a city in the state of Washington, in the northwestern United States. It is the seat of Spokane County, and the economic and cultural center of the Spokane Metropolitan Area, the Greater Spokane Area, the city, along with the whole Inland Northwest, is served by Spokane International Airport,5 miles west of downtown Spokane. According to the 2010 Census, Spokane had a population of 208,916, making it the second largest city in Washington and the 102nd largest city in the United States. The first humans to live in the area, the Spokane people, known as the birthplace of Fathers Day, Spokane is officially nicknamed the Lilac City. David Thompson explored the area with the expansion and establishment of the North West Companys Spokane House in 1810. This trading post was the first long-term European settlement in Washington, completion of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1881 brought settlers to the Spokane area, and that same year it was officially incorporated as a city with the name of Spokan Falls. In the late 19th century, gold and silver were discovered in the Inland Northwest, the local economy depended on mining, timber, and agriculture until the 1980s. Spokane hosted the first environmentally themed Worlds Fair at Expo 74, many of the older Romanesque Revival-style buildings in the downtown area were designed by architect Kirtland Kelsey Cutter after the Great Fire of 1889. The city also features Riverfront and Manito parks, the Smithsonian-affiliated Northwest Museum of Arts and Culture, the Davenport Hotel, and the Fox and Bing Crosby theaters. The Cathedral of Our Lady of Lourdes serves as the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Spokane, the Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist represents the Anglican community. Gonzaga University was established in 1887 by the Jesuits, and the private Presbyterian Whitworth University opened three years later in north Spokane, in sports, the Gonzaga Bulldogs collegiate basketball team competes at the Division I level. Professional and semi-professional sports teams include the Spokane Indians in Minor League Baseball, Spokane Empire in arena football, as of 2010, Spokanes only major daily newspaper, The Spokesman-Review, has a daily circulation of over 76,000. The first humans to live in the Spokane area arrived between 13,000 and 8,000 years ago and were hunter-gatherer societies that lived off plentiful game. The Spokane tribe, after which the city is named, are believed to be either their direct descendants, when asked by early white explorers, the Spokanes said their ancestors came from up North. Early in the 19th century, the Northwest Fur Company sent two white fur trappers west of the Rocky Mountains to search for fur. These were the first white men met by the Spokanes, who believed they were sacred, the explorer-geographer David Thompson, working as head of the North West Companys Columbia Department, became the first European to explore the Inland Empire. Crossing what is now the Canada–US border from British Columbia, Thompson wanted to expand the North West Company further south in search of furs, after establishing the Kullyspell House and Saleesh House trading posts in what are now Idaho and Montana, Thompson then attempted to expand further west. He sent out two trappers, Jacques Raphael Finlay and Finan McDonald, to construct a fur trading post on the Spokane River in Washington and trade with the local Indians
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Palouse River
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The Palouse River is a tributary of the Snake River located in the U. S. states of Washington and Idaho. It flows for 167 miles southwestwards, primarily through the Palouse region of southeastern Washington and it is part of the Columbia River Basin, as the Snake River is a tributary of the Columbia River. The Palouse River flows from northern Idaho into southeast Washington through the Palouse region, the river flows through northern Latah County near State Highway 6 as it nears the state line. In Washington, the flows in Whitman County to Palouse and then to Colfax. From Colfax the river meanders west and ends up in the lower Snake River southwest of Hooper, the Palouse River enters the Snake River below the Little Goose Dam and above the Lower Monumental Dam. The Palouse Rivers drainage basin is 3,303 square miles in area. Its mean annual discharge, as measured by USGS gage 13351000 at Hooper, is 599 cubic feet per second, with a daily recorded flow of 27,800 cu ft/s. The ancestral Palouse River flowed through the now-dry Washtucna Coulee directly into the Columbia River, the area is characterized by interconnected and hanging flood-created coulees, cataracts, plunge pools, kolk created potholes, rock benches, buttes and pinnacles typical of scablands
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Walla Walla County, Washington
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Walla Walla County is a county located in the U. S. state of Washington. As of the 2010 census, its population was 58,781, the county seat and largest city is Walla Walla. The county was formed on April 25,1854 and is named after the Walla Walla tribe of Native Americans, Walla Walla County is included in the Walla Walla, WA Metropolitan Statistical Area. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,299 square miles. Columbia River Snake River Blue Mountains Touchet River Ponderosa Pines Banana Belt Walla Walla River U. S, the population density was 43 people per square mile. There were 21,147 housing units at a density of 17 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 85. 32% White,1. 69% Black or African American,0. 84% Native American,1. 11% Asian,0. 22% Pacific Islander,8. 24% from other races, and 2. 57% from two or more races. 15. 68% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,20. 1% were of German,10. 7% English,7. 7% United States or American and 7. 3% Irish ancestry. 27. 10% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.54 and the average family size was 3.08. In the county, the population was out with 24. 60% under the age of 18,13. 40% from 18 to 24,26. 50% from 25 to 44,20. 80% from 45 to 64. The median age was 35 years, for every 100 females there were 103.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.90 males, the median income for a household in the county was $35,900, and the median income for a family was $44,962. Males had an income of $34,691 versus $24,736 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,509, about 10. 20% of families and 15. 10% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18. 80% of those under age 18 and 8. 20% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 58,781 people,21,719 households, the population density was 46.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 23,451 housing units at a density of 18.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 84. 5% white,1. 8% black or African American,1. 3% Asian,1. 0% American Indian,0. 3% Pacific islander,8. 0% from other races, and 3. 1% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 19. 7% of the population, in terms of ancestry,23. 5% were German,13. 3% were English,12. 7% were Irish, and 6. 6% were American
28.
Columbia Plateau
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The Columbia Plateau is a geologic and geographic region that lies across parts of the U. S. states of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. It is a flood basalt plateau between the Cascade Range and the Rocky Mountains, cut through by the Columbia River. In one of various usages, the term Columbia Basin refers to more or less the area as the Columbia Plateau. Over a period of perhaps 10 to 15 million years, lava flow after lava flow poured out, as the molten rock came to the surface, the Earths crust gradually sank into the space left by the rising lava. Many of these formations are subdivided into formal and informal members, the subsidence of the crust produced the large plateau—a large, slightly depressed lava plain sometimes also known as the Columbia Basin. The ancient Columbia River was forced into its present course by the advancing lava. The lava, as it flowed over the area, first filled the stream valleys, entities found in these lake beds include fossil leaf impressions, petrified wood, fossil insects, and bones of vertebrate animals. Columbia River Basin Ethnic History Archive
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Asotin County, Washington
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Asotin County /əˈsoʊtən/ is a county in the U. S. state of Washington. As of the 2010 census, the population was 21,623, the county seat is at Asotin, and its largest city is Clarkston. The county was created out of Garfield County on October 27,1883, Asotin County is part of the Lewiston, ID-WA Metropolitan Statistical Area, which includes Nez Perce County, Idaho, and Asotin County. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 641 square miles and it is the fifth-smallest county in Washington by area. It is part of the Palouse, a wide and rolling prairie-like region of the middle Columbia basin, snake River Sagebrush Joseph Canyon U. S. The population density was 32 people per square mile, there were 9,111 housing units at an average density of 14 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 95. 62% White,0. 19% Black or African American,1. 27% Native American,0. 51% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 63% from other races, and 1. 77% from two or more races. 1. 95% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,25. 9% were of German,12. 4% English,11. 9% Irish and 11. 0% United States or American ancestry. 97. 9% spoke English and 1. 6% Spanish as their first language,27. 00% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 70% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the family size was 2.91. In the county, the population was out with 25. 50% under the age of 18,8. 10% from 18 to 24,26. 10% from 25 to 44,24. 00% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 91.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.30 males, the median income for a household in the county was $33,524, and the median income for a family was $40,592. Males had an income of $35,810 versus $22,218 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,748, about 11. 60% of families and 15. 40% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22. 70% of those under age 18 and 6. 70% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 21,623 people,9,236 households, the population density was 34.0 inhabitants per square mile. There were 9,872 housing units at a density of 15.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 94. 3% white,1. 4% American Indian,0. 5% Asian,0. 4% black or African American,0. 2% Pacific islander,0. 8% from other races, and 2. 4% from two or more races
30.
Umatilla County, Oregon
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Umatilla County /ˌjuːməˈtɪlə/ is a county located in the U. S. state of Oregon. As of the 2010 census, the population was 75,889, the county seat is Pendleton, but the largest city is Hermiston. The county is named for the Umatilla River, Umatilla County is part of the Hermiston-Pendleton, OR Micropolitan Statistical Area. It is included in the eight-county definition of Eastern Oregon, Umatilla County was created on September 27,1862, out of a portion of Wasco County. Adjustments were made to the boundaries following the creation of Grant, Morrow, Union. This legislative act also designated Marshall Station as the county seat. An 1865 election selected Umatilla City, now known as Umatilla, with the development of wheat farming, population shifted to the north and east parts of the county, and a subsequent election in 1868 moved the county seat again to Pendleton. The Umatilla Indian Reservation was established by the Treaty of Walla Walla in 1855, the Umatillas, Walla Wallas, and Cayuse tribes were resettled there, and is located immediately southeast of Pendleton. S. Army maintained an arsenal of nerve gas, the network can be accessed in some places by the public for free. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 3,231 square miles. It borders the Columbia River across from Washington, the population density was 22 people per square mile. There were 27,676 housing units at a density of 9 per square mile. 16. 11% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,17. 1% were of German,13. 0% American,9. 8% English and 6. 8% Irish ancestry. 84. 4% spoke English and 14. 3% Spanish as their first language,23. 70% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 70% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the family size was 3.14. In the county, the population was out with 27. 80% under the age of 18,9. 40% from 18 to 24,28. 30% from 25 to 44,22. 20% from 45 to 64. The median age was 35 years, for every 100 females there were 104.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.70 males, the median income for a household in the county was $36,249, and the median income for a family was $41,850
31.
World Wide Fund for Nature
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It was formerly named the World Wildlife Fund, which remains its official name in Canada and the United States. It is the worlds largest conservation organization with five million supporters worldwide, working in more than 100 countries, supporting around 1,300 conservation. WWF is a foundation, with 55% of funding from individuals and bequests, 19% from government sources, the groups mission is to stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature. Currently, much of its work concentrates on the conservation of three biomes that contain most of the biodiversity, oceans and coasts, forests. Among other issues, it is concerned with endangered species, sustainable production of commodities. The Conservation Foundation, a precursor to WWF, was founded in 1947 by Fairfield Osborn in New York City in support of capitalism-friendly ecological practices. The advisory council included leading scientists such as Charles Sutherland Elton, G Evelyn Hutchinson, Aldo Leopold, Carl Sauer, and Paul Sears. It supported much of the work cited by Rachel Carsons Silent Spring, including that of John L. George, Roger Hale, Robert Rudd. In 1990, the Conservation Foundation was merged into WWF, after becoming an affiliate of WWF in 1985, the organization now known as the Conservation Foundation in the United States is the former Forest Foundation of DuPage County. The idea for a fund on behalf of endangered animals was initially proposed by Victor Stolan to Sir Julian Huxley in response to articles he published in the British newspaper The Observer, nicholson thought up the name of the organization. WWF was conceived on 29 April 1961, under the name of World Wildlife Fund, godfrey A. Rockefeller also played an important role in its creation, assembling the first staff. For sending experts to danger spots and training, making it all possible that their needs are met before it is too late. WWF has set up offices and operations around the world, the organization also began to run its own conservation projects and campaigns, and by the 1980s started to take a more strategic approach to its conservation activities. In 1986, the changed its name to World Wide Fund for Nature. However, it continued at that time to operate under the name in the United States. We shant save all we should like to, but we shall save a great deal more than if we had never tried, – Sir Peter Scott In 1996, the organization obtained general consultative status from UNESCO. WWFs giant panda logo originated from a panda named Chi Chi that had transferred from Beijing Zoo to London Zoo in 1958. The logo was founded by Young in 1966, the organization also needed an animal that would have an impact in black and white printing
32.
Ecoregion
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An ecoregion is an ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than a bioregion, which in turn is smaller than an ecozone. All three of these are less or greater than an ecosystem. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water, and contain characteristic, the biodiversity of flora, fauna and ecosystems that characterise an ecoregion tends to be distinct from that of other ecoregions. Three caveats are appropriate for all bio-geographic mapping approaches, firstly, no single bio-geographic framework is optimal for all taxa. Ecoregions reflect the best compromise for as many taxa as possible, secondly, ecoregion boundaries rarely form abrupt edges, rather, ecotones and mosaic habitats bound them. Thirdly, most ecoregions contain habitats that differ from their assigned biome, biogeographic provinces may originate due to various barriers. Some physical, some climatic and some ocean chemical related, the history of the term is somewhat vague as it was used in many contexts, forest classifications, biome classifications, biogeographic classifications, etc. The concept of ecoregion of Bailey gives more importance to ecological criteria, while the WWF concept gives more importance to biogeography, there is significant, but not absolute, spatial correlation among these characteristics, making the delineation of ecoregions an imperfect science. Such transition zones are called ecotones, Ecoregions can be categorized using an algorithmic approach or a holistic, “weight-of-evidence” approach where the importance of various factors may vary. An example of the approach is Robert Bailey’s work for the U. S. The intended purpose of ecoregion delineation may affect the method used, according to WWF, the boundaries of an ecoregion approximate the original extent of the natural communities prior to any major recent disruptions or changes. WWF has identified 867 terrestrial ecoregions, and approximately 450 freshwater ecoregions across the Earth, the use of the term ecoregion is an outgrowth of a surge of interest in ecosystems and their functioning. In particular, there is awareness of issues relating to spatial scale in the study and it is widely recognized that interlinked ecosystems combine to form a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. The Global 200 is the list of ecoregions identified by WWF as priorities for conservation, Terrestrial ecoregions are land ecoregions, as distinct from freshwater and marine ecoregions. In this context, terrestrial is used to mean of land, WWF ecologists currently divide the land surface of the Earth into 8 major ecozones containing 867 smaller terrestrial ecoregions. The WWF effort is a synthesis of previous efforts to define. Many consider this classification to be decisive, and some propose these as stable borders for bioregional democracy initiatives. The eight terrestrial ecozones follow the major floral and faunal boundaries, identified by botanists and zoologists, ecozone boundaries generally follow continental boundaries, or major barriers to plant and animal distribution, like the Himalayas and the Sahara
33.
Palouse, Washington
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Palouse is a city in Whitman County, Washington, United States. The population was 998 at the 2010 census, Palouse is named for the region of farmland in which it is situated, and was incorporated in 1888. Palouse was first settled in 1869 by William Ewing, the townsite was founded in 1875 by W. P. Palouse is located at 46°54′36″N 117°04′31″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.08 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2010, there were 998 people,429 households, the population density was 924.1 inhabitants per square mile. There were 474 housing units at a density of 438.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 94. 4% White,1. 3% Native American,0. 9% Asian,0. 4% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 4% of the population. 27. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.79. The median age in the city was 43.8 years. 21. 4% of residents were under the age of 18,4. 9% were between the ages of 18 and 24,26. 2% were from 25 to 44,32. 9% were from 45 to 64, and 14. 4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49. 5% male and 50. 5% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,011 people,432 households, and 288 families residing in the city. The population density was 944.8 people per square mile, there were 471 housing units at an average density of 440.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 95. 94% White,0. 99% Native American,0. 30% Asian,0. 99% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 68% of the population. 28. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.34 and the average family size was 2.88. In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 26. 9% under the age of 18,5. 7% from 18 to 24,30. 4% from 25 to 44,23. 9% from 45 to 64, the median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 94.0 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.0 males. The median income for a household in the city was $34,583, males had a median income of $30,804 versus $25,515 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,754, about 8. 6% of families and 9. 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9. 2% of those under age 18 and 18. 7% of those age 65 or over
34.
Potlatch, Idaho
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Potlatch is a city in Latah County, Idaho, United States, located about 6 miles east of the Idaho-Washington state border, in the north central part of the state. It is along State Highway 6, bordered on the northeast by the community of Onaway. The population was 804 at the 2010 census, Potlatch was founded in 1905 as a company town by the Potlatch Corporation. The townsite was chosen because of proximity to Potlatch Corporations large holdings of Western White Pine on the Palouse River, Potlatch was chosen as the mill site. When the mill was built, it was one of the largest sawmills in the US and was the largest white pine sawmill in the world, most of Potlatch was built in 1906 and 1907. The company developed and ran Potlatch on a model mostly patterned after that used by Pullman Company for its company town in Illinois and it provide police and fire protection, a school, churches, a hospital, an inexpensive company store, and recreational amenities. It banned prostitution, prohibited alcohol, and encouraged its workers to marry by allowing only married couples to rent the houses it owned, the paternalism was profitable, even though rents were low, during 1943 the company showed a profit of $59,000 for its townsite services. Less than a later, with labor costs significantly reducing its townsite profit, the mill sold most of the homes and other buildings it owned. In 1981 the mill was shut down, shortly after the town was sold to the residents, five years later, part of the towns commercial district, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. After the mills closure, Potlatch became a community for the university towns of Moscow and Pullman. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 0.43 square miles. Potlatch is north of the confluence of Rock Creek and the Palouse River, Potlatch has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate according to the Köppen climate classification system, although its winter months nearly qualify it as having a dry-summer humid continental climate. In August 1906 the town had a population of about 1,000, as of the census of 2010, there were 804 people,339 households, and 218 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,869.8 inhabitants per square mile, there were 368 housing units at an average density of 855.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 97. 1% White,0. 1% African American,0. 1% Native American,0. 2% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 1% of the population. 28. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.92. The median age in the city was 32.9 years. 28. 4% of residents were under the age of 18, 7% were between the ages of 18 and 24,28. 7% were from 25 to 44, 21% were from 45 to 64, and 14. 8% were 65 years of age or older
35.
Dryland farming
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Dryland farming and dry farming are agricultural techniques for non-irrigated cultivation of crops. Dryland farming is associated with drylands - dry areas characterized by a wet season followed by a warm dry season. Dryland farming was introduced to southern Russia and Ukraine by Ukrainian Mennonites under the influence of Johann Cornies, in Australia, it is widely practiced in all states but the Northern Territory. Dry farming may be practiced in areas that have significant annual rainfall during a wet season, Crops are cultivated during the subsequent dry season, using practices that make use of the stored moisture in the soil. California, Colorado and Oregon, in the United States, are three states where dry farming is practiced for a variety of crops, Dryland farmed crops may include winter wheat, corn, beans, Sunflowers or even watermelon. Successful dryland farming is possible with as little as 9 inches of precipitation a year, native American tribes in the arid Southwest survived for hundreds of years on dryland farming in areas with less than 10 inches of rain. The choice of crop is influenced by the timing of the predominant rainfall in relation to the seasons. For example, winter wheat is more suited to regions with higher winter rainfall areas with summer wet seasons may be more suited to summer growing crops such as sorghum. Dry farmed crops may include grapes, tomatoes, pumpkins, beans and these crops grow using the winter water stored in the soil, rather than depending on rainfall during the growing season. Dryland farming has evolved as a set of techniques and management practices used by farmers to adapt to the presence or lack of moisture in a given crop cycle. In marginal regions, a farmer should be able to survive occasional crop failures. Survival as a dryland farmer requires careful husbandry of the moisture available for the crop, Dryland farming involves the constant assessing of the amount of moisture present or lacking for any given crop cycle and planning accordingly. Dryland farmers know that to be successful they have to be aggressive during the good years in order to offset the dry years. The fact that a period must be included in the crop rotation means that fields cannot always be protected by a cover crop. Some of the theories of dryland farming developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries claimed to be scientific but were in reality pseudoscientific, Dry farming depends on making the best use of the bank of soil moisture that was created by winter rainfall. Some dry farming practices include, Wider than normal spacing, to provide a bank of moisture for each plant. Strict weed control, to ensure that weeds do not consume soil moisture needed by the cultivated plants, cultivation of soil to produce a dust mulch, thought to prevent the loss of water through capillary action. This practice is controversial, and is not universally advocated, selection of crops and cultivars suited for dry farming practices
36.
Colfax, Washington
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Colfax is the county seat of Whitman County, Washington, United States. The population was 2,805 at the 2010 census, the population is estimated at 2,826 per the State of Washington Office of Financial Management in 2015 making Colfax the second largest city in Whitman County behind Pullman. It is situated amidst wheat-covered hills in a valley at the confluence of the north and south forks of the Palouse River. U. S. Route 195, which forms the main street, intersects with State Route 26 at the north end of town, in the past. It was named after Schuyler Colfax, the president from 1869-73. Palouse Indians were the first known inhabitants of the Colfax area. White settlers arrived in the summer of 1870, and soon built a sawmill, a flour mill and other businesses followed, and Colfax soon grew into a prosperous town. Colfax was officially incorporated on November 29,1873, in 1889–90, the town vied with several other finalists to become the site of a new state agricultural college, present-day Washington State University. The honor ultimately fell to nearby Pullman,15 miles southeast, the early history of Colfax was marred by prominent lynchings in 1894 and 1898. Until passed by Pullman at the 1930 census, Colfax was the largest city in the county, Colfax is located in southeastern Washington at 46°53′3″N 117°21′49″W, at an elevation of 1,962 feet. The nearest cities are Spokane, Pullman, Moscow, and Lewiston/Clarkston, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 3.79 square miles, all of it land. The Palouse River, confined for flood control to a bed that reduces it to an eighteen-inch-wide stream during the dry season, runs through the middle of town. Colfax has a continental climate, with hot, dry summers, cold winters. The annual rainfall less than 20 inches a year. This climate, together with the deep, rich palouse topsoil, the Codger Pole is a chainsaw-carved monument by master carver Jonathan LaBenne. It is located on Main Street and commemorates a 1988 rematch,50 years after the original 1938 game, between archrival football teams from Colfax High School and St. John. At 65 feet tall, it is the largest sculpture of its type in the world, the players are shown in old age but are wearing the football uniforms of the thirties. The Codger Pole was recently renovated as of May 2016 and it is located at the intersection of Main and Rock Streets
37.
Lewiston, Idaho
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Lewiston is a city in north central Idaho and the county seat of Nez Perce County. It is the second-largest city in the northern Idaho region, behind Coeur dAlene, Lewiston is the principal city of the Lewiston, ID - Clarkston, WA Metropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Nez Perce County and Asotin County, Washington. As of the 2010 census, the population of Lewiston was 31,894, Lewiston is located at the confluence of the Snake River and Clearwater River, thirty miles southeast of the Lower Granite Dam. Because of dams on the Snake and Columbia River, Lewiston is reachable by some ocean-going vessels, the Port of Lewiston has the distinction of being the farthest inland port east of the West Coast of the United States. The Lewiston-Nez Perce County Airport serves the city by air, Lewiston was founded 156 years ago in 1861 in the wake of a gold rush which began the previous year near Pierce, northeast of Lewiston. In 1863, Lewiston became the first capital of the newly created Idaho Territory and its stint as seat of the new territorys government was short-lived, as a resolution to have the capital moved south to Boise was passed by the Idaho Territorial Legislature on December 7,1864. Lewiston’s main industries are agriculture, paper, and timber products, ammunition manufacturing maintains a very important and growing presence in Lewiston, being the headquarters of ammunition makers, CCI and Speer Bullet. Lewiston is home to Lewis–Clark State College, an undergraduate college. Cultural activities in Lewiston include the Dogwood Festival, Hot August Nights, the Nimiipuu have inhabited the area for thousands of years. The first people of European ancestry to visit the Lewiston area were members of the David Thompson expedition of 1803, Thompson was looking to establish fur trading posts for the Hudsons Bay Company of British North America. Thompson established the first white settlement in Idaho, MacKenzies Post, but it soon failed as the local Nez Perce tribes men considered beaver trapping to be womens work, the tribe was migratory and apparently women thought they already had enough to do. This was followed by the Lewis and Clark Expedition in October,1805, at the future townsite they encountered settlements of the native Nez Perce. Lewis and Clark passed through the valley on the trip from the Pacific in 1806 also. The town is believed to have named after Meriwether Lewis and after Victor Trevitts hometown of Lewiston, Maine. He simply stated the Journal of Lewis and Clark talked about being in the valley, the town was founded in 1861 in the wake of a gold rush which began the previous year near Pierce, northeast of Lewiston. In 1863 Lewiston became the capital of the newly created Idaho Territory, thomas J. Beall, one of the first three white settlers in Lewiston, wrote many of the Lewiston Tribunes first articles, and continued to do so until his death at the age of 89. Lewistons stint as a seat of the new government was short-lived. As the gold rush quieted in northern Idaho, it heated up in a new rush in southwestern Idaho, centered in Idaho City
38.
Ritzville, Washington
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Ritzville is a city in Adams County, Washington, United States. The population was 1,673 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Adams County. The first settler in what would become Ritzville was William McKay in 1880, the town would be named after Philip Ritz, who had settled in the area two years earlier. By December 1880, Ritzvilles town-site had been platted by John W. Sprague on behalf of his company, in 1881, McKay built the first house on the townsite. The Northern Pacific grade was under construction in the vicinity and McKays home was used as a hotel for the workers. With the railroad came a new wave of settlers to the area, in the summer of 1881, McKay erected the first store and the railroad built a depot nearby, which also served as a hotel, theater and meeting hall. At that time the village had a population of around 50. The towns water supply was the tank because it was not thought that water could be found in the ground. The first religious services were held in Adams County in Ritzville in April 1882 at the McKay Home and the First Congregational Church was soon organized, the post office was established in 1883 by J. L. Johnson of Walla Walla who also purchased McKays store. Soon afterwards, many businesses would set up shop in town. As the 1880s wore on, the town was beginning to realize its position as a major shipping point in the Big Bend Country. When the towns water supply from the tank began to stretch thin. At first, no water was found but a well was finally struck 1-mile east of the town-site, most of the land-owners in town agreed to move towards the well, with the exception of a large hotel which couldnt be moved. Water was eventually found at the site and the town was allowed to stay where it was, on June 6,1888, a fire caused by a defective flue wiped out nearly all of the business section of town. Ritzville had no fire department at the time and its citizens were unable to combat the flames effectively, rebuilding went underway quickly resulting in the towns first brick building in 1889 built by the towns first mayor, N. H. It still stands and is part of the Ritzville Historic District. Following the rebuilding from the fire, Ritzville was incorporated as a town in 1888 and was officially re-incorporated as a city on July 17,1890 after Washington became a state, the first banking institution, The Adams County Bank would follow in April 1891. After another downtown fire in 1894, a system was installed at a cost of $20,000
39.
Sediment
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For sediment in beverages, see dregs. For example, sand and silt can be carried in suspension in water and on reaching the sea be deposited by sedimentation. Sediments are most often transported by water, but also wind, beach sands and river channel deposits are examples of fluvial transport and deposition, though sediment also often settles out of slow-moving or standing water in lakes and oceans. Desert sand dunes and loess are examples of transport and deposition. Glacial moraine deposits and till are ice-transported sediments, sediment can be classified based on its grain size and/or its composition. Sediment size is measured on a log base 2 scale, called the Phi scale, composition of sediment can be measured in terms of, parent rock lithology mineral composition chemical make-up. This leads to an ambiguity in which clay can be used as both a size-range and a composition, sediment is transported based on the strength of the flow that carries it and its own size, volume, density, and shape. Stronger flows will increase the lift and drag on the particle, causing it to rise, rivers and streams carry sediment in their flows. This sediment can be in a variety of locations within the flow and these relationships are shown in the following table for the Rouse number, which is a ratio of sediment fall velocity to upwards velocity. If the upwards velocity is less than the settling velocity, but still high enough for the sediment to move, it will move along the bed as bed load by rolling, sliding. If the upwards velocity is higher than the velocity, the sediment will be transported high in the flow as wash load. As there are generally a range of different particle sizes in the flow, sediment motion can create self-organized structures such as ripples, dunes, antidunes on the river or stream bed. These bedforms are often preserved in rocks and can be used to estimate the direction. Overland flow can erode soil particles and transport them downslope, the erosion associated with overland flow may occur through different methods depending on meteorological and flow conditions. If the initial impact of rain droplets dislodges soil, the phenomenon is called rainsplash erosion, if overland flow is directly responsible for sediment entrainment but does not form gullies, it is called sheet erosion. If the flow and the substrate permit channelization, gullies may form, glaciers carry a wide range of sediment sizes, and deposit it in moraines. The overall balance between sediment in transport and sediment being deposited on the bed is given by the Exner equation and this expression states that the rate of increase in bed elevation due to deposition is proportional to the amount of sediment that falls out of the flow. This can be localized, and simply due to obstacles, examples are scour holes behind boulders, where flow accelerates
40.
Miocene
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The Miocene is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about 23.03 to 5.333 million years ago. The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell and its name comes from the Greek words μείων and καινός and means less recent because it has 18% fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene. The Miocene follows the Oligocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliocene Epoch, the earth went from the Oligocene through the Miocene and into the Pliocene, with the climate slowly cooling towards a series of ice ages. The Miocene boundaries are not marked by a single distinct global event, the apes arose and diversified during the Miocene, becoming widespread in the Old World. By the end of this epoch, the ancestors of humans had split away from the ancestors of the chimpanzees to follow their own evolutionary path, as in the Oligocene before it, grasslands continued to expand and forests to dwindle in extent. In the Miocene seas, kelp forests made their first appearance, the plants and animals of the Miocene were fairly modern. The Miocene faunal stages from youngest to oldest are typically named according to the International Commission on Stratigraphy, Two subdivisions each form the lower, middle, continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Mountain building took place in western North America, Europe, both continental and marine Miocene deposits are common worldwide with marine outcrops common near modern shorelines. Well studied continental exposures occur in the North American Great Plains, India continued to collide with Asia, creating dramatic new mountain ranges. The Tethys Seaway continued to shrink and then disappeared as Africa collided with Eurasia in the Turkish–Arabian region between 19 and 12 Ma. The subsequent uplift of mountains in the western Mediterranean region and a fall in sea levels combined to cause a temporary drying up of the Mediterranean Sea near the end of the Miocene. The global trend was towards increasing aridity caused primarily by global cooling reducing the ability of the atmosphere to absorb moisture, climates remained moderately warm, although the slow global cooling that eventually led to the Pleistocene glaciations continued. Although a long-term cooling trend was well underway, there is evidence of a period during the Miocene when the global climate rivalled that of the Oligocene. The Miocene warming began 21 million years ago and continued until 14 million years ago, by 8 million years ago, temperatures dropped sharply once again, and the Antarctic ice sheet was already approaching its present-day size and thickness. Greenland may have begun to have large glaciers as early as 7 to 8 million years ago, life during the Miocene Epoch was mostly supported by the two newly formed biomes, kelp forests and grasslands. This allows for more grazers, such as horses, rhinoceroses, ninety five percent of modern plants existed by the end of this epoch. The higher organic content and water retention of the deeper and richer grassland soils, with long term burial of carbon in sediments, produced a carbon and this, combined with higher surface albedo and lower evapotranspiration of grassland, contributed to a cooler, drier climate. The expansion of grasslands and radiations among terrestrial herbivores correlates to fluctuations in CO2
41.
Columbia River Basalt Group
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The Columbia River Basalt Group is a large igneous province that lies across parts of the Western United States. It is found in the U. S. states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Nevada, the Basalt group includes the Steen and Picture Gorge basalt formations. Eruptions were most vigorous from 17–14 million years ago, when over 99 percent of the basalt was released, less extensive eruptions continued from 14–6 million years ago. The Columbia River Basalt Group is thought to be a link to the Chilcotin Group in south-central British Columbia. The Latah Formation sediments of Washington and Idaho are interbedded with a number of the Columbia River Basalt Group flows, in the CRBG deposits 40Ar, which is produced by 40K decay, only accumulates after the melt solidifies. Other flood basalts include Deccan Traps that cover an area of 500,000 km2 in west-central India, some time during a 10–15 million-year period, lava flow after lava flow poured out, eventually reaching a thickness of more than 1.8 km. As the molten rock came to the surface, the Earths crust gradually sank into the left by the rising lava. This subsidence of the crust produced a large, slightly depressed lava plain now known as the Columbia Basin or Columbia River Plateau, the northwesterly advancing lava forced the ancient Columbia River into its present course. The lava, as it flowed over the area, first filled the stream valleys, in these ancient lake beds are found fossil leaf impressions, petrified wood, fossil insects, and bones of vertebrate animals. In the middle Miocene,17 to 15 Ma, the Columbia Plateau, both flows are similar in both composition and age, and have been attributed to a common source, the Yellowstone hotspot. As hot mantle plume materials rise and reach lower pressures, the hot materials melt and interact with the materials in the upper mantle, once that magma breaches the surface, it flows as lava and then solidifies into basalt. Prior to 17.5 million years ago, the Western Cascade Stratovolcanoes erupted with periodic regularity for over 20 million years, an abrupt transition to shield volcanic flooding took place in the mid-Miocene. The flows can be divided into four categories, The Steens Basalt, Grande Ronde Basalt, the Wanapum Basalt. The various lava flows have been dated by radiometric dating—particularly through measurement of the ratios of isotopes of potassium to argon, the Columbia River flood basalt province comprises more than 300 individual basalt lava flows that have an average volume of 500 to 600 cubic kilometres. Major hot-spots have often been tracked back to flood-basalt events, in this case the Yellowstone hotspot’s initial flood-basalt event occurred near Steens Mountain when the Imnaha and Steens eruptions began. As the North American Plate moved several centimeters per year westward, consistent with the hot spot hypothesis, the lava flows are progressively younger as one proceeds east along this path. There is additional confirmation that Yellowstone is associated with a hot spot. Using tomographic images based on waves, relatively narrow, deeply seated, active convective plumes have been detected under Yellowstone
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Pliocene
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The Pliocene Epoch is the epoch in the geologic timescale that extends from 5.333 million to 2.58 million years BP. It is the second and youngest epoch of the Neogene Period in the Cenozoic Era, the Pliocene follows the Miocene Epoch and is followed by the Pleistocene Epoch.588 to 1.806 million years ago, and is now included in the Pleistocene. As with other geologic periods, the geological strata that define the start and end are well identified but the exact dates of the start. The boundaries defining the Pliocene are not set at an easily identified worldwide event, the upper boundary was set at the start of the Pleistocene glaciations. The Pliocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell, the name comes from the Greek words πλεῖον and καινός and means roughly continuation of the recent, referring to the essentially modern marine mollusc faunas. H. W. Fowler called the term a regrettable barbarism, in the official timescale of the ICS, the Pliocene is subdivided into two stages. From youngest to oldest they are, Piacenzian Zanclean The Piacenzian is sometimes referred to as the Late Pliocene, in the system of North American Land Mammal Ages include Hemphillian, and Blancan. The Blancan extends forward into the Pleistocene, South American Land Mammal Ages include Montehermosan, Chapadmalalan and Uquian. In the Paratethys area the Pliocene contains the Dacian and Romanian stages, as usual in stratigraphy, there are many other regional and local subdivisions in use. In Britain the Pliocene is divided into the stages, Gedgravian, Waltonian, Pre-Ludhamian, Ludhamian, Thurnian, Bramertonian or Antian, Pre-Pastonian or Baventian, Pastonian and Beestonian. The exact correlations between these stages and the ICS stages is still a matter of detail. The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by a shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic. Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch, the global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas. Continents continued to drift, moving from positions possibly as far as 250 km from their present locations to positions only 70 km from their current locations, africas collision with Europe formed the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys Ocean. The border between the Miocene and the Pliocene is also the time of the Messinian salinity crisis, Sea level changes exposed the land-bridge between Alaska and Asia. Pliocene marine rocks are exposed in the Mediterranean, India. Elsewhere, they are exposed largely near shores, the change to a cooler, dry, seasonal climate had considerable impacts on Pliocene vegetation, reducing tropical species worldwide. Deciduous forests proliferated, coniferous forests and tundra covered much of the north, tropical forests were limited to a tight band around the equator, and in addition to dry savannahs, deserts appeared in Asia and Africa
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Fluvial
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Fluvial is a term used in geography and geology to refer to the processes associated with rivers and streams and the deposits and landforms created by them. When the stream or rivers are associated with glaciers, ice sheets, or ice caps, fluvial processes include the motion of sediment and erosion or deposition on the river bed. Erosion by moving water can happen in two ways, firstly, the movement of water across the bed exerts a shear stress directly onto the bed. However, if the river carries significant quantities of sediment, this material can act as tools to enhance wear of the bed, at the same time the fragments themselves are ground down, becoming smaller and more rounded. Sediment in rivers is transported as either bedload or suspended load, there is also a component carried as dissolved material. For each grain size there is a velocity at which the grains start to move. However the grains will continue to be transported even if the velocity falls below the entrainment velocity due to the friction between the grains and the river bed. Eventually the velocity will fall low enough for the grains to be deposited and this is shown by the Hjulstrøm curve. A river is continually picking up and dropping solid particles of rock, where the river flow is fast, more particles are picked up than dropped. Where the river flow is slow, more particles are dropped than picked up, areas where more particles are dropped are called alluvial or flood plains, and the dropped particles are called alluvium. Even small streams make alluvial deposits, but it is in the plains and deltas of large rivers that large. The amount of matter carried by a river is enormous. The names of rivers derive from the color that the transported matter gives the water. For example, the Huang He in China is literally translated Yellow River, and it has been estimated that the Mississippi River annually carries 406 million tons of sediment to the sea, the Yellow River 796 million tons, and the Po River in Italy 67 million tons. Lacustrine - of or relating to a lake maritime - of or relating the sea oceanic - of or relating to an ocean palustrine - of or relating to a marsh
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Pleistocene
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The Pleistocene is the geological epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the worlds most recent period of repeated glaciations. The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the last glacial period, the Pleistocene is the first epoch of the Quaternary Period or sixth epoch of the Cenozoic Era. In the ICS timescale, the Pleistocene is divided into four stages or ages, all of these stages were defined in southern Europe. In addition to this subdivision, various regional subdivisions are often used. Charles Lyell introduced the term pleistocene in 1839 to describe strata in Sicily that had at least 70% of their molluscan fauna still living today and this distinguished it from the older Pliocene Epoch, which Lyell had originally thought to be the youngest fossil rock layer. The Pleistocene has been dated from 2.588 million to 11,700 years before present and it covers most of the latest period of repeated glaciation, up to and including the Younger Dryas cold spell. The end of the Younger Dryas has been dated to about 9640 BC, the IUGS has yet to approve a type section, Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point, for the upper Pleistocene/Holocene boundary. The proposed section is the North Greenland Ice Core Project ice core 75°06 N 42°18 W, the lower boundary of the Pleistocene Series is formally defined magnetostratigraphically as the base of the Matuyama chronozone, isotopic stage 103. Above this point there are notable extinctions of the calcareous nanofossils, Discoaster pentaradiatus, the Pleistocene covers the recent period of repeated glaciations. The name Plio-Pleistocene has, in the past, been used to mean the last ice age. The revised definition of the Quaternary, by pushing back the date of the Pleistocene to 2.58 Ma. Pleistocene climate was marked by repeated glacial cycles in which continental glaciers pushed to the 40th parallel in some places and it is estimated that, at maximum glacial extent, 30% of the Earths surface was covered by ice. In addition, a zone of permafrost stretched southward from the edge of the sheet, a few hundred kilometres in North America. The mean annual temperature at the edge of the ice was −6 °C, during interglacial times, such as at present, drowned coastlines were common, mitigated by isostatic or other emergent motion of some regions. The effects of glaciation were global, antarctica was ice-bound throughout the Pleistocene as well as the preceding Pliocene. The Andes were covered in the south by the Patagonian ice cap, there were glaciers in New Zealand and Tasmania. The current decaying glaciers of Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro, glaciers existed in the mountains of Ethiopia and to the west in the Atlas mountains. In the northern hemisphere, many glaciers fused into one, the Cordilleran ice sheet covered the North American northwest, the east was covered by the Laurentide
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Outburst flood
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In geomorphology, an outburst flood, which is a type of megaflood, is a high-magnitude, low-frequency catastrophic flood involving the sudden release of water. During the last deglaciation, numerous glacial lake outburst floods were caused by the collapse of ice sheets or glaciers that formed the dams of proglacial lakes. Examples of older outburst floods are known from the geological past of the Earth, landslides, lahars, and volcanic dams can also block rivers and create lakes, which trigger such floods when the rock or earthen barrier collapses or is eroded. Lakes also form behind glacial moraines, which can collapse and create outburst floods, megafloods are paleofloods that involved rates of water flow larger than those in the historical record. They are studied through the deposits and the erosional and constructional landforms that individual megafloods have created. Floods that are known to us through historical descriptions are related to meteorological events, such as heavy rains, rapid melting of snowpacks. In the geological past of the Earth, however, geological research has shown much larger events have occurred. In the case of outburst floods, such floods are typically linked to the collapse of the forming a lake. They fall in the classification according to the mechanism responsible. Rapid erosion, melting of ice sheets, Collapse of volcanic dams created by lava flows, lahars, or pyroclastic flows. Overtopping of earthen or rock barriers Lake overtopping, Ocean spilling over a dividing ridge into a landlocked basin. A smaller scale example would be the Pantai Remis landslide, a landslide dam on Sichuans Dadu River, created by an earthquake ten days earlier, burst and caused a flood that extended 1400 km downstream and killed 100,000 people. The marine incursion, caused by the level of the Mediterranean. In North America, during glacial maximum, there were no Great Lakes as we know them and they lay in the areas of the modern lakes, but their drainage sometimes passed south, into the Mississippi system, sometimes into the Arctic, or east into the Atlantic. The most famous of these lakes was Lake Agassiz. As ice-dam configurations failed, a series of floods were released from Lake Agassiz. The Missoula Floods of Oregon and Washington states were caused by breaking ice dams. Lake Bonneville was not a lake, but glacial age climate change determined the lake level
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Loess
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Loess is a clastic, predominantly silt-sized sediment that is formed by the accumulation of wind-blown dust. It covers about 10% of the Earths surface and it is usually homogeneous and highly porous and is traversed by vertical capillaries that permit the sediment to fracture and form vertical bluffs. It was first applied to Rhine River valley loess about 1821, Loess is homogeneous, porous, friable, pale yellow or buff, slightly coherent, typically non-stratified and often calcareous. Loess grains are angular with little polishing or rounding and composed of crystals of quartz, feldspar, mica, Loess can be described as a rich, dust-like soil. Loess deposits may become thick, more than a hundred meters in areas of China. It generally occurs as a deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces, because the grains are angular, loess will often stand in banks for many years without slumping. This soil has a characteristic called vertical cleavage which makes it easily excavated to form cave dwellings, in several areas of the world, loess ridges have formed that are aligned with the prevailing winds during the last glacial maximum. These are called paha ridges in America and greda ridges in Europe, the form of these loess dunes has been explained by a combination of wind and tundra conditions. Loess comes from the German Löss or Löß, and ultimately from Alemannic lösch meaning loose as named by peasants, the term Löß was first described in Central Europe by Karl Cäsar von Leonhard who reported yellowish brown, silty deposits along the Rhine valley near Heidelberg. Charles Lyell brought this term into usage by observing similarities between loess and loess derivatives along the loess bluffs in the Rhine and Mississippi. At that time it was thought that the yellowish brown silt-rich sediment was of fluvial origin being deposited by the large rivers. It wasnt until the end of the 19th century that the origin of loess was recognized. A tremendous number of papers have been published since then, focusing on the formation of loess and on loess/palaeosol sequences as archives of climate and these water conservation works were carried out extensively in China and the research of Loess in China has been continued since 1954. Much effort was put into the setting up of regional and local loess stratigraphies, and Frechen, Horváth & Gábris for the Austrian and Hungarian loess stratigraphy, respectively. During the autumn and winter, when melting of the icesheets and icecaps ceased, as a consequence, large parts of the formerly submerged and unvegetated floodplains of these braided rivers dried out and were exposed to the wind. Because these floodplains consist of sediment containing a high content of glacially ground flour-like silt and clay, they were susceptible to winnowing of their silts. Once entrained by the wind, particles were then deposited downwind, the loess deposits found along both sides of the Mississippi River Alluvial Valley are a classic example of periglacial loess
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Caliche
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Caliche is a sedimentary rock, a hardened natural cement of calcium carbonate that binds other materials—such as gravel, sand, clay, and silt. Caliche is also known as hardpan, calcrete, kankar, or duricrust, the term caliche is Spanish and is originally from the Latin calx, meaning lime. Caliche is generally light-colored, but can range from white to pink to reddish-brown. It generally occurs on or near the surface, but can be found in deeper subsoil deposits, layers vary from a few inches to feet thick, and multiple layers can exist in a single location. In northern Chile and Peru, caliche also refers to mineral deposits that include nitrate salts, Caliche can also refer to various claylike deposits in Mexico and Colombia. In addition, it has used to describe some forms of quartzite, bauxite, kaolinite, laterite, chalcedony, opal. A similar material, composed of calcium sulfate rather than calcium carbonate, is called gypcrust, Caliche generally forms when minerals leach from the upper layer of the soil and accumulate in the next layer, at depths of approximately three to 10 feet under the surface. It generally consists of carbonates in semiarid regions—in arid regions, less-soluble minerals form caliche layers after all the carbonates have been leached from the soil. The deposited calcium carbonate accumulates—first forming grains, then small clumps, then a layer, and finally. As the caliche layer forms, the layer gradually becomes deeper, and eventually moves into the parent material, however, caliche also forms in other ways. It can form when water rises through capillary action, in an arid region, rainwater sinks into the ground very quickly. Later, as the surface dries out, the water below the surface rises and this water movement forms a caliche that tends to grow thinner and branch out as it nears the surface. Plants can contribute to the formation of caliche, as well, plant roots take up water through transpiration, and leave behind the dissolved calcium carbonate, which precipitates to form caliche. It can also form on outcrops of rocks or in rock fissures where water is trapped. In general, caliche deposition is a process, but if enough moisture is present in an otherwise arid site. While the formation of other caliches is relatively well understood, the origin of Chilean caliche is not clearly known, one possibility is that the deposits were formed when a prehistoric inland sea evaporated. Another theory is that it was deposited due to weathering of the Andes, one of the worlds largest deposits of calcrete is in the Makgadikgadi Pans in Botswana, where surface calcretes occur at the location of a now-desiccated prehistoric lake. Caliche is used in construction worldwide, where the calcium carbonate content is over 80%, caliche can also be fired and used as a source of lime, which can then be used for soil stabilization
