1.
Palazzo Pamphilj
–
See also Palazzo Doria Pamphilj Palazzo Pamphilj, also spelled Palazzo Pamphili, is a palace facing onto the Piazza Navona in Rome. It was built between 1644 and 1650, in 1644, Cardinal Giambattista Pamphilj of the powerful Pamphilj family, who already owned a palace between the Piazza Navona and the Via Pasquino, became Pope Innocent X. With this election came the desire for a more magnificent building to reflect his family’s increased prestige. Further land was bought, the architect Girolamo Rainaldi received the commission and construction began in 1646, the new project was to incorporate some existing buildings, including the former palace of the Pamphilj and the Palazzo Cibo. In 1647, the Baroque architect Francesco Borromini was consulted about the design, however, the prevailing preference was for Rainaldi’s more staid and conservative design. The Gallery extends through the width of the block with a large Serliana window at either end, between 1651 and 1654, the painter Pietro da Cortona was commissioned to decorate the Gallery vault. His secular fresco cycle depicts scenes from the life of Aeneas, the Pamphili claim to be descended from Aeneas. So Cortona devised a series of scenes around a central painted framed ‘Apotheosis of Aeneas’ into the Olympian heavens, the elaborate doorframes regularly spaced along the longer walls of the Gallery display a combination of motifs typically used by Borromini and by Cortona The plan has three courtyards. The rooms on the piano nobile have frescoes and friezes by artists such as Giacinto Gimignani, Gaspard Dughet, Andrea Camassei, Giacinto Brandi, Francesco Allegrini, carlo Rainaldi, the son of Girolamo, completed the building around 1650. The new palazzo became the home of Innocents widowed and unpopular sister-in-law Olimpia Maidalchini and she was the mother of Camillo Pamphilj, the one time cardinal, who through his marriage came into the possession of the Palazzo Aldobrandini, now known as the Palazzo Doria Pamphilj. Confusingly, until the unification of the Doria and Pamphilj surnames both palazzi were known as Palazzo Pamphilj, or in the case of todays Doria Pamphilj sometimes Palazzo Pamfilio, both spellings Pamphilj and Pamphili are in common Italian usage, even though the family prefers Pamphilj. The Palazzo Pamphilj in Piazza Navona, Constructing Identity In Early Modern Rome,2008, Rome in the Age of Bernini, volume II, Almquist & Wiksell, Stockholm,1986, Chapter 1 Innocent X Brazilian Embassy in Rome Official website Palazzo Pamphilj Virtual tour
Palazzo Pamphilj
–
Palazzo Pamphilj, the Brazilian Embassy in Rome
2.
Papacy
–
The pope is the Bishop of Rome and, therefore, the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The current pope is Francis, who was elected on 13 March 2013, the office of the pope is the papacy. The pope is considered one of the worlds most powerful people because of his diplomatic and he is also head of state of Vatican City, a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the Italian capital city of Rome. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history, the popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of importance in Western Europe. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, Popes, who originally had no temporal powers, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, the word pope derives from Greek πάππας meaning father. The earliest record of the use of title was in regard to the by then deceased Patriarch of Alexandria. Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, the writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD180 reflect a belief that Peter founded and organised the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peters presence in the early Roman Church, Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the struggles in our time and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, first, the greatest and most just columns, the good apostles Peter and Paul. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, many agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome, others, using Peters own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter. First-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches, gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome, some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is unclear. It seems that at first the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, the consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable
Papacy
Papacy
–
Bishop of
Rome
Papacy
–
Saint Peter
Papacy
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
3.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
4.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
5.
Doria (family)
–
Documentary evidence refers to two members of that family, Martino and Genuardo, in 1110, they are called filii Auriae. The Doria had fiefs in Sardinia from the 12th century to the 15th century, although uncommon, Doria is also known as a female first name. Simon Doria lived in the late 12th century and was an admiral of the Genoese in the assault against Saint Jean dAcre. Percivalle Doria, who died in 1275 fighting for the Ghibelline, was an infamous warlord, also a poet, Simon Doria was podestà of Savona and Albenga. Tedisio Doria financed the expedition of Vadino and Ugolino Vivaldi in 1291, branca Doria is mentioned by Dante in the Divine Comedy because of his treacherous murder of Michele Zanche, his father-in-law, in 1275. Brancaleone Doria ruled the Giudicato of Arborea and nearly conquered the whole of Sardinia in the fourteenth century. Ottone Doria commanded the 5,000 or more Genoese crossbowmen hired by the French for the Battle of Crécy against the English, like many of his troops, he was killed in the battle, where the Genoese ended by being attacked by both sides. Heavy rain had made their bowstrings wet and useless so Ottone ordered a retreat, the French cavalry saw this as cowardice and attacked them, while others were slain by the English bowmen. The most remarkable member of the family is Admiral Andrea Doria, Prince of Melfi and his nephew was Giovanni Andrea Doria, another admiral, Giovanni Andreas son was Giovanni Doria, a cardinal of the Catholic Church. Other notable Dorias of the period include admiral Carlo Doria and art collector Giovanni Carlo Doria, the family had relationships with political entities both in and out of Europe. During the attempts by the Mongol ilkhanate ruler Abaqa to form a Franco-Mongol alliance, many male children of the Doria family were named after foreign rulers, such as Abaga, Casano, and Aitone, named after Hayton, or Hethum I, king of Cilician Armenia. Some members of the family became doge of Genoa, agnatic members of the family are marchesi al cognome, that is, bear the title of marquess attached to the family name as a courtesy title. Non-agnatic princely branches like the Colonna-Doria are still flourishing, there are also titled branches outside Italy, such as the Porrata Doria family in Spain, which rank as marquesses. The Doria clan helped finance the Portuguese and Spanish navigations in the late 15th and 16th centuries, francesco Doria, a banker at Seville, financed Christopher Columbuss expeditions, and his son Aleramo Doria was a banker to King John III of Portugal until 1556. Finally, Aleramos daughter Clemenza Doria was one of the earliest settlers in the 16th-century Portuguese colonization of Brazil, or João Agripino da Costa Doria III held a cabinet-level position in the José Sarney administration in Brazil. The genoese Lodisio Doria, knight of Christs Order, settled in the island of Madeira and their descendants are the Teixeira Doria, lords of Pena dAguia, and França Doria families, which also have as direct ancestor the Portuguese navigator Tristão Vaz. The França Doria branch is headed by the Count of Calçada, the name Doria was used in Cornelia Funkes Inkheart series for a semi-main character who eventually fell in love with the teenage heroine. Documentary sources at the Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo, Lisbon Phillips, J. R. S
Doria (family)
–
The
Battle of Meloria, 1284 a major victory of
Oberto Doria followed by his brother,
Lamba Doria 's victory in 1298 at
Curzola
Doria (family)
–
Coat of Arms of the Doria family
Doria (family)
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The Doria Castle (up in the photo) in
Portovenere
Doria (family)
–
Marchesa Brigida Spinola-Doria, 1606, age 22, as painted by
Peter Paul Rubens, shortly after her wedding to Giacomo Massimiliano Doria
6.
Doria-Pamphili-Landi
–
The House of Doria-Pamphili-Landi is a princely Roman family of Genoese extraction. Legend has that the origins of the Doria family date from the early 11th century, the descent of the several Doria lines in Genoa is well-known and appears described in Natale Battilanas 19th century genealogical study of old Genoese families. Admiral Andrea Doria was descended from a Doria di Oneglia, Genoese soldier Aitone Doria who fought for the French at the battle of Crécy. One of the most famous members of the family was Andrea Doria, perpetual censor of Genoa in 1528 and admiral to the emperor Charles V and these titles were inherited by Gian Andrea Doria, son of Giannettino Doria who was a second cousin and adopted son of Andrea Doria. Giannettino Doria was killed in 1547 during the Fieschi conspiracy against the power of Andrea Doria over Genoa, another famous member of the family was Cardinal Giovanni Battista Pamphilj, who rose to the Papacy as Pope Innocent X. They had already incorporated by marriage the wealthy inheritance of the Landi family, the Palazzo Doria Pamphili in Rome was built in the 17th century, and contains one of the most valuable private collections of paintings in the world, the Doria Pamphilj Gallery. The Villa Doria Pamphili was, during the siege of 1849 Giuseppe Garibaldis headquarters, Prince Filippo Andrea VI Doria Pamphili, a staunch anti-Fascist, in 1944 became the first mayor of Rome following its liberation by the Allies. Princess Orietta Doria-Pamphili-Landi, the last of the line, married Royal Navy Commander Frank George Wignall Pogson in London in 1958 and he changed his name to Frank George Wignall Pogson Doria Pamphilj by deed poll. After the reforms of the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s, Princess Orietta and her husband, in 2000, Queen Elizabeth II visited Rome and attended the Anglican Centre, which is housed in the Palazzo Doria Pamphilj. Jonathan Doria Pamphilj formed a partnership with Elson Edeno Braga. The ability of Jonathan Pamphiljs children to inherit, after his death, was called into question in October 2009, in 2010 a court in Rome declined to hear the case. N. Battilana, Famiglia Doria in Genealogia delle Famiglie Nobili di Genova,1827, official Web Site, English version The Peerage website Obituary in The Telegraph
Doria-Pamphili-Landi
–
Motto: "I seek higher things" (
Latin: Altiora peto)
7.
Gubbio
–
Gubbio is a town and comune in the far northeastern part of the Italian province of Perugia. It is located on the lowest slope of Mt. Ingino, the citys origins are very ancient. The hills above the town were occupied in the Bronze Age. After the Roman conquest in the 2nd century BC — it kept its name as Iguvium — the city remained important, as attested by its Roman theatre, Gubbio became very powerful in the beginning of the Middle Ages. The following centuries were turbulent, and Gubbio was engaged in wars against the surrounding towns of Umbria. One of these saw the miraculous intervention of its bishop, St. Ubaldo Baldassini, who secured Gubbio an overwhelming victory. In 1350 Giovanni Gabrielli, count of Borgovalle, a member of the most prominent noble family of Gubbio, seized communal power, however his rule was short, and he was forced to hand over the town to Cardinal Albornoz, representing the Church. A few years later, Gabriello Gabrielli, bishop of Gubbio, betrayed by a group of noblemen which included many of his relatives, the bishop was forced to leave the town and seek refuge at his home castle at Cantiano. With the decline of the prestige of the Gabrielli family. Federico da Montefeltro rebuilt the ancient Palazzo Ducale, incorporating in it a studiolo veneered with intarsia like his studiolo at Urbino, the maiolica industry at Gubbio reached its apogee in the first half of the 16th century, with metallic lustre glazes imitating gold and copper. Gubbio became part of the Papal States in 1631, when the family della Rovere, in 1860 Gubbio was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy along with the rest of the Papal States. The town is located in northern Umbria, near the borders with Marche, the municipality borders wit Cagli, Cantiano, Costacciaro, Fossato di Vico, Gualdo Tadino, Perugia, Pietralunga, Scheggia e Pascelupo, Sigillo, Umbertide and Valfabbrica. The historical centre of Gubbio has a medieval aspect, the town is austere in appearance because of the dark grey stone, narrow streets. Many houses in central Gubbio date to the 14th and 15th centuries and they often have a second door fronting on the street, usually just a few inches from the main entrance. This secondary entrance is narrower, and a foot or so above the street level. This type of door is called a porta dei morti because it was proposed that they were used to remove the bodies of any who might have died inside the house and this is almost certainly false, but there is no agreement as to the purpose of the secondary doors. A more likely theory is that the door was used by the owners to protect themselves when opening to unknown persons, leaving them in a dominating position. Among most visited buildings and sites in the city are, Roman Theater, traces of mosaic decoration have been found
Gubbio
–
Panorama of Gubbio from Viale Parruccini
Gubbio
–
Gubbio maiolica by
Giorgio Andreoli, famous for its "lustro" (reflections), 1525
Gubbio
–
A "porta dei morti" that has been turned into a window.
Gubbio
–
Gubbio Roman Theatre at sunset.
8.
Pope Innocent VIII
–
Pope Innocent VIII, born Giovanni Battista Cybo, was Pope from 29 August 1484 to his death in 1492. Born into a prominent Genoese family he entered the church and was bishop in 1467 before being elevated to the rank of cardinal by Pope Sixtus IV. He was elected Pope in 1484 as compromise candidate after a stormy conclave, Giovanni Battista Cybo was born in Genoa of Greek ancestry, the son of Arano Cybo or Cibo and his wife Teodorina de Mari, of an old Genoese family. His paternal grandparents were Maurizio Cybo and his wife Seracina Marocelli, Arano Cybo was a senator in Rome under Pope Calixtus III. Giovanni Battistas early years were spent at the Neapolitan court, and subsequently he went to Padua, in Rome he became a priest in the retinue of cardinal Calandrini, half-brother to Pope Nicholas V. In 1467, he was made Bishop of Savona by Pope Paul II, in 1473, with the support of Giuliano Della Rovere, later Pope Julius II, he was made cardinal by Pope Sixtus IV, whom he succeeded on 29 August 1484 as Pope Innocent VIII. The papal conclave of 1484 was riven with faction, while gangs rioted in the streets, shortly after his coronation Innocent VIII addressed a fruitless summons to Christendom to unite in a crusade against the Turks. A protracted conflict with King Ferdinand I of Naples was the principal obstacle, the immediate conflict was not ended until 1494, after Innocent VIIIs death. Bayezid II ruled as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1481 to 1512 and his rule was contested by his brother Cem who sought the support of the Mamluks of Egypt. Defeated by his brothers armies, Cem sought protection from the Knights of St. John in Rhodes, prince Cem offered perpetual peace between the Ottoman Empire and Christendom. However, the sultan paid the Knights a large amount to keep Cem captive, Cem was later sent to the castle of Pierre dAubusson in France. Sultan Bayezid sent a messenger to France and requested Cem to be kept there, in March 1489 Cem was transferred to the custody of Innocent VIII. Cems presence in Rome was useful because whenever Bayezid intended to launch a campaign against the Christian nations of the Balkans. In exchange for maintaining the custody of Cem, Bayezid paid Innocent VIII120,000 crowns, a relic of the Holy Lance, and an annual fee of 45,000 ducats. Cem died in Capua on February 25,1495, while on an expedition under the command of King Charles VIII of France to conquer Naples. Kramer would later claim that witchcraft was to blame for bad weather, both the papal letter appended to the work and the supposed endorsement of Cologne University for it are problematic. In 1487, Innocent confirmed Tomas de Torquemada as Grand Inquisitor of Spain, also in 1487, Innocent issued a bull for the extermination of the Waldensians, offering plenary indulgence to all who should engage in the Crusade against them. Alberto de Capitanei, archdeacon of Cremona, responded to the bull by organizing a crusade to fulfill its order and launched an offensive in the provinces of Dauphiné and Piedmont
Pope Innocent VIII
–
Pope Innocent VIII
Pope Innocent VIII
–
Malleus Maleficarum, 1520 edition
9.
Pope Innocent X
–
Pope Innocent X, born Giovanni Battista Pamphilj, was Pope from 15 September 1644 to his death in 1655. Trained as a lawyer, he succeeded Pope Urban VIII on 15 September 1644, as one of the most politically shrewd pontiffs of the era, Giovanni Battista Pamphili was born in Rome on 5 May 1574, the son of Camillo Pamphili, of the Roman Pamphili family. The family, originally from Gubbio, was descended from Pope Alexander VI. In 1594 he graduated from the Collegio Romano and followed a conventional cursus honorum and he served as a Consistorial lawyer in 1601, and in 1604 succeeded his uncle, Cardinal Girolamo Pamphilj, as auditor of the Roman Rota, the ecclesiastical appellate tribunal. He was also a canonist of the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary, a second tribunal, in 1623 Pope Gregory XV sent him as nuncio to the court of the Kingdom of Naples. In 1625 Urban VIII sent him to accompany his nephew, Francesco Barberini, in January 1626 Pamphili was appointed titular Latin Patriarch of Antioch. The 1644 conclave for the election of a successor to Urban VIII was long and stormy, the large French faction led by Pope Urbans nephews objected to the Spanish candidate, as an enemy of Cardinal Mazarin, who guided French policy. They put up their own candidate but could not establish enough support for him and agreed to Pamphilj as an acceptable compromise, Mazarin, bearing the French veto of Cardinal Pamphilj, arrived too late, and the election was accomplished. Soon after his accession, Innocent X initiated legal action against the Barberini for misappropriation of public funds, the brothers Francesco Barberini, Antonio Barberini and Taddeo Barberini fled to Paris, where they found a powerful protector in Cardinal Mazarin. The French parliament declared the ordinance void in France. In 1653, Innocent X with the Cum occasione papal bull condemned five propositions of Janseniuss Augustinus, inspired by St. Augustine, as heretical and close to Lutheranism. The death of Pope Urban VIII is said to have been hastened by chagrin at the result of the First War of Castro, a war he had undertaken against Odoardo Farnese, the duke of Parma. Hostilities between the papacy and the Duchy of Parma resumed in 1649, and forces loyal to Pope Innocent X destroyed the city of Castro on 2 September 1649, the protests were ignored by the European powers. Olimpia Maidalchini, who had married to his late brother, was believed to be Innocent Xs mistress because of her influence over him in matters of promotion. The relationship between Olimpia and Innocent X, both before and during his papacy, is the concern of the book Mistress of the Vatican by Eleanor Hermann. The less-than-subtle political statement still hangs in a chapel of the Capuchin friars Church of the Conception in Rome. During the papacy of Pope Urban VIII, Giovanni Battista Pamphilj was the popes most significant rival among the College of Cardinals, Antonio Barberini, the popes brother, was a cardinal who had begun his career with the Capuchin brothers. He raised Colegio de Nuestra Senora del Santisimo Rosario to a University in November 20,1645 during his pontificate, in 1650, Innocent X celebrated a Jubilee
Pope Innocent X
–
Pope Innocent X
Pope Innocent X
–
Guido Reni's
archangel Michael (Capuchin church of Santa Maria della Concezione, Rome) tramples a
Satan with the vividly recognizable features of Pope Innocent X.
Pope Innocent X
–
Giovanni Battista Pamphili
10.
Pope Urban VIII
–
Pope Urban VIII, reigned as Pope from 6 August 1623 to his death in 1644. He expanded the territory by force of arms and advantageous politicking, and was also a prominent patron of the arts. However, the debts incurred during his pontificate greatly weakened his successors. He was also involved in a controversy with Galileo and his theory on heliocentrism during his reign and he is the most recent pope to date to take the pontifical name of Urban upon being elected as pope. He was born Maffeo Barberini in April 1568 to Antonio Barberini, a Florentine nobleman and his father died when he was only three years old and his mother took him to Rome, where he was put in the charge of his uncle, Francesco Barberini, an apostolic protonotary. At the age of 16 he became his uncles heir and he was educated by the Society of Jesus, and received a doctorate of law from the University of Pisa in 1589. In 1601, Barberini, through the influence of his uncle, was able to secure from Pope Clement VIII appointment as a legate to the court of King Henry IV of France. In 1604, the pope appointed him as the Archbishop of Nazareth. At the death of his uncle, he inherited his riches, on 6 August 1623, at the papal conclave following the death of Pope Gregory XV, Barberini was chosen as Gregory XVs successor and took the name Urban VIII. Upon Pope Urban VIIIs election, Zeno, the Venetian envoy, wrote the description of him. His Holiness is tall, dark, with features and black hair turning grey. He is exceptionally elegant and refined in all details of his dress, has a graceful and aristocratic bearing and he is an excellent speaker and debater, writes verses and patronises poets and men of letters. Urban VIIIs papacy covered 21 years of the Thirty Years War, despite an early friendship and encouragement for his teachings, Urban VIII was responsible for summoning the scientist and astronomer Galileo to Rome in 1633 to recant his work. Urban VIII practiced nepotism on a scale, various members of his family were enormously enriched by him. He elevated his brother Antonio Marcello Barberini and then his nephews Francesco Barberini and he also bestowed upon their brother, Taddeo Barberini, the titles Prince of Palestrina, Gonfalonier of the Church, Prefect of Rome and Commander of SantAngelo. Historian Leopold von Ranke estimated that during his reign, Urban VIIIs immediate family amassed 105 million scudi in personal wealth, Urban VIII was a skilled writer of Latin verse, and a collection of Scriptural paraphrases as well as original hymns of his composition have been frequently reprinted. The 1638 papal bull Commissum Nobis protected the existence of Jesuit missions in South America by forbidding the enslavement of natives who were at the Jesuit Reductions. At the same time, Urban VIII repealed the Jesuit monopoly on missionary work in China and Japan, opening these countries to missionaries of other orders and missionary societies
Pope Urban VIII
–
A portrait of Pope Urban VIII by
Pietro da Cortona (1627)
Pope Urban VIII
–
Circa 1598 painting of Maffeo Barberini at age 30 by
Caravaggio.
Pope Urban VIII
–
Pope Urban VIII, 1643
Pope Urban VIII
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Engraving of Pope Urban VIII
11.
Barberini
–
The Barberini were a family of the Italian nobility that rose to prominence in 17th century Rome. Their influence peaked with the election of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini to the throne in 1623. Their urban palace, the Palazzo Barberini, today houses Italys Galleria Nazionale dArte Antica, the Barberini family were originally a family of minor nobility from the Tuscan town of Barberino Val dElsa, who settled in Florence during the early part of the 11th century. Carlo Barberini and his brother Barberini were successful Florentine grain, wool, in 1552, Carlos son Francesco followed his uncle to Rome and business flourished. Francesco became a rich man and bought a number of high offices within government. In 1559, his uncle Antonio was murdered by forces loyal to the Medici, Francesco continued to build his fortune and amass titles until his death in 1600. The continuation of Barberini business fell to his nephews including Maffeo Barberini, the Barberini acquired great wealth and influence when Cardinal Maffeo Barberini was elected to the papal throne in 1623, taking the name Pope Urban VIII. He elevated a brother Antonio Marcello Barberini and two nephews, Francesco Barberini and Antonio Barberini, to the cardinalate and he made another brother Duke of Monterotondo, and gave a third nephew, Taddeo Barberini, the principality of Palestrina. Taddeo was also made Gonfalonier of the Church, Prefect of Rome, the ecclesiastical, diplomatic and cultural accomplishments of Urbans reign were overshadowed by the nepotism the pope practised. Urbans contemporary, John Bargrave, wrote, Likewise, the War of Castro, toward the end of Urbans papacy, sullied Urbans reputation and it is estimated that during the course of Urbans reign, the Barberini amassed 105 million scudi in personal wealth. The pope erected a tablet proudly proclaiming his re-use of these hidden beams for the glory, the Barberini participated extensively in the First War of Castro. The conflict began when Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza, visited Rome, the war produced no clear victor, and Pope Urban died in 1644, only months after a peace accord was signed. Despite Urbans appointment of a number of relatives as cardinals, the College of Cardinals elected Pope Innocent X of the Pamphili family, almost immediately, Innocent X launched an investigation into the conduct of various members of the Barberini family during the wars. Antonio and Taddeo left first, by sea, but not before hanging the French coat of arms above the door of the Palazzo Barberini to confirm they were under the protection of France, Francesco joined his brothers soon after. Taddeos wife, Anna Colonna also joined her husband and children in Paris but not before making an appeal to the Pope. The Pope agreed and, though he paid some debts out of the Barberini estate, in Paris they relied on the hospitality of Louis XIV, King of France, until 1653 when most of the family finally returned to Rome. Though Taddeo died in exile in 1647, his brothers eventually reconciled with the papacy through the marriage of Taddeos younger son Maffeo with Olimpia Giustiniani, Maffeo was given his fathers former title, that of Prince of Palestrina. Taddeos older son Carlo Barberini was made a cardinal by Pope Innocent X. Taddeos daughter, Lucrezia Barberini, married Francesco I dEste, Duke of Modena, further stabilizing relations
Barberini
–
Barberini coat-of-arms (three bees) surmounted by papal tiara and crossed keys on coin struck for
Pope Urban VIII.
Barberini
–
Barberini coat of arms.
Barberini
–
The Palazzo Colonna Barberini in
Palestrina; the
comune over which various Barberini family members were given control.
Barberini
–
Family coat-of-arms at the
Palazzo Barberini.
12.
Camillo Francesco Maria Pamphili
–
Not to be confused with his cousin Camillo Astalli, later adopted by Pope Innocent X as Camillo Astalli-Pamphili. Camillo Francesco Maria Pamphili was an Italian Catholic Cardinal and later nobleman of the Pamphili family and his name is often spelled with the final long i orthography, Pamphilj. Pamphili was born in Naples on 21 February 1622 and his uncle, Cardinal Giovanni Battista Pamphili, was papal nuncio to the Kingdom of Naples and his father, Pamphilio Pamphili, had moved there with his wife Olimpia Maidalchini. As a young man Pamphili studied humanistic topics such as poetry, philosophy, mathematics, when Camillos father died, in 1639, the prospect of a marriage to perpetuate the lineage was explored. This remained the intention after his uncles election to the papacy, Olimpia Maidalchini advocated for the candidacy of Taddeo Barberinis daughter, Lucrezia, then twelve years old. The move was designed to mend the rift between the Pamphili and the Barberini which had developed after Pope Innocents election, on September 15,1644 Giovanni Battista Pamphili was elected to the papal throne as Pope Innocent X. Shortly thereafter Camillo was appointed General of the Papal Army and this post was usually assigned to the lay-nephew of the Pope, but shortly afterwards Camillo Pamphili expressed his wish to become Cardinal-nephew. Camillo was created Cardinal Deacon in the consistory of November 14,1644, some of the duties were shared with the Secretary of State Giovanni Giacomo Panciroli. Military tasks were delegated to his two brothers-in-law, Niccolò Ludovisi and Andrea Giustiniani, husband of his older sister Maria Flaminia, however, Camillo developed a particular interest in a young noblewoman who had been in attendance at the Palazzo Pamphili the day after his uncles coronation. Olimpia Aldobrandini was clever, and beautiful, a grand-niece and later sole heir) of Pope Clement VIII, however she was married to powerful nobleman Paolo Borghese and Pamphili, according to his contemporaries, was not one to indulge in an illicit affair. When Borghese died in 1646, Pamphili made his intentions clear, the two families were already close, Aldobrandinis maternal uncle, Niccolò Ludovisi, had married Camillos sister, Costanza. Against his mothers wishes He resigned the cardinalate on 21 January 1647, the choice of the bride so displeased the Pope and his mother, who both favored a union with the Barberini, that neither of them took part in the wedding. His cousin, Francesco Maidalchini, was appointed Cardinal-nephew, Aldobrandinis dowry included a collection of paintings, villas in Montemagnanapoli and Frascati, the great Albodrandini estates in Romagna on the Corso in Rome and the Palazzo Aldobrandini. These estates and property passed to the Pamphili family and became the nucleus for the Galleria Doria Pamphilj. So furious was Olympia that she banished them from Rome and the Palazzo Pamphili, Camillo and Aldobrandini had five children including Giovan Battista Pamphili, Benedetto Pamphili and Anna Pamphili who married the Genoese nobleman Giovanni Andrea III Doria Landi in 1671. When the Roman branch of the Pamphlili family ended in 1760, Anna, Benedetto Pamphili became Grand prior in Rome of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, and in 1681 was named a cardinal by also appointed by Pope Innocent XI. Camillo Pamphili commissioned Gian Lorenzo Bernini to build the baroque Church of SantAndrea al Quirinale, the church was not completed until 1670, after Pamphilis death. He died at his Palazzo Pamphili on the via Lata, Rome, teresa Pamphili married Carlo II Cybo-Malaspina, Duke of Massa and had children
Camillo Francesco Maria Pamphili
–
Bust of Camillo Francesco Maria Pamphili by
Alessandro Algardi (c. 1647).
13.
Olimpia Maidalchini
–
Olimpia Maidalchini Pamphilj, was the sister-in-law of Pope Innocent X. She was perceived by her contemporaries as having influence regarding papal appointments, Maidalchini was born in Viterbo, the eldest of three daughters of Sforza Maidalchini, a condottiere, and Vittoria Gualterio, patrician of Orvieto and Rome. Vittoria was a noble of Viterbo, the daughter of Giulio Gualterio and her family was only moderately wealthy. Olimpia refused, and in 1608 married Paolo Nini, one of the wealthiest men in Viterbo and their two children both died in infancy and Nini himself died in 1611 at the age of twenty-three. Her second marriage was to Pamphilio Pamphili, elder brother of Cardinal Giambattista Pamphili, the Cardinal had been appointed nuncio to the Kingdom of Naples, and Pamphilio and his wife joined him, living in a home adjacent to the nunciature. Their son, Camillo Francesco Maria Pamphili was born in Naples on 21 February 1622, the separate wings of the palace accommodated both the cardinals court and the residence for the eldests family. In September 1644 Cardinal Pamphilj was elected pope, taking the name Innocent X, as a pope generally found the curial bureaucracy occupied by entrenched appointees of his predecessor, it was common practice to appoint a trusted relative to oversee the administration. Soon after his election, Innocent elevated his late brothers son, however, on 21 January 1647, Camillo renounced the cardinalate to marry Olimpia Aldobrandini, the grand-niece of Pope Clement VIII and widow of Paolo Borghese, on 10 February. Innocent then appointed seventeen year old Francesco Maidalchini to the now reduced office of Cardinal-nephew, Francesco was the son of Andrea Maidalchini, Olimpias brother. Olimpia apparently attempted to influence her nephews decisions, however, he proved so incompetent that in 1650 Innocent X sought a replacement, Camillo Astalli belonged to a noble but relatively poor family from Sambuci. He is often mentioned as a cousin of Olimpia Maidalchini, the connection is through the marriage of his brother to Olimpias niece, Catherine Maidalchini Tiberius. Asalli studied at the Roman College and in 1640 graduated from the Sapienza with a doctorate in civil and he then began a career as a consistorial lawyer. Olimpia was apparently instrumental in obtaining an appointment for Astalli as secretary to the Secretary of State, when Francesco Maidalchini proved to be a failure as Cardinal-nephew, Innocent sought the advice of his Cardinal Secretary of State, and Cardinal Panciroli suggested Astalli. Astalli was elevated to Cardinal on 19 September 1650 by the Pope, Innocent also presented him with a substantial income, the Palazzo Pamphili in Piazza Navona and the villa outside the Porta San Pancrazio. The popes generosity, however, provoked the ire of the Pamphilj family, especially Donna Olimpia, Panciroli and Astalli incurred their unrelenting hostility. Plagued with constant attacks and ill health, Panciroli died 3 September 1651, faced with the hostility of Donna Olimpia and the Pamphiljs Astalli sought a new patron in King Philip IV of Spain. Cardinal Decio Azzolino was assistant to Panciroli, Olimpia Maidalchini acted as his patron, Azzolino managed the Secretariat until the return from Germany of Bishop Fabio Chigi, who was named Secretary of State in December. Azzolino was also a skilled cryptographer and investigator, when the Kingdom of Naples was made aware of invasion plans by Henry II, Duke of Guise, Azzolino concluded in February 1654, that the breach must have come from the Cardinal-nephew Astalli
Olimpia Maidalchini
–
Contemporary portrait by an unknown artist
Olimpia Maidalchini
–
Algardi 's bust of Maidalchini
14.
Olimpia Aldobrandini
–
Olimpia Aldobrandini was a member of the Aldobrandini family of Rome, and the sole heiress to the family fortune. Donna Olimpia Aldobrandini was born 20 April 1623, the daughter of Giorgio Aldobrandini, in 1638, she married Prince Paolo Borghese of the Borghese family who died in 1646. The following year, in 1647, she married Camillo Pamphili who renounced a cardinalate to become her husband and these estates and property thus passed to the Pamphili family and became the nucleus for the Galleria Doria Pamphilj. Aldobrandini and Camillo Pamphili had five children including Giovan Battista Pamphili, Benedetto Pamphili, when the Roman branch of the Pamphlili family ended in 1760, it was the descendants of Anna and Giovanni who inherited the palazzo in Rome. Children with Prince Borghese, Giovanni Giorgio Borghese Camillo Borghese Francesco Borghese Giovanni Battista Borghese, maria Virginia Borghese married Agostino Chigi, Prince of Farnese, Duke of Ariccia and had issue. Children with Pamphili, Flaminia Pamphili married Bernardino Savelli, Duke of Castelgandolfo and had no children, married Niccolo Francesco Pallavicini, teresa Pamphili married Carlo II Cybo-Malaspina, Duke of Massa and had children. Anna Pamphili married Giannandrea Doria, Prince of Melfi and founded the Doria-Pamphili-Landi line
Olimpia Aldobrandini
–
Olimpia Aldobrandini
15.
Camillo Astalli
–
Camillo Astalli belonged to a noble but relatively poor family. He was born in Sambuci, at Tivoli,21 October 1616 to Fulvio and he studied at the Roman College and in 1640 graduated from the Sapienza with a doctorate in civil and ecclesiastical law, commencing a career as a consistorial lawyer. Following his brothers marriage to Catherine Maidalchini Tiberius, the niece of Olimpia Maidalchini, sister-in-law of Pope Innocent X, when first elected to the papal throne, Pope Innocent X had appointed his nephew, Camillo Pamphili as his Cardinal-Nephew. But Pamphili resigned his position to marry and was replaced by Francesco Maidalchini, when Maidalchini proved to be a disgraceful failure, Innocent sought the advice of his Cardinal Secretary of State, Cardinal Panciroli who suggested Astalli. So it was that Astalli was elevated to Cardinal on 19 September 1650 by the Pope, Innocent also presented him with a substantial income, the Palazzo Pamphili in Piazza Navona and the villa outside the Porta San Pancrazio. He served as governor of Fermo and papal legate for the district of Avignon from 1650 to 1653, in his absence, though, Cardinal Panciroli died and Astalli believed his good fortune would fade with the death of his mentor. In particular, Donna Olimpia Maidalchini had been gaining favour with her brother-in-law the Pope, seeking support from abroad, Astalli took King Philip IV of Spain for his patron. In February 1654, with warning, Pope Innocent stripped Astalli of his titles for allegedly revealing the secrets of state to Spain. The offence was uncovered by Maidalchinis spy, Decio Azzolino, the Pope deprived him of the title of Cardinal-Nephew. Astalli was sent from Rome to govern the Diocese of Ferrara, however he did not accept this position and it so infuriated Innocent X that revoked all privileges, even eliminating his adoption into the Pamphili family. He forbade Astalli to use the name and arms of Pamphili. On the death of the pope, as a sign of contempt, nonetheless, when Innocent X died, Astalli was still a Cardinal and participated in the papal conclave of 1655 which elected Pope Alexander VII. He was later, rather ironically, appointed cardinal-protector of the Kingdom of Naples, on 24 January 1661 the cardinals elected him to the post of Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals for the annual term. On instructions of Philip IV on July 14,1661, he was elected during the papacy of Pope Alexander VII as Archbishop of Catania and he died on December 21,1663 in Catania and was buried in the metropolitan cathedral of Catania
Camillo Astalli
–
Portrait by
Diego Velázquez, 1650 (Hispanic Society, New york)
16.
Cardinal-Nephew
–
A cardinal-nephew is a cardinal elevated by a pope who is that cardinals uncle, or, more generally, his relative. The practice of creating cardinal-nephews originated in the Middle Ages, the word nepotism originally referred specifically to this practice, when it appeared in the English language about 1669. From the middle of the Avignon Papacy until Pope Innocent XIIs anti-nepotism bull, Romanum decet pontificem, a pope without a cardinal-nephew was the exception to the rule. Every Renaissance pope who created cardinals appointed a relative to the College of Cardinals, the institution of the cardinal-nephew evolved over seven centuries, tracking developments in the history of the papacy and the styles of individual Popes. From 1566 until 1692, a held the curial office of the Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State, known as the Cardinal Nephew. The list of cardinal-nephews includes at least fifteen, and possibly as many as nineteen popes, one antipope, the first known cardinal-nephew is Lottario, seniore, cousin of Pope Benedict VIII, elected circa 1015. Benedict VIII also elevated his brother Giovanni and his cousin Teofilatto as cardinal-deacons, however, it is beyond doubt that the promotions of papal relatives to the College of Cardinals were common in 13th century. According to historian John Bargrave, by the Council of Bazill, Session 21, the number of cardinals was not to be above 24, and not any nephew of the Pope or of any cardinal was to be of that number. Pope Clement VI created more cardinal-nephews than any other pontiff, including six on September 20,1342, the greatest number of cardinal-nephews elevated at one time. Saint Charles Borromeo, cardinal-nephew of Pope Pius IV, had ensured the subordination of the secretarius intimus to the Cardinal Nephew, Pius IV was notorious for nepotism, between 1561 and 1565 he transferred more than 350,000 scudi to his relatives. However, Pius V relentlessly avoided delegating any real power to Bonelli. The office has been likened by historians to a minister, alter ego. The Cardinal Nephew was generally among a Popes first cardinal creations, the terms of the office of Cardinal Nephew were established by a papal brief developed and refined by Pius Vs successors to Paul V. The Cardinal Nephew was also the liaison for all papal nuncios and gubernatorial legates. The Cardinal Nephew was also the captain-general of the papal army, however, these formal functions only came into force during the pontificates of unusually weak Popes, most Cardinal Nephews were the de facto rubber stamp of the pontiff himself. Although Pope Leo XI died before he was able to elevate his nephew, Roberto Ubaldini, Ubaldini was elevated by Leo XIs successor, Pope Paul V in 1615. For example, in 1616,24 of the 30 abbeys belonging to Borghese were rented out and it is estimated that Paul V Borghese had transferred to his family approximately 4% of the total income of the Holy See during his pontificate. Borgheses personal revenues in 1610 were 153,000 scudi compared to the mere 4,900 scudi that constituted his entire familys income in 1592
Cardinal-Nephew
–
Pietro Ottoboni, the last holder of the post of Cardinal Nephew, painted by
Francesco Trevisani.
Cardinal-Nephew
–
The
Avignon Papacy (1309–1377) produced an
unprecedented number of cardinal-nephews.
Cardinal-Nephew
–
Pope Paul III with his cardinal-nephew
Alessandro Farnese (left) and his other grandson,
Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma (right)
Cardinal-Nephew
–
Ranuccio Farnese was made cardinal by Paul III at the age of 15.
17.
Innocent XI
–
Pope Innocent XI, born Benedetto Odescalchi, was Pope from 21 September 1676 to his death in 1689. He is known in Budapest as the Saviour of Hungary, much of his reign was concerned with tension with Louis XIV of France. A conservative, he lowered taxes in the Papal States during his pontificate, because of this surplus he repudiated excessive nepotism within the church. Innocent XI was frugal in matters of governing the Papal States, once he was elected to the papacy, he applied himself to moral and administrative reform of the Roman Curia. He abolished sinecures and pushed for greater simplicity in preaching as well as greater reverence in worship—requesting this of both the clergy and faithful. Benedetto Odescalchi was born at Como on 16 May 1611, the son of a Como nobleman, Livio Odescalchi and his siblings were Carlo, Lucrezia, Giulio Maria, Constantino, Nicola and Paolo. He also had several descendants of note through his sister, her grandson Cardinal Baldassare Erba-Odescalchi, Cardinal Benedetto Erba Odescalchi. The Odescalchi, a family of nobility, were determined entrepreneurs. In 1619, Benedettos brother founded a bank with his three uncles in Genoa which quickly grew into a successful money-lending business, after completing his studies in grammar and letters, the 15-year-old Benedetto moved to Genoa to take part in the family business as an apprentice. Lucrative economic transactions were established with clients in the major Italian and European cities, such as Nuremberg, Milan, Kraków, in 1626 Benedettos father died, and he began schooling in the humane sciences taught by the Jesuits at his local college, before transferring to Genoa. In 1630 he narrowly survived an outbreak of plague, which killed his mother, some time between 1632 and 1636, Benedetto decided to move to Rome and then Naples in order to study civil law. He subsequently became legate to Ferrara, when he was sent to Ferrara in order to assist the people stricken with a severe famine, the Pope introduced him to the people of Ferrara as the father of the poor. In 1650, Odescalchi became bishop of Novara, in which capacity he spent all the revenues of his see to relieve the poor, with the permission of the pope he resigned as bishop of Novara in favor of his brother Giulio in 1656 and went to Rome. While there he took a prominent part in the consultations of the congregations of which he was a member. Odescalchi was a papal candidate after the death of Pope Clement IX in 1669. After Pope Clement X died, Louis XIV of France again intended to use his influence against Odescalchis election. On 21 September 1676, Odescalchi was chosen to be Clement Xs successor and he chose this name in honour of Pope Innocent X, who made him a cardinal in 1645. He was formally crowned as pontiff on 4 October 1676 by the protodeacon, immediately upon his accession, Innocent XI turned all his efforts towards reducing the expenses of the Curia
Innocent XI
–
Portrait in 1787.
Innocent XI
–
The birthplace of Benedetto Odescalchi at Como.
Innocent XI
–
Cardinal Odescalchi.
Innocent XI
–
Innocent XI (1678-1679)
18.
Principality
–
Most of these states have historically been a polity, but in some occasions were rather territories in respect of which a princely title is held. The princes estate and wealth may be located mainly or wholly outside the confines of the principality. Generally recognised surviving sovereign principalities are Liechtenstein, Monaco, and the co-principality of Andorra, extant royal primogenitures styled as principalities include Asturias, and Wales. The term principality is often used informally to describe Wales as it currently exists, since that time, the title Prince of Wales has traditionally been granted to the heir to the reigning monarch of the United Kingdom, but it confers no responsibilities for government in Wales. It has country status and is one of four countries in the United Kingdom, principality of Asturias is the official name of autonomous community of Asturias. No sovereign duchy currently exists, but Luxembourg is an example of a sovereign grand duchy. Historically there have been sovereign principalities with many styles of ruler, such as Countships, Margraviates and even Lordships, feudalism increased the power of local princes within a kings lands. As princes continued to more power over time, the authority of the king was diminished in many places. This led to political fragmentation as the lands were broken into mini-states ruled by princes and dukes who wielded absolute power over their small territories. This was especially prevalent in Europe, and particularly with the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire, during the Late Middle Ages from 1200 to 1500, principalities were often at war with each other as royal houses asserted sovereignty over smaller principalities. These wars caused a deal of instability and economies were destroyed. Episodes of bubonic plague reduced the power of principalities to survive independently. Eventually, agricultural progress and development of new goods and services boosted commerce between principalities. Many of these states became wealthy, expanded their territories and improved the services provided to their citizens, Princes and dukes developed their lands, established new ports and chartered large thriving cities. Some used their wealth to build palaces and other institutions now associated with sovereign states. While some principalities prospered in their independence, less successful states were swallowed by stronger royal houses, Europe saw consolidation of small principalities into larger kingdoms and empires. This had already happened in England in the first millennium, and this subsequently led to the creation of such states as France, Portugal. Another form of consolidation was orchestrated in Italy during the Renaissance by the Medici family, a banking family from Florence, the Medici took control of governments in various Italian regions and even assumed the papacy
Principality
–
Prince
Johann I Josef, last prince of
Liechtenstein prior to the end of the
Holy Roman Empire
19.
Valmontone
–
Valmontone is a comune in the Metropolitan City of Rome in the Italian region Lazio, located about 45 kilometres southeast of Rome. The historic part of the town is situated on a hill,303 metres above sea level, part of a morphological system of valleys and low relieves. There are many natural springs due to the water levels underground. Because of this the landscape is covered by forest and farmland, to preserve this water system, in Valmontone exists the C. E. R. I. A center for the prevention and control of hydro-geological risks, perhaps these are the remains of the ancient Labicum, which, according to the myth, was founded by Glaucus, Minos’ son, the name of the village derives from a kind of Greek shield. Later on, the castle was rebuilt on the site in the Late Roman Empire. The presence of a Castrum Lateranense goes back to the 1052, the Pamphili family became Doria-Pamphili-Landi in the 18th century. In 1843 Valmontone assumed the rank of “city” by decision of Pope Gregory XVI, with the post-war reconstruction the town lost its medieval and baroque appeal, of which only a few sights survive. Palazzo Doria-Pamphilj was originally a castle, until the Barberini decided to replace it with a bigger fortress. On the Piano Nobile are frescoes divided by themes, the four rooms of Elements, the four dedicated to the Continents, the ceiling frescoes were made between 1657 and the 1661 by Pier Francesco Mola, Gaspard Dughet, Guglielmo Cortese, Francesco Cozza and Mattia Preti. Valmontone Archeological Museum, situated in the Palazzo Doria-Pamphilj, the ground floor houses a section which introduces the municipal area, the upper floor offers an introduction to the archeological sites and to related topics, through several media. Such topics include the coal miners village in Colle Carbone, the Colle dei Lepri settlement, the Mansio, the Thermal Baths, collegiate Church of Santa Maria dellAssunta, built on an ancient Gothic church with the same name, under Camillo Pamphilj, in the 17th century. The church has a composed by two bell towers and a curved colonnade with four Ionic columns. The plan is elliptic, with four chapels along each side, including numerous Baroque pictures, in front of the main entrance, fontana del Colle, in Baroque style, is part of the original Prince Pamphilj project. It is composed by a pedestal with four round-shaped basins, one at each angle, on the pedestal is a column surmounted by the bronze statue of the Labicanus, a Roman warrior, symbol of Valmontone. This fountain was destroyed under the World War II bombings, except one of the basins and the pedestal. The Church of SantAntonio was not bombed during World War II, the interior is decorated with Baroque stuccoes, a Madonna with the Son and a SantAntonio Abate, both painted by anonymous. Sanctuary of Madonna del Gonfalone, this church was built in 1508, with a Gothic plan, in origin, the sanctuary had 15 altars
Valmontone
–
Valmontone
Valmontone
–
Valmontone seen by
Rocca di Cave: the massive white building is Palazzo Doria-Pamphilj.
Valmontone
–
Mattia Preti, ceiling fresco of Stanza dell'Aria, Palazzo Doria-Pamphilij
Valmontone
–
Valmontone, Colleggiata.
20.
Camillo Pamphili
–
Not to be confused with his cousin Camillo Astalli, later adopted by Pope Innocent X as Camillo Astalli-Pamphili. Camillo Francesco Maria Pamphili was an Italian Catholic Cardinal and later nobleman of the Pamphili family and his name is often spelled with the final long i orthography, Pamphilj. Pamphili was born in Naples on 21 February 1622 and his uncle, Cardinal Giovanni Battista Pamphili, was papal nuncio to the Kingdom of Naples and his father, Pamphilio Pamphili, had moved there with his wife Olimpia Maidalchini. As a young man Pamphili studied humanistic topics such as poetry, philosophy, mathematics, when Camillos father died, in 1639, the prospect of a marriage to perpetuate the lineage was explored. This remained the intention after his uncles election to the papacy, Olimpia Maidalchini advocated for the candidacy of Taddeo Barberinis daughter, Lucrezia, then twelve years old. The move was designed to mend the rift between the Pamphili and the Barberini which had developed after Pope Innocents election, on September 15,1644 Giovanni Battista Pamphili was elected to the papal throne as Pope Innocent X. Shortly thereafter Camillo was appointed General of the Papal Army and this post was usually assigned to the lay-nephew of the Pope, but shortly afterwards Camillo Pamphili expressed his wish to become Cardinal-nephew. Camillo was created Cardinal Deacon in the consistory of November 14,1644, some of the duties were shared with the Secretary of State Giovanni Giacomo Panciroli. Military tasks were delegated to his two brothers-in-law, Niccolò Ludovisi and Andrea Giustiniani, husband of his older sister Maria Flaminia, however, Camillo developed a particular interest in a young noblewoman who had been in attendance at the Palazzo Pamphili the day after his uncles coronation. Olimpia Aldobrandini was clever, and beautiful, a grand-niece and later sole heir) of Pope Clement VIII, however she was married to powerful nobleman Paolo Borghese and Pamphili, according to his contemporaries, was not one to indulge in an illicit affair. When Borghese died in 1646, Pamphili made his intentions clear, the two families were already close, Aldobrandinis maternal uncle, Niccolò Ludovisi, had married Camillos sister, Costanza. Against his mothers wishes He resigned the cardinalate on 21 January 1647, the choice of the bride so displeased the Pope and his mother, who both favored a union with the Barberini, that neither of them took part in the wedding. His cousin, Francesco Maidalchini, was appointed Cardinal-nephew, Aldobrandinis dowry included a collection of paintings, villas in Montemagnanapoli and Frascati, the great Albodrandini estates in Romagna on the Corso in Rome and the Palazzo Aldobrandini. These estates and property passed to the Pamphili family and became the nucleus for the Galleria Doria Pamphilj. So furious was Olympia that she banished them from Rome and the Palazzo Pamphili, Camillo and Aldobrandini had five children including Giovan Battista Pamphili, Benedetto Pamphili and Anna Pamphili who married the Genoese nobleman Giovanni Andrea III Doria Landi in 1671. When the Roman branch of the Pamphlili family ended in 1760, Anna, Benedetto Pamphili became Grand prior in Rome of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, and in 1681 was named a cardinal by also appointed by Pope Innocent XI. Camillo Pamphili commissioned Gian Lorenzo Bernini to build the baroque Church of SantAndrea al Quirinale, the church was not completed until 1670, after Pamphilis death. He died at his Palazzo Pamphili on the via Lata, Rome, teresa Pamphili married Carlo II Cybo-Malaspina, Duke of Massa and had children
Camillo Pamphili
–
Bust of Camillo Francesco Maria Pamphili by
Alessandro Algardi (c. 1647).
21.
Maffeo Barberini (1631-1685)
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Not to be confused with his great-uncle Maffeo Barberini who became Pope Urban VIII. Maffeo Barberini was an Italian nobleman of the Barberini and Prince of Palestrina and he was appointed Gonfalonier of the Church. Born in 1631, Barberini was one of the five children of Taddeo Barberini and Anna Colonna and his siblings included cardinal Carlo Barberini and Lucrezia Barberini who married Francesco I dEste, Duke of Modena. His great uncle was Barberini Pope Urban VIII, between 1639 and 1649, the Barberini fought the Wars of Castro alongside the Pamphili family. Maffeos father, Taddeo, and Luigi Mattei led the papal armies loyal to Pope Urban VIII, in 1644, after the first War of Castro, Pope Urban VIII died and Pamphili family Pope Innocent X was elected in his place. Pope Innocent subsequently began an investigation into Antonio Barberini, prompting him to flee into exile with his two brothers, Francesco and Taddeo. Taddeo Barberini died in exile in Paris but the Barberini and Pamphili families were reconciled when, in 1653, his son Maffeo married Olimpia Giustiniani, the marriage had been engineered by Giustinianis maternal grandmother, papal power-broker Olimpia Maidalchini, and Barberinis uncle, Cardinal Antonio Barberini. The Barberini, too, were keen to return to Rome and were enthusiastic about Maidalchinis plan to marry Pope Innocents grand-niece, Guistiniani, into their family. Despite the fact that 12-year-old Guistiniani stubbornly refused to marry her 22-year-old suitor, surprising few, after the ceremony, however, the child refused to go home with her new groom to allow the marriage to be consummated. When the child still refused, Maidalchini forced her granddaughter into a carriage that took her to the Palazzo Barberini, Barberini was later restored to his fathers former title of Prince of Palestrina - nominal patriarch of the Palestrina comune owned by the Barberini family. He was likely also appointed Gonfalonier of the Church on the same basis, Barberini commissioned the construction of the Church of Santa Rosalia in Palestrina which includes a tribute to Maffeos father Taddeo by Bernardino Cametti. In 1662, on the death of his uncle, he applied to King Philip IV of Spain to acquire all feuds, the king agreed, despite potential claims from Colonna descendants, and gave Maffeo permission to take control of a series of comunes including and Petrella Salto. Barberini was also given permission to take control of the comune of Torre Annunziata which had been owned by the Orsini family but had seized by the Spanish Treasury several years earlier. After further negotiations, in 1664, Barberini officially purchased the Pacentro comune from the Colonna, four years later he purchased the Gagliano comune and thus became Count of Gagliano. In 1668 he was made a Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, Maffeo Barberini died on 28 November 1685 while he was in residence at the Villa Bagnaia. Barberini continued the patronage of the started by his family members before him. Barberini also commissioned paintings by Niccolò Tornioli, in 1653, Barberini reopened the Teatro delle Quattro Fontane after it had been closed for more than 10 years while his uncles and father had been in exile. It continued to host operatic performances until it was damaged by fire, Order of the Golden Fleece List of Knights of the Golden Fleece Palestrina
Maffeo Barberini (1631-1685)
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Bust of Maffeo Barberini by
Lorenzo Ottoni (1648–1736)
22.
Francesco Barberini (iuniore)
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Francesco Barberini was an Italian Cardinal of the family of Pope Urban VIII and of the Princes of Palestrina. He was born in Rome, the eldest son of Maffeo Barberini and Olimpia Giustiniani, the nephew of cardinal Carlo Barberini and he gave up his birthright for an ecclesiastic career thereby making his brother, Urbano Barberini, heir to the Barberini estate. He was created by Pope Alexander VIII on 13 November 1690 with the dispensation of having a cousin and uncle in the Sacred College and he was ordained deacon only in 1700 and priest in 1715. He participated in the five papal conclaves, abbot of Farfa and Subiaco from 1704. He was Cardinal-Bishop of Palestrina and Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia e Velletri and he became dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals in December 1734. He died at his Roman palace, at the age of 75, biographical entry of Francesco Barberini, iuniore
Francesco Barberini (iuniore)
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Francesco Barberini
23.
Urbano Barberini (1664-1722)
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Not to be confused with contemporary actor Urbano Barberini. Urbano Barberini was an Italian nobleman of the House of Barberini, third hereditary Prince of Palestrina and he was a brother of Cardinal Francesco Barberini and a cousin of Rinaldo dEste, Duke of Modena whose mother, Lucrezia Barberini, was Urbanos aunt. At his fathers death he inherited the Barberini comune of Palestrina, like his father, he was made a Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece. The legitimate male Barberini line became extinct at Urbanos death in 1722 and the Barberini name and titles were transferred to Giulio Cesare, in 1691 he married Cornelia Zeno Ottoboni. In 1693 he married Felice Ventimiglia Pignatelli dAragona and it was an unhappy marriage for both parties. Though they had a son, a legitimate heir for the Barberini house. The two separated and she sought refuge with her brother-in-law, Urbanos Cardinal brother Francesco and later joined a convent within his bishopric and her dowry, later her legacy upon her death, was left to Francesco. Neither she nor Urbano made mention of other in their respective wills. In 1714, now 50 years old and still without a male heir. They had one daughter, Cornelia Constance Barberini, when she was 12 years old, Urbanos brother Francesco encouraged her to marry Giulio Cesare Colonna di Sciarra. Maria Teresa wrote hundreds of pages to the Pope urging him to disallow the marriage knowing that as a Cardinal, eventually they were married but Cornelia Constance Barberini remained Urbano Barberinis only legitimate heir. Though none of his wives bore him a male heir, there are many mentions of an illegitimate male heir to the House of Barberini. Born in 1688, his birth predates any of Barberinis marriages, the will of Urbano Barberinis last wife, Maria Teresa Boncompagni, makes mention of this Maffeo Callisto as the Marquis of Corese and she expresses appreciation and gratitude for him. A large portion of the Barberini estate was left for him in her will
Urbano Barberini (1664-1722)
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Urbano Barberini, Prince of Palestrina by
Jacob Ferdinand Voet.
24.
Wars of Castro
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The Wars of Castro were a series of conflicts during the mid-17th century revolving around the ancient city of Castro, which eventually resulted in the citys destruction on 2 September 1649. Papal politics of the century were complicated, with frequently shifting military. In 1611 a group of conspirators, nobles from Modena and Mantua, was accused of devising a plot to assassinate Ranuccio I Farnese, Duke of Parma, in reality, the plot had been uncovered when a prisoner confessed to it and implicated members of various noble houses. Though the accusations were untrue,100 of the conspirators were tortured. Many of their estates were confiscated leaving a number of now legitimately discontented nobles. Until his death in 1622, Ranuccio remained paranoid about future assassination attempts and about curses from witches and he persecuted witches and alleged conspirators savagely and even had his own mistress, Claudia Colla, burned to death. He remained convinced that other families were plotting his downfall. However, tensions between the Farnese and other Italian nobility were not limited to events in Parma. Historian Leopold von Ranke gives an account of a 1639 visit to Rome by Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma, the Duke arrived in Rome to great fanfare - he was given gifts and escorted around the city by Pope Urbans Cardinal-nephews, Antonio Barberini and Francesco Barberini. But the Duke refused to pay due deference to the Popes other nephew, as the Duke prepared to leave, he suggested that an escort from the city would be appropriate. The Duke took his leave but urged the Pope to chastise both Cardinal-nephews, Duke Odoardos Roman creditors saw their chance - the Duke was unable to pay his debts, which he had accumulated in military adventures against the Spanish in Milan and in luxurious living. The unpaid and unhappy creditors sought relief from the pope, who turned to action in an attempt to force payment. Pope Urban VIII responded to the requests of Duke Odoardos creditors by sending his nephew Antonio, Fabrizio Savelli, Papal forces also included commanders Achille dÉtampes de Valençay and Marquis Cornelio Malvasia. At the same time, the pope sent cardinal Bernardino Spada as plenipotentiary in an effort to resolve the crisis, Spada later published a manifesto detailing his version of events which, according to contemporary John Bargrave, many accepted to be the truth. Indeed, Urban VIII had been amassing troops in Rome throughout 1641, mercenaries and regular troops filled the streets and Antonio Barberini was forced to institute special measures to maintain authority over the city. But the papacy needed yet more troops, on 12 October 1641, Luigi Mattei led 12,000 infantry and up to 4,000 cavalry against the fortified town. The popes forces were met by a contingent of 40 troops guarding a bridge leading to the town, Castro, and several other small towns nearby, surrendered. Fabrizio Savelli, though, proved to be an unenthusiastic commander, the army was split into three and the Popes nephew, Taddeo Barberini, replaced Savelli as Generalissimo, arriving with one contingent in the papal city of Ferrara on 5 January 1642
Wars of Castro
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The city of Castro, on which the Wars of Castro centered.
Wars of Castro
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Pope Innocent X, on whose orders Castro was destroyed. Portrait by
Diego Velázquez.
25.
Duchy of Parma
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The Duchy of Parma was created in 1545 from that part of the Duchy of Milan south of the Po River, which was conquered by the Papal States in 1512. These territories, centered on the city of Parma, were given as a fief for Pope Paul IIIs illegitimate son, Pier Luigi Farnese. In 1556, the second Duke, Ottavio Farnese, was given the city of Piacenza, becoming thus also Duke of Piacenza and he ruled until 1735 during the War of the Polish Succession, when Parma was ceded to Emperor Charles VI in exchange for the Two Sicilies. As Duke Philip, he became the founder of the House of Bourbon-Parma reigning over the Duchy of Parma, Piacenza, in 1796, the duchy was occupied by French troops under Napoleon Bonaparte, and the political situation of the State became extremely confused. Napoleon was undecided about the future of the duchy, aspiring to an engagement of the Bourbons in the European wars as his allies. Even as French laws and administration were introduced, the formal annexation to the French Empire was declared only in 1808 after the outbreak of the conflict against Bourbonic Spain. The duchy was reformed as the département of Taro, in 1814, the duchies were restored under Napoleons Habsburg wife, Marie Louise, who ruled them for the rest of her life. After Marie Louises death in 1847, the Duchy was restored to the Bourbon-Parma line, in this context, Guastalla was ceded to Modena. The Bourbons ruled until 1859, when they were out by a revolution following the French. The House of Bourbon continues to claim the title of duke of Parma to this day, prince Carlos of Bourbon-Parma has held the title since 2010. Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes, French diplomacy in the age of revolution, alessandro Cont, Il potere della tradizione. Guillaume Du Tillot e la questione della nobiltà, Nuova Rivista Storica,100,1, pp. 73-106
Duchy of Parma
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Duchy of Parma, 8 Doppie (1791) depicting
Ferdinando di Borbone
Duchy of Parma
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Flag
26.
Castro (city)
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For the city in the province of Lecce, see Castro, Apulia. Castro was an ancient city on the west side of Lake Bolsena in the comune of Ischia di Castro, northern Lazio. It was destroyed at the conclusion of the Wars of Castro in the 17th century, the settlement of Castro was founded in prehistoric times, and was later the seat of an unspecified Etruscan city, probably Statonia. In the Middle Ages it had a castle, hence the name, although an autonomous commune, it remained nonetheless under papal suzerainty. In 1527 a pro-independence faction assumed power, but they were ousted by Pier Luigi Farnese, whose family was to rule Castro until the 17th century. In the same year another Farnese, Gian Galeazzo, sacked it in the wake of the Sack of Rome. Ten years later, in 1537, three years after the election of Alessandro Farnese as Pope Paul III, it became the seat of an independent duchy under his son Pier Luigi Farnese. The town, which in the meantime had been reduced to gypsies huts, was reconstructed according to the design of Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, the Farnese treated Castro well and consecutive family patriarchs made improvements to the city including churches and their own Palazzo Farnese. The Farnese and the papacy fought a war and the Pope agreed to treaty terms only months before his death in 1644. When Pope Innocent X replaced Urban, he demanded that Duke Odoardos son Ranuccio II Farnese, Ranuccio refused to pay the agreed reparations. He also refused to admit the newly appointed bishop of Castro, when the latter was on his way to take possession of his see, he was murdered, a crime for which Innocent X placed the blame on Ranuccio. He sent troops to Castro and had the city razed on 2 September 1649 and he erected a column reading Quì fu Castro. The seat of the diocese of Castro, which is believed to have dated back to the 8th century, was transferred to Acquapendente, no longer a residential bishopric, Castro is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see. Luzi, R. Storia di Castro e della sua distruzione, house of Farnese Wars of Castro Annibale Caro Cigola, Riccardo. The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, Chapter XXIV - Author George Dennis describes the ruins of Castro in this 1848 book, Farnese and its history - a brief description of Castros history, and how it appears today
Castro (city)
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View of Castro (1663).
