1.
Mexican Revolution
–
The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle c. 1910–1920 that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Although recent research has focused on local and regional aspects of the Revolution and its outbreak in 1910 resulted from the failure of the 35-year long regime of Porfirio Díaz to find a managed solution to the presidential succession. This meant there was a crisis among competing elites and the opportunity for agrarian insurrection. Madero challenged Díaz in 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, armed conflict ousted Díaz from power and a new election was held in 1911, bringing Madero to the presidency. The origins of the conflict were broadly based in opposition to the Díaz regime, with the 1910 election, elements of the Mexican elite hostile to Díaz, led by Madero, expanded to the middle class, the peasantry in some regions, and organized labor. In October 1911, Madero was overwhelmingly elected in a free, Huerta remained in power from February 1913 until July 1914, when he was forced out by a coalition of different regional revolutionary forces. Then the revolutionaries attempt to come to a political agreement following Huertas ouster failed, Zapata was assassinated in 1919, by agents of President Carranza. The armed conflict lasted for the part of a decade, until around 1920. Revolutionary forces unified against Huertas reactionary regime defeated the Federal forces, although the conflict was primarily a civil war, foreign powers that had important economic and strategic interests in Mexico figured in the outcome of Mexicos power struggles. The United States played a significant role. Out of Mexicos population of 15 million, the losses were high, perhaps 1.5 million people died, nearly 200,000 refugees fled abroad, especially to the United States. Politically, the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 is seen by scholars as the end point of the armed conflict. The period 1920–1940 is often considered to be a phase of the Revolution, during which power was consolidated, after the presidency of his ally, General Manuel González, Díaz ran for the presidency again and legally remained in office until 1911. The constitution had been amended to allow presidential re-election, Díazs re-election was ironic, since he had challenged Benito Juárez on the platform no re-election. During the Porfiriato there were regular elections although there were contentious irregularities, the contested 1910 election, was a key political event that led to the Mexican Revolution. As Díaz aged, the question of succession became increasingly important. In 1906, the office of president was revived, with Díaz choosing his close ally Ramón Corral from among his Cientifico advisers to serve in the post. By the 1910 election, the Díaz regime had become highly authoritarian and he had been a national hero, opposing the French Intervention in the 1860s and distinguishing himself in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862
2.
Clifford K. Berryman
–
Clifford Kennedy Berryman was a Pulitzer Prize–winning cartoonist with the Washington Star newspaper from 1907 to 1949. He was previously a cartoonist for The Washington Post from 1891 to 1907, during his career, Berryman drew thousands of cartoons commenting on American presidents and politics. Political figures he lampooned included former Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt and he is particularly known for his cartoons Remember the Maine and Drawing the Line in Mississippi. Berryman was a prominent figure in Washington, D. C. and President Harry S. Truman once told him, Presidents, senators and even Supreme Court justices come and go, but the Monument and Berryman stand. Berrymans cartoons can be found at the Library of Congress, the National Archives, Berryman was born on April 2,1869, in Clifton, Kentucky, to James Thomas Berryman and Sallie Church Berryman. Berrymans father often entertained friends and neighbors with drawings of hillbillies from their hometown, Berryman was appointed draftsman to the United States Patent Office in Washington, D. C. from 1886 to 1891. During his tenure, Berryman submitted sketches to The Washington Post, after Coffin died in 1896, Berryman took over the Posts cartoonist position. In 1898, during the Spanish–American War, The Post printed Berrymans classic illustration Remember the Maine and his November 16,1902, cartoon, Drawing the Line in Mississippi, depicted President Theodore Roosevelt showing compassion for a small bear cub. The cartoon inspired New York store owner Morris Michtom to create a new toy, Berryman worked at the Post until 1907, at which time he was hired by the Washington Star. Berryman was the first cartoonist member of the Gridiron Club and served as the president in 1926 and he drew political cartoons for the Star until his death in 1949. Berryman married Kate Geddes Durfee in July,1893, and they had three children, Mary Belle, Florence Seville, and James Thomas, Berryman was a Presbyterian and an active member of the Washington Heights Presbyterian Church. He died December 11,1949, from a heart ailment, in 1944, Berryman was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning for his drawing Where is the Boat Going. The cartoon depicted President Franklin D. Roosevelt and other government officials trying to steer the USS Mississippi in several different directions, since 1989 the National Press Foundation has presented the Clifford K. and James T. Berryman Award for Editorial Cartooning annually. Previous winners include Chip Bok, Jim Morin, Kevin Kallaugher, Rex Babin, Steve Sack, Matt Wuerker, Nick Anderson, Adam Zyglis, and Clay Bennett
3.
Chihuahua (state)
–
Chihuahua, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Chihuahua, is one of the 32 states of Mexico. Its capital city is Chihuahua City and it is located in Northwestern Mexico and is bordered by the states of Sonora to the west, Sinaloa to the southwest, Durango to the south, and Coahuila to the east. To the north and northeast, it has a border with the U. S. adjacent to the U. S. states of New Mexico. Chihuahua is the largest state in Mexico by area, with an area of 247,455 square kilometres, the state is consequently known under the nickname El Estado Grande. Although Chihuahua is primarily identified with the Chihuahuan Desert for namesake, it has more forests than any state in Mexico. Due to its variant climate, the state has a variety of fauna. The state is characterized by rugged mountainous terrain and wide river valleys. On the slope of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains, there are vast prairies of short yellow grass, most of the inhabitants live along the Rio Grande Valley and the Conchos River Valley. The etymology of the name Chihuahua has long disputed by historians. The most accepted theory explains that the name was derived from the Nahuatl language meaning The place where the water of the rivers meet, Chihuahua has a diversified state economy. The three most important economic centers in the state are, Ciudad Juárez, a manufacturing center, Chihuahua, the state capital, and Delicias. Today Chihuahua serves as an important commercial route prospering from billions of dollars from international trade as a result of NAFTA, on the other hand the state suffers the fallout of illicit trade and activities especially at the border. The earliest evidence of inhabitants of modern day Chihuahua was discovered in the area of Samalayuca. Clovis points have been found in northeastern Chihuahua that have dated from 12,000 BC to 7000 BC. It is thought that these inhabitants were hunter gatherers, inhabitants of the state later developed farming with the domestication of corn. An archeological site in northern Chihuahua known as Cerro Juanaqueña revealed squash cultivation, irrigation techniques, between AD300 and 1300 in the northern part of the state along the wide, fertile valley on the San Miguel River the Casas Grandes culture developed into an advanced civilization. The Casas Grandes civilization is part of a prehistoric archaeological culture known as Mogollon which is related to the Ancestral Pueblo culture. Paquime was the center of the Casas Grandes civilization, extensive archaeological evidence shows commerce, agriculture, and hunting at Paquime and Cuarenta Casas
4.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
Mexico
–
Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
6.
Pancho Villa
–
Francisco Pancho Villa was a Mexican Revolutionary general and one of the most prominent figures of the Mexican Revolution. As commander of the División del Norte in the Constitutionalist Army, given the areas size and mineral wealth, it provided him with extensive resources. Villa was also provisional Governor of Chihuahua in 1913 and 1914, Villa can be credited with decisive military victories leading to the ousting of Victoriano Huerta from the presidency in July 1914. Villa then fought his erstwhile leader in the coalition against Huerta, Villa was in alliance with southern revolutionary Emiliano Zapata, who remained fighting in his own region of Morelos. The two revolutionary generals briefly came together to take Mexico City after Carranzas forces retreated from it, later, Villas heretofore undefeated División del Norte engaged the military forces of Carranza under Carrancista general Álvaro Obregón and was defeated in the 1915 Battle of Celaya. Villa was again defeated by Carranza,1 November 1915, at the Second Battle of Agua Prieta 1 November 1915, after which Villas army collapsed as a significant military force. Villa subsequently led a hit and run raid against the small U. S. -Mexican border town in the Battle of Columbus 9 March 1916, the U. S. government sent U. S. Army General John J. In 1923, as elections approached, he re-involved himself in Mexican politics. Shortly thereafter he was assassinated, most likely on the orders of Obregón, after his death, he was excluded from the pantheon of revolutionary heroes until the Sonoran generals Obregón and Calles, whom he battled during the Revolution, were gone from the political stage. Villas exclusion from the narrative of the Revolution might have contributed to his continued posthumous popular acclaim. He was celebrated during the Revolution and long afterward by corridos, movies about his life, in 1976, his remains were reburied in the Monument to the Revolution in Mexico City in a huge public ceremony not attended by his widow Luz Corral. Villa told a number of conflicting stories about his early life, according to most sources, he was born on 5 June 1878, and named José Doroteo Arango Arámbula at birth. His father was a sharecropper named Agustín Arango, and his mother was Micaela Arámbula and he grew up at the Rancho de la Coyotada, one of the largest haciendas in the state of Durango. The familys residence now houses the Casa de Pancho Villa historic museum in San Juan del Rio, Doroteo later claimed to be the son of the bandit Agustín Villa, but according to at least one scholar, the identity of his real father is still unknown. He wasthe oldest of five children, as a child, he received some education from a local church-run school, but was not proficient in more than basic literacy. He quit school to help his mother after his father died and he became a bandit at some point early on, but also worked as a sharecropper, muleskinner, butcher, bricklayer, and foreman for a U. S. railway company. However, the veracity of this story is questionable, eventually, he became a member of a bandit band headed by Ignacio Parra, one of the most famous bandits in Durango at the time. As a bandit, he went by the name Arango, in 1902, the rurales, the crack rural police force of President Porfirio Díaz, arrested Pancho for stealing mules and for assault
7.
John J. Pershing
–
American forces first saw serious battle at Cantigny, Chateau-Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Soissons. To speed up the arrival of the doughboys, they embarked for France leaving the heavy equipment behind, the Allied Hundred Days Offensive, which the Argonne fighting was part of, contributed to Germany calling for an armistice. Pershing was of the opinion that the war should continue and that all of Germany should be occupied in an effort to permanently destroy German militarism. Allowed to select his own insignia, Pershing chose to use four stars to distinguish himself from those officers who held the rank of General. Some of his tactics have been criticized both by commanders at the time and by modern historians. His reliance on costly frontal assaults, long after other Allied armies had abandoned such tactics, has blamed for causing unnecessarily high American casualties. Pershing was born on a farm near Laclede, Missouri, to businessman John Fletcher Pershing, Pershings mother was of English descent. He also had five siblings, brothers James F. and Ward, when the Civil War began, his father supported the Union and was a sutler for the 18th Missouri Volunteer Infantry. Pershing attended a school in Laclede that was reserved for students who were also the children of prominent citizens. Completing high school in 1878, he became a teacher of local African American children, in 1880, Pershing entered the North Missouri Normal School in Kirksville, Missouri. Two years later, he applied to the United States Military Academy, Pershing later admitted that serving in the military was secondary to attending West Point, and he had applied because the education offered was better than that obtainable in rural Missouri. Pershing was sworn in as a West Point cadet in the fall of 1882 and he was selected early for leadership and became successively First Corporal, First Sergeant, First Lieutenant, and First Captain, the highest possible cadet rank. Pershing also commanded, ex officio, the West Point Honor Guard that escorted the funeral procession of President Ulysses S. Grant. Pershing graduated from West Point in the summer of 1886 and was commended by the Superintendent of West Point, General Wesley Merritt, for leadership skills. Pershing briefly considered petitioning the Army to let him study law and he applied for a furlough from West Point, but soon withdrew the request in favor of active Army duty. He was commissioned a Second Lieutenant in the United States Army in 1886, at age 26, graduating 30th in a class of 77. Pershing reported for duty on September 30,1886, and was assigned to Troop L of the 6th U. S. Cavalry stationed at Fort Bayard. While serving in the 6th Cavalry, Pershing participated in several Indian campaigns and was cited for bravery for actions against the Apache, during his time at Fort Stanton, Pershing and close friends Lt. Julius Penn and Lt. Richard B
8.
Tampico Affair
–
A misunderstanding occurred on April 9,1914, but developed into a breakdown of diplomatic relations between the two countries. As a result, the United States invaded the city of Veracruz. This contributed to the fall of President Victoriano Huerta, who resigned in July 1914, by March 26,1914, Carranzas forces were 10 mi from the prosperous coastal oil town of Tampico, Tamaulipas. There was a settlement of U. S. citizens in the area due to the immense investment by U. S. firms in the local oil industry. Several U. S. Navy warships commanded by Rear Admiral Henry T. Mayo were deployed off the coast for the purpose of protecting American citizens. As a result of anti-American sentiment, Mexico maintained neutrality during World War I, refusing to support the U. S. in Europe, all the while continuing to do business with Germany. With the U. S. threatening to invade in 1918 to take control of Tampico oil fields, by the spring of 1914, diplomatic relations between the U. S. and Mexico were strained. S. The ambassador had since been removed by President Wilson, the instability caused by the ongoing Mexican Revolution threatened American lives and economic interests in Mexico. Although Tampico was besieged by Constitutionalist forces, relations between U. S. forces and Huertas federal garrison remained amicable, the gunboat Dolphin, one of the few U. S. Relations between the U. S. and Huerta deteriorated on April 9, when Mexican soldiers detained nine U. S. sailors in Tampico, the defenders of the bridge anticipated an attack, following skirmishes with Constitutionalist forces on the two preceding days. Nine U. S. sailors on a whaleboat flying the U. S. flag were dispatched to the warehouse along a canal, according to the sailors account, seven of them were moving the cans of fuel to the boat while two remained on the boat. Mexican federal soldiers were alerted to the activity and confronted the American sailors, neither side could speak the others language, and the sailors were not complying with commands from the soldiers. The Mexicans raised their rifles to the Americans, including the sailors still on the boat, General Huerta, the President of Mexico, refused to have his forces raise the U. S. flag on Mexican soil to provide a 21-gun salute. Two weeks later, negotiations were at a standstill when U. S. President Woodrow Wilson asked Congress for permission for an invasion of the area. Although this request was granted two days later, the U. S. occupation of Veracruz had already begun, President Wilson backed Mayo and ordered an increase in U. S. forces in Mexican waters. On April 18, USS Iris, Lieutenant Allen B, on April 22, President Wilson received the backing of Congress for the use of military force to resolve the conflict with Huerta. This message was relayed to Rear Admiral Frank Friday Fletcher, who commanded the squadron lying off the port of Veracruz, with the battleships USS Florida, USS Utah and the transport USS Prairie carrying 350 Marines, Fletcher received his orders at 8,00 AM on April 21. After sending some two hundred soldiers to present a defense, General Maass received orders from Mexico City to evacuate his troops to the nearby towns of Tejería
9.
Ypiranga incident
–
The Ypiranga Incident occurred on April 21,1914, at the port of Veracruz in Mexico. The SS Ypiranga was a German steamer that was commissioned to transport arms, there was neither a declaration of war on Mexico by the United States nor a formal blockade on its ports, thus the detention of Ypiranga was not legal and she was released. She proceeded to a port where the US military was absent, Puerto México, Mexico had been engaged in civil war for almost two years up to this point and Huerta was unable to enact his plans for pacification. Instead, he had to continue fighting the rebels for a time, william Howard Taft had concluded in 1912, based on the magnitude of the domestic violence, that no arms shipments were authorized to travel from the United States to Mexico by order of Congress. Huerta began working closely with Leon Raast, the Russian vice-consul in Mexico City, the manifest obtained by the United States Justice Department following the departure of the SS Brinkhorn lists the large amount of ordnance that was on board the ship. The total value of the 15,770 cases is recorded at US$607,000, Rasst shipped the arms to Odessa but did not appear there in time to clear it through customs. As a result, the Russian government seized the consignment, Rasst with the help of the Russian embassy in Washington was able to get the shipment released and sent to Hamburg. However, there Rasst could not pay for the freight charges resulting in the German government impounding the shipment, money from the American financier and Huerta supporter John Wesley De Kay finally achieved a release. The arms now went to Havana with German-made Mauser rifles and cartridges added to it, the arms on Ypiranga required three trains of ten cars each to unload
10.
United States occupation of Veracruz
–
For other battles at Veracruz see Battle of Veracruz. The United States occupation of Veracruz began with the Battle of Veracruz and lasted for seven months, the incident came in the midst of poor diplomatic relations between Mexico and the United States, and was related to the ongoing Mexican Revolution. The Tampico Affair was set off when nine American sailors were arrested by the Mexican government for entering off-limit areas in Tampico, the unarmed sailors were arrested when they entered a fuel loading station. The sailors were released, but the U. S. naval commander demanded an apology, the apology was provided but not the salute. In the end, the response from U. S. President Woodrow Wilson ordered the U. S. Navy to prepare for the occupation of the port of Veracruz, while awaiting authorization from the U. S. As a result, Wilson issued an order to seize the ports customs office. Huerta had usurped the presidency of Mexico with the assistance of the American ambassador Henry Lane Wilson during a coup détat in February 1913 known as La decena trágica. The arms shipment to Mexico, in fact, in part originated from the Remington Arms company in the U. S. went to Odessa, Russia to Hamburg, where De Kay added to the load. The arms and ammunition were to be shipped via Hamburg, Germany, the landing of the arms was blocked at Veracruz but they were discharged a few weeks later in Puerto Mexico, a port controlled by Huerta at the time. On the morning of April 21,1914, warships of the United States Atlantic Fleet under the command of Rear Admiral Frank Friday Fletcher, began preparations for the seizure of the Veracruz waterfront. At 11,12 hrs, consul William Canada watched from the roof of the American Consulate that the first boatload of Marines were leaving the auxiliary vessel USS Prairie, by 11,30, with whaleboats swung over the side,502 U. S. As the landing party moved toward pier 4, Veracruzs main wharf, the invaders encountered no resistance as they exited the whaleboats, formed ranks into a Marine and a seaman regiment, and began marching toward their objectives. This initial show of force was enough to prompt the retreat of the Mexican forces led by General Gustavo Maass, in the face of this, Commodore Manuel Azueta encouraged cadets of the Veracruz Naval Academy to take up the defense of the port for themselves. Also, about 200 line soldiers of the Mexican Army remained behind to fight the invaders along with the citizens of Veracruz, Arms were distributed to the population, who were largely untrained in the use of Mausers and had trouble finding the correct ammunition. In short, the defense of the city by its populace was hindered by the lack of central organization and a lack of adequate supplies. The defense of the city included the release of the prisoners held at the La Galera military prison. Although the landing had been unopposed as U. S. forces marched into the city. Just after noon, fighting began with the 2nd Advance Base Regiment under Colonel Wendell C, neville becoming heavily involved in a firefight in the rail yards
11.
Battle of Nogales (1915)
–
The Second Battle of Nogales was a three-sided military engagement of the Mexican Revolution, fought in November 1915 at the border towns of Nogales, Sonora and Nogales, Arizona. On the morning of November 26, rebel forces of Pancho Villa, the Americans responded with counter fire for over two hours before a force of Carrancistas arrived to attack the Villistas. Later that day, the Constitutionalistas accidentally opened fire on American soldiers, the battle resulted in the deaths of several Mexicans and was the first significant engagement fought between Villistas and the United States military. In November 1915, Pancho Villa was engaged in the major Battle of Agua Prieta, short on men and supplies, Villa sent a detachment to Nogales, Sonora which occupied the town without opposition. Shortly thereafter, a series of raids were launched across the border into Arizona. It is not known which faction was responsible for the attacks, on November 21, two Buffalo Soldiers from Troop F, 10th Cavalry, were fired on while manning a border observation post near Monument 117. The cavarymen returned the fire and in the gunfight Private Willie Norman was wounded, on the next day, five armed Mexicans attacked a small camp of Troop F soldiers along the Santa Cruz River near Nogales, Arizona. The soldiers returned fire with revolvers and killed two of the raiders, on November 25, some guerillas crossed the border and attacked a 10th Cavalry outpost that protected Mascarenas Ranch. Again the soldiers were from Troop F and they repulsed the raiders, the situation was about to get much more serious though. On the next day, while evacuating Nogales, Sonora, Villista snipers began shooting at American soldiers of the 12th Infantry who were guarding the border in Nogales, Arizona. In response to the sniping, the American commander of the 12th Infantry, Colonel William H. Sage, ordered his men to form a skirmish line, the line was formed at International Street, a dirt road and the border between Nogales, Arizona and Nogales, Sonora. Also, some American snipers took positions on the rooftops overlooking the border, when the order was given to open fire at about 10,00 am, Colonel Sage made sure that his men were only shooting at the hostile Mexicans and not at any of the noncombatants. Some American units crossed the border during the fighting but when General Alvaro Obregon and his army arrived at about 12,40, Colonel Sage ordered his men to cease fire, Obregon continued the battle for some time while the Americans watched from the border line. However, later day, some 10th Cavalry senties were fired upon by Obregons troops from atop a hill. For thirty minutes the Buffalo Soldiers engaged the Mexicans, killing two, but eventually another cease fire was ordered and the commanders from both sides exchanged apologies, Obregons men said they had mistaken the American troopers for Villistas. Only one American soldier is known to have killed, Private Stephen D. Little, 12th Infantry Regiment, and five others were wounded. Francisco Rosales says that the Americans killed sixty Mexicans in total, in honor of Private Little, the War Department changed the name of Camp Nogales to Camp Stephen D. Little, a base that would harbor more that 10,000 men by 1916. The camp was located along what is now Western Avenue from Grand Avenue to Interstate 19, the next major incident between the Americans and Pancho Villa occurred on January 11,1916
12.
Battle of Columbus (1916)
–
The raid escalated into a full-scale battle between Villistas and the United States Army. Villa himself led the assault, only to be back into Mexico by elements of the 13th Cavalry Regiment stationed at the town. The attack angered Americans and President Woodrow Wilson ordered the Punitive Expedition in which the US Army invaded Mexico in an attempt to capture General Villa. After the 1915 Battle of Celaya, where Villa sustained his greatest defeat, Columbus, located 3 miles north of the border was populated by about 500 Americans and about as many Mexicans that fled north from the advancing Villistas. The reasons for the raid have never established with any certainty. An American kidnap victim travelling with the party, Maude Hauke Wright, said that Villa came with 3000 men and 6000 horses. She was told that Villa thought that by provoking America into invading Mexico it would cause the Germans, at their camp, Villa and his men waited for his returning patrols. After the patrols told him only about thirty soldiers garrisoned Columbus, Villa moved north. Villa divided his force into two columns, most of which approached the town on foot, and launched an attack on the town in the dark early on March 9. Most of the population was asleep, along with most of the garrison. The townspeople awoke to an army of Villistas burning their settlement, the commander of the 13th Cavalry was Colonel Herbert Jermain Slocum. He had been advised the day before, from three conflicting reports from Mexican sources, that Villa and his soldiers were on the move, possibly against Columbus. One warning was given by Juan Favela, the foreman of a ranch near Palomas, however, U. S. soldiers were forbidden to reconnoiter inside Mexico and thus unable to check reports of Villas whereabouts. Despite being taken by surprise, the Americans quickly recovered, soon after the attack began, 2nd Lt. John P. Lucas, commanding the 13th Cavalrys machine gun troop, made his way barefooted and alone from his quarters to the camps barracks. He organized a hasty defense around the camps guard tent, where his troops machine guns were kept under lock and he was soon joined by the remainder of his unit and 30 troopers armed with M1903 Springfield rifles led by 2nd Lt. Horace Stringfellow, Jr. The troops four machine guns fired more than 5,000 rounds apiece during a 90-minute fight, in addition, many of the townspeople were armed with rifles and shotguns. Many residents took refuge in the two story brick schoolhouse, Villas men looted and burned many houses, fighting civilians that were defending their homes. It is not known if Villa was with the party at any time
13.
Battle of Parral
–
The Battle of Parral, on April 12,1916, was the first battle between soldiers of Venustiano Carranza, known as Carrancistas, and the United States military during the Mexican Expedition. Using a strategy of organized withdrawal, the Americans were able to repulse the Mexican attacks, Tompkins intentions were to chase and eventually engage the elusive rebels of Pancho Villa. After preparations were completed, Major Tompkins left camp on or about April 5, the Americans made a quick ride across the Mexican desert, traveling eighty-five miles in fifty hours. Following several days in the wilderness, Tompkins wrote, We were ragged, shoes were gone and we certainly presented a hard-boiled, savage appearance. The Americans were hoping to rest at Parral for a day, Tompkins agreed so the Americans left Parral not long after getting there. On the way out of town, a group of Mexicans began shouting Viva Villa, a few minutes later, as the column was just outside town, a cavalry of about 550 Carrancistas launched an attack on the American column. Within the first few shots a sergeant standing next to Tompkins was hit with a bullet, heavily outnumbered, the major had no choice but to keep going so he dismounted a rear guard to take up positions on a small hill and engage the pursuing Mexicans. In this first skirmish an estimated twenty-five Mexicans were killed and the rest were driven off, the guard then regrouped with Tompkins main force where they withstood another attack. During the second skirmish, an estimated forty-five Mexicans were killed, Tompkins continued his march to Santa Cruz de Villegas, a fortified town, eight miles from Parral, that the Americans could defend. Though by the time of their arrival the fighting had ceased, the Mexicans were not far away, Tompkins was facing the possibility of his 100-man force being besieged by hundreds of Carrancistas, so he sent out dispatch riders for reinforcements. Just before 8,00 am, a force of Buffalo Soldiers, from the 10th Cavalry and they had recently engaged about 150 Villistas at the Battle of Agua Caliente on April 1. Following the arrival of reinforcements, the Mexicans retreated back to Parral, two Americans were killed in the battle and six others were wounded, including Tompkins. For the Mexicans, they suffered the loss of fourteen and seventy killed or wounded, depending on varying accounts. General Pershing was encamped at Satevo, eighty miles north of Parral, according to the journalist Frank B. Elser, of the New York Times, Pershing was mad as hell so he demanded that the Carrancista government, which by then was in control of Mexico, to make a formal apology. It never came and it made General Pershing believe that instead of fighting just the rebels of Pancho Villa, Pershing even requested permission from his commanding officer, General Frederick Funston, to capture both the state and capital of Chihuahua, but it was denied. The Savage Wars of Peace, Small Wars and the Rise of American Power
14.
Apache Scouts
–
The Apache Scouts were part of the United States Army Indian Scouts, most of their service was during the Apache Wars up to 1886 though the last scout retired in 1947. The Apache scouts were the eyes and ears of the United States military and sometimes the cultural translators for the various Apache bands, Apache scouts also served in the Navajo War, the Tonto War, the Mexican Border War and they saw stateside duty during World War II. Men such as Al Sieber and Tom Horn were sometimes in charge of groups of Apaches. As was the custom in the United States military, scouts were enlisted with Anglo nicknames or single names, many Apache scouts received citations for bravery. It is important to note that Apaches were lumped together as a group by outsiders, however, while they may have shared many similar customs and language, they defined themselves by loose bands which tended to be associated with a geographical area. A band was semi nomadic and had clan and kinship ties with neighboring groups, thus, a Western Apache band did not have many ties to an Eastern Apache band and might be very distrustful. Apache scouts were usually grouped in units by band. Tonto Apache scouts were recruited to assist General Crook find Chief Delshays band who fled the Fort Verde reservation, crooks Chief of Scouts, Albert Sieber always seemed to have his Tonto scouts with him through the Apache Wars. White Mountain scouts served with Company B under Lieutenant Charles B, gatewood from Fort Apache in 1885 to 1886. General George Crook had high praise for this group which is composed of several bands, chiricahuas were the most subordinate, energetic, untiring and, by odds, the most efficient of their command. These scouts were sent to Florida by General Miles, along with those who they tracked for sixteen months in 1885 and 1886, as if these Apache scouts were hostiles to be punished. They were kept captive under nominal arrest as prisoners of war, along with the rest of Geronimos band whom theyd helped the track down. Warm Springs Apache scouts served in Company B under Lieutenant Britton Davis and were in the field tracking Geronimo, in 1885 Mescalero scouts were with Major Vanm Horn cavalry which was trying to prevent Geronimo, Nana and others from crossing the Rio Grande near Fort Stanton. Mescalero Apache scouts served with the army during the Navajo War in 1863 and 1864, one of the last battles of the war involving the scouts occurred along the Pecos River of New Mexico Territory on January 4,1864. When the fighting started, the Navajo realized they couldnt escape with their herd of stolen livestock so they took up positions to try to fight off their pursuers. Initially, the Navajo were successful in keeping their enemies back, after a long battle the Navajo were forced to retreat without the livestock, leaving an estimated forty dead on the field. Another twenty-five Navajos were estimated to have been wounded and a group the same size escaped, there were no casualties among the Americans or the Apache scouts and they recovered fifty horses and mules. Less than two weeks later Colonel Kit Carson would lead an expedition into Canyon de Chelly, the heart of Navajo territory, capturing most of the inhabitants and ending the war
15.
Glenn Springs raid
–
The Glenn Springs raid occurred on the night of May 5–6,1916, when Mexican Villistas and Carrancistas attacked the towns of Boquillas and Glenn Springs, Texas. In Glenn Springs, the raiders burned several buildings and fought a battle with a small force of American soldiers who were stationed there. At the same time, a party of rebels robbed a general store. Four Americans were killed and the rebels took two hostages to Coahuila, in response to the attack, the United States Army launched a short punitive expedition into Mexico, fought with the rebels, and rescued the captives. Following the Mexican federal victory at the Battle of Celaya in April 1915, by 1916, Villa and his men were in desperate need of food and provisions to continue their revolution, so they devised a plan to raid the American border town of Columbus, New Mexico. On the early morning of March 9,1916, approximately 500 mounted Villistas attacked and burned the town, after a pitched battle, the Villistas were defeated and pursued back into Mexico, having lost nearly 200 killed, wounded, or captured. The Pancho Villa Expedition, as it known, was under the command of Gen. John J. Pershing and it lasted from March 14,1916. Starting from various camps and forts along the border, Pershing headed into Chihuahua where his men engaged the Villistas on multiple occasions. Pershing was able to capture or kill several rebel commanders but Pancho Villa got away, tension along the international border between Texas and Mexico was high during the Mexican Revolution. Raids into southern Texas were very common, so to protect the Big Bend region. Boquillas and Glenn Springs were just small settlements at the time, about 12 miles apart, Glenn Springs was located just south of Chilicotal Mountain and centered around a small spring named after the first settler in the area who was killed at the site by Comanches. The town was home to some 80 people, who were employed mainly by a wax factory. The Ellis family also owned the store, which was managed by C. G. The inhabitants, who were mostly Mexican-Americans, lived in a neighborhood of about 50 jacales concentrated at one end of town. Boquillas was even smaller than Glenn Springs, located along the Rio Grande, across from the mining town of Del Carmen, Boquillas had a general store, owned by Jesse Deemer, and several jacales. On May 5,1916, just 57 days after the Battle of Columbus, though Col. Alvarez was a follower of Pancho Villa, on the march from Torreón to Texas he recruited both Carrancistas and fellow Villistas. Alvarez divided his command into two prongs, he led the first against Boquillas while at the same time Rodriguez Ramirez led the second against Glenn Springs. Because it was Cinco de Mayo, the Mexicans living in Glenn Springs were holding a celebration for themselves, One of the rebels knocked on the door and asked if there were any soldiers in town, to which Compton said there wasnt
16.
George S. Patton
–
General George Smith Patton Jr. was a senior officer of the United States Army who commanded the U. S. Seventh Army in the Mediterranean and European theaters of World War II, Third Army in France and Germany following the Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944. Born in 1885 to a family with a military background, Patton attended the Virginia Military Institute. He studied fencing and designed the M1913 Cavalry Saber, more known as the Patton Sword. Patton first saw combat during the Pancho Villa Expedition in 1916, in the interwar period, Patton remained a central figure in the development of armored warfare doctrine in the U. S. Army, serving in numerous staff positions throughout the country. Rising through the ranks, he commanded the 2nd Armored Division at the time of the American entry into World War II, Seventh Army during the Allied invasion of Sicily, where he was the first Allied commander to reach Messina. Patton returned to command the Third Army following the invasion of Normandy in June 1944 and he led the relief of beleaguered American troops at Bastogne during the Battle of the Bulge, and advanced his Third Army into Nazi Germany by the end of the war. After the war, Patton became the governor of Bavaria. He commanded the United States Fifteenth Army for slightly more than two months, Patton died in Germany on December 21,1945, as a result of injuries from an automobile accident twelve days earlier. Pattons colorful image, hard-driving personality and success as a commander were at times overshadowed by his public statements. His philosophy of leading from the front and his ability to inspire troops with vulgarity-ridden speeches, such as an address to the Third Army. His strong emphasis on rapid and aggressive offensive action proved effective, while Allied leaders held sharply differing opinions on Patton, he was regarded highly by his opponents in the German High Command. A popular, award-winning biographical film released in 1970 helped transform Patton into an American hero, George Smith Patton Jr. was born on November 11,1885 in San Gabriel, California, to George Smith Patton Sr. and his wife Ruth Wilson. Patton had a sister, Anne, who was nicknamed Nita. The family was of Irish, Scots-Irish, English, and Welsh ancestry and his great grandmother came from an aristocratic Welsh family, descended from many Welsh lords of Glamorgan, which had an extensive military background. Patton believed he had former lives as a soldier and took pride in mystical ties with his ancestors, though not directly descended from George Washington, Patton traced some of his English colonial roots to George Washingtons great-grandfather. He was also descended from Englands King Edward I through Edwards son Edmund of Woodstock, family belief held the Pattons were descended from sixteen barons who had signed the Magna Carta. Patton believed in reincarnation, and his ancestry was very important to him, the first Patton in America was Robert Patton, born in Ayr, Scotland
17.
Battle of Carrizal
–
The Battle of Carrizal occurred on the June 21,1916. It was a skirmish between United States Army troops of General John J. Pershings Punitive Expedition and Carrancista troops fought at the town of Carrizal in the Mexican state of Chihuahua. In June 1916, Gen. Pershing was informed that Pancho Villa could be taken at Carrizal, when he sent Captains Boyd and Morey to investigate with C and K troops of the 10th Cavalry, they were confronted by Mexican Army troops, not Villas men. Boyd ordered the men to attack anyway, in the resulting battle, the American attack was repelled. By legend Villa supposedly watched with delight as his two enemies fought it out each other. However, this story is of doubtful veracity as Villa was badly injured at the time, the cavalry lost two officers and 48 men killed and 24 taken prisoner. The Mexican forces lost 27, including the officer, Gen. Félix U. General Pershing was furious at this result and asked for permission to attack the Carrancista garrison at Chihuahua, president Wilson, fearing that such an attack would provoke a full-scale war with Mexico, refused. The Battle of Carrizal marked the end of the Mexican Expedition. Pancho Villa survived, and small raids on American soil occurred while the expedition was in Mexico, the simultaneous deterioration of German-American relations while World War I raged made any escalation in México undesirable and so negotiations followed. Lt. Henry Rodney Adair was killed in this battle, during World War II Camp Adair was established in the Willamette Valley, Oregon, as an Army training facility in honor of his service. Pancho Villa, Fact, Fiction, or Folklore, power and Principle, Armed Intervention in Wilsonian Foreign Policy. Kent, Ohio, Kent State University Press, the United States and the Mexican Revolution, 1913-1917. Salinas Carranza, Alberto La Expedicion Punitiva, history of the American Negro in the Great War
18.
Zimmermann Telegram
–
Mexico would be given Texas, Arizona and New Mexico. The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence, the message came in the form of a coded telegram dispatched by the Foreign Secretary of the German Empire, Arthur Zimmermann, on 19 January 1917. The message was sent to the German ambassador to Mexico, Heinrich von Eckardt, the decoded telegram is as follows, We intend to begin on the first of February unrestricted submarine warfare. We shall endeavor in spite of this to keep the United States of America neutral, the settlement in detail is left to you. Please call the Presidents attention to the fact that the employment of our submarines now offers the prospect of compelling England in a few months to make peace. The main purpose of the telegram was to make the Mexican government declare war on the United States in hopes of tying down American forces and slowing the export of American arms. The Germans were encouraged by their successes on the Eastern Front into believing that they would be able to large numbers of troops to the Western Front in support of their goals. Mexican President Venustiano Carranza assigned a commission to assess the feasibility of the Mexican takeover of their former territories contemplated by Germany. The general concluded that it would be neither possible nor desirable to attempt such an enterprise for the following reasons. No serious scenarios existed under which Mexico could win a war against the United States, germanys promises of generous financial support were very unreliable. The German government had already informed Carranza in June 1916 that they were unable to provide the gold needed to stock a completely independent Mexican national bank. Other foreign relations were at stake, the ABC nations organized the Niagara Falls peace conference in 1914 to avoid a full-scale war between the United States and Mexico over the United States occupation of Veracruz. If Mexico were to enter war against the United States, it would strain relations with those nations, the telegram was sent to the German embassy in the United States for re-transmission to Eckardt in Mexico. But it has established that only one method was used. Direct telegraph transmission of the telegram was not possible because the British had cut the German international cables at the outbreak of war, however, the United States allowed limited use of its diplomatic cables for Germany to communicate with its ambassador in Washington. The facility was supposed to be used for cables connected with President Woodrow Wilsons peace proposals, the Swedish cable ran from Sweden, and the United States cable from the United States embassy in Denmark. However, neither cable ran directly to the United States, both cables passed through a relay station at Porthcurno, near Lands End, the westernmost tip of England. Here the signals were boosted for the long trans-oceanic jump, all traffic through the Porthcurno relay was copied to British intelligence, in particular to the codebreakers and analysts in Room 40 at the Admiralty
19.
Brite Ranch raid
–
The Brite Ranch raid was an incident that occurred on Christmas day 1917, in which Mexican raiders crossed the Rio Grande border and attacked a ranch in Presidio County, Texas. During the raid the Mexicans murdered three people, robbed a store and rode back to Chihuahua under pursuit by a motorized posse. Brite Ranch was like other ranches in West Texas—it was as much a town as a cattle operation. The ranch was owned by Lucas Charles Brite and located in the Big Bend region, since it was Christmas morning most of the locals were away, except for ranch foreman T. T. Van Neill, his family and one or two Mexican-American families. It was just after dawn when the raid began, vans father, Sam, was the only one awake. He was sitting down drinking coffee when all of a sudden about 45 armed Mexicans galloped into the ranch complex. Sam knew immediately who the Mexicans were so he ran to his sons room, equipped himself with a rifle, took aim at who he thought was the leader and he killed the man and the others returned fire on the house. By that time Van was awake and joined in the fight, Mrs. Van Neill attempted to alert the police but the raiders cut the telephone lines. The skirmish lasted for a while before the raiders realized they had little chance of getting into the Neill house without significant losses. They captured a pair of hands, one of whom, José Sánchez, was sent to the house to warn the Neills that if they continued to resist. Van and his father were prepared to continue the fight but Mrs. Neill convinced her husband to give the Mexicans the keys to Lucas Brites general store and avoid further confrontation. Van agreed, so instead of trying to break into the house and they also gathered up all the best horses at the ranch and took them, too. While this was going on, the postman, Mickey Welch. The raiders captured all three of the men, shot the two passengers and hung Welch inside the store and that night the Neills were hosting a Christmas dinner party for some of their friends. The raiders let the reverend and his family go to the Neills house, tyler, author of The Big Bend, A History of the Last Texas Frontier, there were other dinner guests already at the ranch but they escaped somehow and went to get help. Rancher James L. Cobb, who lived three miles outside of the complex, heard the gunfire and drove towards the sound to investigate the situation. He stopped a short distance away from the ranch and saw the Mexicans robbing the store and he then got back into his car and drove 12 miles to the nearest telephone and called Lucas Brite, who was at his home in Marfa. Brite informed the sheriff and went even further by alerting the 8th Cavalry
20.
Neville Ranch raid
–
The Neville Ranch raid occurred on the night of March 25,1918 and was the last serious attack on a Texas ranch by Mexican rebels during the Bandit War. Though it is not certain, there was reason to believe that Villistas were responsible for the raid in which two people were murdered, afterwards, the rebels withdrew to the village of Pilares, Chihuahua under pursuit by a cavalry of American soldiers. A small battle was fought Pilares on the day, several more people were killed. From the beginning of the Mexican Revolution in 1910, raids into Texas by Mexican bandits became very common, more often than not, the so-called bandits were actually rebels. After the Brite Ranch Raid, on December 25,1917, the fact that three people had been murdered on Christmas day infuriated the local population. Villistas from the border town of Porvenir were thought to be responsible so, on January 27,1918, Texas Rangers and American soldiers surrounded the village. While the soldiers were checking the houses, the Texas Rangers, under Captain Monroe Fox, gathered up fifteen Mexican men, there the Mexicans were executed and left on the spot. Neville Ranch was owned by Edwin W. Neville and located six miles up the Rio Grande from Porvenir. It was in an area, there were no neighbors close by and the lower ranch complex. Edwin W. Neville lived there with his son, Glenn, following the raid at Brite Ranch, Edwin moved his wife and his two daughters to a home in Van Horn. On March 25,1918, while on duty at Candelaria, Captain Leonard Matlock, 8th Cavalry. Matlock then sent out a patrol, under a Lieutenant Gaines, Edwin was not at his ranch though, he was in Van Horn buying supplies. After hearing a report about what was going on, Edwin rode with his son for eight hours back to the ranch to check on it, sometime later, while discussing rumors in the ranch house, Glenn heard something and went to a window to see outside. There in the darkness he saw fifty approaching horsemen who then opened fire with small arms, apparently, the house provided very little protection from the bullets so the Nevilles retreated to a ditch about 300 yards away. Glenn was shot in the head at this point but he did not die immediately for the raiders had time to come up, Rosa was also shot and her body mutilated in front of her children while her husband escaped on a pony. When the shooting stopped, the focused on robbing the place of horses, food, clothing, bedding. Meanwhile, Edwin was wandering through the desert, rosas husband found Lieutenant Gaines and his patrol six miles away from the ranch and told them what had happened. Colonel Langhorne responded by dispatching Captain Henry H. Anderson and Troop G, 8th Cavalry, from Everett Ranch, at the same time, Troop A, 8th Cavalry, was mobilized in Marfa and sent to Valentine by rail
21.
Battle of Ambos Nogales
–
The American soldiers and militia forces were stationed in Nogales, Arizona, and the Mexican soldiers and armed Mexican militia were in Nogales, Sonora. This battle was notable for being a significant confrontation between US and Mexican forces during the Border War which took place in the context of the Mexican Revolution and the First World War. This occurred after the Zimmermann telegram during World War I, when the border between the two Nogaleses was a wide-open boulevard named International Street. Several previous fatal incidents had occurred in this area, which helped increase international tensions and this included the claim of German military advisors as agitators with Mexican Villa rebels, claims of racism and border politics. The access to arms and customs duties from Mexican communities along the US-Mexico border made towns such as Nogales, Sonora, the capture of the key border city of Ciudad Juárez in 1911 by Mexican revolutionaries led by Francisco I. Madero led to the downfall of President Diaz and the elevation of Madero to President and this took place during the Battle of Nogales and again during the Battle of Nogales. During the November 1915 Battle of Nogales fought between the forces of Francisco Villa and Venustiano Carranza, one US serviceman, Pvt, Little, was killed by a stray bullet as US troops guarded the border in Nogales from the violence in Mexico. The carrancistas won the battle over Villas forces despite three-way firing across the border, carrancista forces had received diplomatic recognition from the US government as the legitimate ruling force in Mexico. Villa, who had previously courted US recognition, then attacked the American border community of Columbus, although the manhunt for Villa was unsuccessful, small-scale confrontations in the communities of Parral and Carrizal nearly brought about a war between Mexico and the US in the summer of 1916. To fill in the gap, different US military units were deployed to the border, besides the obvious concern with spill-over violence along the border, US military leaders along the border carried out surveillance of German espionage activities. With the British interception of the Zimmermann telegram in 1917, the US knew well of the German Empires attempt to bring Mexico into the war on the side of the Central Powers. Additionally, the 1916-1917 Punitive Expedition vividly exposed the differences between the US and Mexico in terms of logistics, the US entry into World War I led to a mass mobilization of national resources that was soon felt along the border. US restrictions on foodstuffs limited what Nogales border crossers could take back into Mexico, in the summer of 1918 the US government threatened to close the border if Mexican authorities refused to help stop the “food running”. US involvement in the European war also led to formalization of security measures along the border, in an effort to exercise greater control over the border zone, the State Department called on American citizens to register for passports as soon as possible. These new regulations had an impact, as they halted the free transit across the open. For nogalenses who were accustomed to free passage between the two cities, these rules demanded an adjustment that led to growing hostility between citizens of the two countries. ”Although businesses in Nogales, Arizona, protested, the persons most affected were working-class nogalenses who depended on wages from their jobs in the US. In the months leading up to August 1918, US customs officials at Nogales killed at least two individuals who were attempting to enter the US along the defined border. Before various eyewitnesses, the shot and killed Mercado
22.
Ruby Murders
–
The Ruby Murders is the popular name for three separate incidents involving the deaths of six American citizens at or near the town of Ruby, Arizona. The first incident occurred in February 1920 when Mexican bandits, thought to be Villistas, a second attack happened fourteen months later in April 1921 when again Mexican bandits killed the stores owners and robbed the place. Two of the bandits were arrested for the crime, but they briefly escaped custody in July 1922, the mining town of Ruby was established in Bear Valley during the 1870s and was a haven for cattle rustlers and other criminals for most of its Old West history. A typical town of the era, Ruby was very small, the store, called the Ruby Mercantile, was originally built sometime in the late 1880s, but also served as the post office when it opened in 1912. In 1914, the mercantile was purchased by Philip C, Clarke, who later built a larger store a short distance from the original. The second building was a structure, the remains of which have been preserved. Due to the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution in 1910, rebels loyal to Pancho Villa, a famed border bandit and revolutionary, were active throughout the Mexican territory opposite of the Arizona border. The area was one of the hardest hit during the civil war, by 1920 the town was declining, but it was still considered quite dangerous, the inhabitants were instructed to be heavily armed at all times. Clarke felt the area was so dangerous that he kept either a pistol or a rifle in each room of his house, February 27,1920 In February 1920, Clarke sold the mercantile to John and Alexander Frazer before moving his family to the nearby settlement of Oro Blanco. Eleven days after closing the deal with Clarke, on February 27,1920, Alexander was found lying on the floor near the cash register. He had been shot twice, one wound was found in Alexanders head. John was found nearby, he was alive, but unconscious. He died five hours later without regaining consciousness, the police discovered two sets of footprints and also learned from the townspeople that two unknown Mexicans had been seen in the area. A local rancher reported that two of his best horses and eight of his cattle had been stolen at or near the same date, the Nogales newspaper Weekly Oasis said that the tragedy is nothing new over there. A posse led by Sheriff Raymond Earhardt was sent south along the bandits trail, months passed, during which time very little progress was made in the investigation. Finally, in October 1920, Garcia was killed during a gunfight with Pima County deputy sheriffs near Twin Buttes, lara was eventually arrested in Mexico and jailed for crimes south of the border, but was never called to answer for his role in the Fraser killings. August 26,1921 The second incident occurred in August 1921 following the transfer of the ownership to a Mr. and Mrs. Frank Pearson. Although Mr. Pearson was told about the killings and the situation on the border
23.
Bandolier
–
A bandolier or a bandoleer is a pocketed belt for holding ammunition. It was usually slung sash-style over the shoulder, with the ammunition pockets across the midriff and it might also carry grenades or other accessories for shooting. Any bag worn in the style may also be described as a bandolier bag, similarly. A somewhat different form of the bandolier came into use in the 19th century, bandoliers are now less common due to the use of magazines and belt-fed firearms, though extra ammunition belts are often carried around the body like a bandolier. They are, however, still used with shotguns, as shotgun shells can easily be stored in traditionally-designed bandoliers. In fact, some aftermarket shotgun slings are designed in a similar to traditional bandoliers. Another modern use of a bandolier is for the automatic rifleman of a military fireteam, since a squad automatic weapon is often belt-fed, an automatic rifleman will carry an extra belt on his person, either in a separate compartment or slung over the chest in bandolier fashion. The bandolier was used to keep ammunition off a soldiers hips, as carrying too much weight on the hips can constrain movement, in World War I and World War II, bandoliers were issued primarily to riflemen. They were made of cloth, stitched into pockets which held clips of rifle ammunition, today, bandoliers are commonly used to carry multiple grenade rounds. In civilian use, bandoliers are often worn by hunters and recreational shooters using shotguns, bandoliers made from spent or dummy rounds are often used in fashion, sometimes in heavy metal and punk subcultures. Today, bandoliers see widespread use with sport shooters and hunters alike, as well as limited use in military conflicts
24.
Woodrow Wilson
–
Thomas Woodrow Wilson was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he spent his years in Augusta, Georgia and Columbia. In 1910, he was the New Jersey Democratic Partys gubernatorial candidate and was elected the 34th Governor of New Jersey, while in office, Wilson reintroduced the spoken State of the Union, which had been out of use since 1801. Leading the Congress that was now in Democratic hands, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933. The Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, through passage of the Adamson Act that imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads, he averted a railroad strike and an ensuing economic crisis. Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality, Wilson faced former New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes in the presidential election of 1916. By a narrow margin, he became the first Democrat since Andrew Jackson elected to two consecutive terms, Wilsons second term was dominated by American entry into World War I. In April 1917, when Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann Telegram, the United States conducted military operations alongside the Allies, although without a formal alliance. During the war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving military strategy to the generals, loaning billions of dollars to Britain, France, and other Allies, the United States aided their finance of the war effort. On the home front, he raised taxes, borrowing billions of dollars through the publics purchase of Liberty Bonds. In his 1915 State of the Union Address, Wilson asked Congress for what became the Espionage Act of 1917, the crackdown was intensified by his Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. Wilson staffed his government with Southern Democrats who implemented racial segregation at the Treasury, Navy and he gave department heads greater autonomy in their management. Following his return from Europe, Wilson embarked on a tour in 1919 to campaign for the treaty. The treaty was met with concern by Senate Republicans, and Wilson rejected a compromise effort led by Henry Cabot Lodge. Due to his stroke, Wilson secluded himself in the White House, disability having diminished his power, forming a strategy for re-election, Wilson deadlocked the 1920 Democratic National Convention, but his bid for a third-term nomination was overlooked. Wilson was a devoted Presbyterian and Georgist, and he infused his views of morality into his domestic and he appointed several well known radically progressive single taxers to prominent positions in his administration. His ideology of internationalism is now referred to as Wilsonian, an activist foreign policy calling on the nation to promote global democracy and he was the third of four children of Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Jessie Janet Woodrow. Wilsons paternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland and his mother was born in Carlisle, England, the daughter of Rev. Dr. Thomas Woodrow from Paisley, Scotland, and Marion Williamson from Glasgow
25.
Woodrow Wilson Boyhood Home
–
The Woodrow Wilson Boyhood Home is a historic house museum at 419 Seventh Street in Augusta, Georgia. Built in 1859, it was a home of Woodrow Wilson. The house is owned and operated by Historic Augusta, Inc. and was designated a National Historic Landmark on October 6,2008, the Wilson Boyhood Home is located in downtown Augusta, at the northern corner of Telfair and Seventh Streets. It is a two story structure, with a side gable roof, five-bay front facade, and a pair of end chimneys. Located behind the house are a building and carriage house, built about the same time of the house. The main facade has an entrance, sheltered by a portico supported by paired Tuscan columns. The entry is framed by sidelight windows and topped by a transom window, the interior has been restored to a c.1860 appearance, and is decorated with period furnishings and Wilson memorabilia. One of the windows has the name Tom etched in it, this is believed to have been made by Wilson, whose first name was Thomas. The younger Wilson spent his years here, experiencing the American Civil War. Wilson, later U. S. president from 1913-1921, was affected by these experiences. The property remained the manse of the church, housing its ministers, until 1929, by time the building had undergone a number of alterations and modernizing updates. After passing through a number of owners and uses, the property was purchased at auction by Historic Augusta in 1991 and it was opened as a house museum in 2001
26.
Thomas Woodrow Wilson Boyhood Home
–
The Thomas Woodrow Wilson Boyhood Home is located in Columbia, South Carolina and was one of the childhood homes of the 28th President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson. The home, built in 1872, was the only ever owned by the Wilson family. They lived there for four years, before Wilsons father resigned his position as pastor, a grassroots movement in 1928 preserved the home and prevented its scheduled demolition. It opened to the public as a museum in 1932, the house is furnished with period pieces from the 1850s–1870s, although only a few were owned by the Wilson family. They include, although he was not born in the house, stewardship of the home was granted to the Historic Columbia Foundation in 1967. In October 2005, the closed to tours in preparation for a complete renovation of the structure. In April 2009 the first of three phases of renovation began, starting with structural repairs, phase two, which included a new building on the property, electrical upgrades and minor carpentry work, was completed in late 2012. The renovation completed in 2013, with re-opening to the public planned for 2014, Woodrow Wilson Birthplace and Presidential Library, Staunton, Virginia Woodrow Wilson House Woodrow Wilson Family Home - Historic Columbia
27.
Presidency of Woodrow Wilson
–
The presidency of Woodrow Wilson began on March 4,1913 at noon when Woodrow Wilson was inaugurated as President of the United States, and ended on March 4,1921. He was the first Southerner elected as president since Zachary Taylor in 1848, Wilson was a leading force in the Progressive Movement, and during his first term he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal. Included among these were the Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, through passage of the Adamson Act, imposing an 8-hour workday for railroads, he averted a railroad strike and an ensuing economic crisis. Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality, Wilsons second term was dominated by the American entry into World War I and the aftermath of that war. In April 1917, when Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare, Wilson asked Congress to declare war in order to make the safe for democracy. Through the Selective Service Act, conscription sent 10,000 freshly trained soldiers to France per day by the summer of 1918. In his 1915 State of the Union, Wilson asked Congress for what became the Espionage Act of 1917, the crackdown was later intensified by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. Wilson infused morality into his internationalism, an ideology now referred to as Wilsonian—an activist foreign policy calling on the nation to promote global democracy. Following his return from Europe, Wilson embarked on a tour in 1919 to campaign for the treaty. Disability having diminished his power and influence in the days of his presidency, Wilson held out hope for a third term. In the 1920 presidential election, Cox lost in a landslide to Republican Warren G. Harding, historians and political scientists rank Wilson as an above-average president, and his presidency was an important forerunner of modern American liberalism. However, Wilson has also criticized for his racist views. Wilsons chief of staff was Joseph Patrick Tumulty from 1913 to 1921, Tumultys position provided a political buffer and intermediary with the press, and his irrepressible Irish spirits offset the presidents often dour Scotch disposition. Wilsons first wife, Ellen Axson Wilson died on August 6,1914, Wilson married Edith Bolling Galt in 1915, and she assumed full control of Wilsons schedule, diminishing Tumultys power. The most important foreign policy advisor and confidant was Colonel Edward M. House until Wilson broke with him in early 1919, Wilsons vice president, former Governor Thomas R. Marshall of Indiana, played little role in the administration. Wilson appointed three Associate Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States, James Clark McReynolds in 1914, a conservative, he served more than 26 years and opposed Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal as one of the Four Horsemen. A liberal, and the first Jew appointed to the Court, he served 22 years and wrote opinions on free speech. He was one of the Three Musketeers on the court who supported Roosevelts New Deal and he served just 6 years on the Court before resigning
28.
1912 Democratic National Convention
–
The 1912 Democratic National Convention was held at the Fifth Regiment Armory off North Howard Street in Baltimore from June 25 to July 2,1912. It proved to be one of the more memorable United States presidential conventions of the Twentieth Century, the 1912 Democratic National Convention was held at the Fifth Regiment Armory, off North Howard Street in Baltimore from June 25 to July 2,1912. It proved to be one of the more memorable United States presidential conventions of the 20th century, the main candidates were House Speaker Champ Clark of Missouri and Governor Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey. Both Clark and Wilson had won a number of primaries, however, he lacked the two thirds vote necessary to secure the presidential nomination. Initially, the front runner appeared to be Clark, who received 440¼ votes on the first ballot to 324 for Wilson, Governor Judson Harmon of Ohio received 148 votes while U. S. Representative Oscar W. Underwood of Alabama, the Chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, no candidate managed to gain a majority until the ninth ballot, when the New York delegation shifted its allegiance to Clark. Due to the then-official two-thirds rule used by the Democratic Party, in past conventions, once a candidate received a majority of the votes, it would start a bandwagon rolling to the nomination. Clarks chances were hurt when Tammany Hall, the powerful and corrupt Democratic political machine in New York City, a three-time Democratic presidential candidate and still the leader of the partys liberals, Bryan delivered a speech denouncing Clark as the candidate of Wall Street. Bryans endorsement of Wilson influenced many other delegates, and Wilson gradually gained in strength while Clarks support dwindled, Wilson received the presidential nomination on the 46th ballot. The 46 ballots were the most cast at a convention since 1860, Clark and Bryan were both proposed as vice presidential nominees, but both declined, with Clark preferring to remain as Speaker and Bryan fearful of overshadowing Wilson. Bryan instead proposed Oregon Senator George E. Chamberlain and North Dakota Governor John Burke, Governor Thomas R. Marshall of Indiana, who had swung his states delegate votes to Wilson in later ballots, became the major candidate of conservatives. After the second ballot, Congressman William Hughes, a campaign manager of Wilsons. Wilson and Marshall went on to win a victory in the 1912 Presidential election against a split Republican Party. The primary battles leading up to the 1912 Democratic Convention are an event in Taylor Caldwells 1972 novel Captains. In the novel, the fictional Irish-Catholic Rory Daniel Armagh, a U. S, Senator from Pennsylvania, emerges as the front-runner for the 1912 Democratic presidential nomination after beating Woodrow Wilson in multiple primaries. In an echo of the 1968 assassination of Senator Robert F. Kennedy of New York, scenes of the convention are depicted in the 1944 biographical film Wilson. 1912 Republican National Convention United States presidential election,1912 Democratic National Convention Democratic Party Platform of 1912 at The American Presidency Project
29.
United States presidential election, 1912
–
The United States presidential election of 1912 was the 32nd quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 5,1912. The election was a rare four-way contest, incumbent President William Howard Taft was renominated by the Republican Party with the support of its conservative wing. After former President Theodore Roosevelt failed to receive the Republican nomination, he called his own convention and it nominated Roosevelt and ran candidates for other offices in major states. Meanwhile, the Socialist Party of America renominated its perennial standard-bearer and it is the last election in which a former, or incumbent, President ran for the office without being nominated as either a Democrat or Republican. It is also the last election in which an incumbent president running for re-election failed to either first or second in the popular vote count. Wilson won the election, gaining a majority in the Electoral College and winning 42% of the popular vote, while Roosevelt won 27%, Taft 23%. Wilson became the elected president from the Democratic Party between 1896 and 1932, and the second of only two Democrats to be elected president between 1860 and 1932. This was also the last election in more than one nominee had previously been elected president. Republican President Theodore Roosevelt had declined to run for re-election in 1908 in fulfillment of a pledge to the American people not to seek a full term. Roosevelts first term as president was incomplete, as he succeeded to the office upon the assassination of William McKinley and he had tapped Secretary of War William Howard Taft to become his successor, and Taft defeated Democrat William Jennings Bryan in the general election. The progressive Republicans favored restrictions on the employment of women and children, promoted ecological conservation, the progressives were also in favor of the popular election of federal and state judges and opposed to having judges appointed by the president or state governors. By 1910 the split between the two wings of the Republican Party was deep, and this, in turn, caused Roosevelt and Taft to turn against one another, despite their personal friendship. Republican candidates, William Howard Taft, President of the United States Theodore Roosevelt, La Follette, Senator from Wisconsin For the first time, significant numbers of delegates to the national conventions were elected in presidential preference primaries. Primary elections were advocated by the faction of the Republican Party. Altogether, twelve states held Republican primaries, La Follette won two of the first four primaries. Beginning with his victory in Illinois on April 9, however, Roosevelt won nine of the last ten presidential primaries. As a sign of his popularity, Roosevelt even carried Tafts home state of Ohio. The Republican Convention was held in Chicago from June 18 to 22, Taft, however, had begun to gather delegates earlier, and the delegates chosen in the primaries were a minority
30.
Women's suffrage in the United States
–
The demand for womens suffrage began to gather strength in the 1840s, emerging from the broader movement for womens rights. By the time of the first National Womens Rights Convention in 1850, however, the first national suffrage organizations were established in 1869 when two competing organizations were formed, one led by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton and the other by Lucy Stone, after years of rivalry, they merged in 1890 as the National American Woman Suffrage Association with Anthony as its leading force. Hoping the U. S. Supreme Court would rule that women had a right to vote, suffragists made several attempts to vote in the early 1870s. Anthony actually succeeded in voting in 1872 but was arrested for that act, after the Supreme Court ruled against them in 1875, suffragists began the decades-long campaign for an amendment to the U. S. Much of the energy, however, went toward working for suffrage on a state-by-state basis. In 1916 Alice Paul formed the National Womans Party, a militant group focused on the passage of a national suffrage amendment. Over 200 NWP supporters, the Silent Sentinels, were arrested in 1917 while picketing the White House, some of whom went on hunger strike, under the leadership of Carrie Chapman Catt, the two-million-member NAWSA also made a national suffrage amendment its top priority. After a hard-fought series of votes in the U. S. Congress and in state legislatures and it states, The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. Lydia Taft, a widow, was allowed to vote in town meetings in Uxbridge. No other women in the era are known to have voted. The New Jersey constitution of 1776 enfranchised all adult inhabitants who owned a specified amount of property, laws enacted in 1790 and 1797 referred to voters as he or she, and women regularly voted. A law passed in 1807, however, excluded women from voting in that state, the demand for womens suffrage emerged as part of the broader movement for womens rights. In England in 1792 Mary Wollenstonecraft wrote a book called A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. In Boston in 1838 Sarah Grimké published The Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women, significant barriers had to be overcome, however, before a campaign for womens suffrage could develop significant strength. One barrier was strong opposition to involvement in public affairs. Opposition was especially strong against the idea of speaking to audiences of both men and women. Frances Wright, a Scottish woman, was subjected to criticism for delivering public lectures in the U. S. in 1826 and 1827
31.
Woman suffrage parade of 1913
–
The woman suffrage parade of 1913, officially the Woman Suffrage Procession, was the first suffragist parade in Washington, D. C. Organized by the suffragist Alice Paul for the National American Woman Suffrage Association, thousands of suffragists marched down Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, the march and the attention it attracted were monumental in advancing womens suffrage in the United States. The parade is scheduled to be depicted and honored on the redesign of the United States ten-dollar bill in 2020, American suffragists Alice Paul and Lucy Burns spearheaded a drive to adopt a national strategy for womens suffrage in the National American Woman Suffrage Association. They submitted a proposal to Anna Howard Shaw and the NAWSA leadership at their convention in 1912. The leadership was not interested in changing their strategy and rejected the idea of holding a campaign that would hold the Democratic Party responsible. Paul and Burns appealed to prominent reformer Jane Addams, who interceded on their behalf, the women persuaded NAWSA to endorse an immense suffrage parade in Washington, D. C. that was to coincide with newly elected President Woodrow Wilsons inauguration the following March. Paul and Burns were appointed chair and vice-chair of NAWSAs Congressional Committee, affiliates of NAWSA from various states organized groups to march and activities leading up to the march, such as the Suffrage Hikes. Plans for the march were threatened when black suffragists announced they intended to participate, one solution discussed was segregating the black suffragists in a separate section to mollify white southern delegates. Individuals came from European nations, Canada, India, Australia, New Zealand, most of the women marched in groups determined by their occupation or under their respective banners. Jeannette Rankin, from Montana, marched proudly under her state sign, only to return to Washington, after a good beginning, the marchers encountered crowds, mostly male, on the street that should have been cleared for the parade. They were jeered and harassed while attempting to squeeze by the crowds. The Massachusetts and Pennsylvania national guards stepped in, eventually, boys from the Maryland Agricultural College created a human barrier protecting the women from the angry crowd and helping them progress forward to their destination. Over 200 people were treated for injuries at local hospitals, despite all this, most of the marchers finished the parade and viewed an allegorical tableau presented near the Treasury Building. Later, after Congress investigated the lack of protection, the chief of police was fired. Considerable debate exists about the segregation of black suffragists in the parade. A contemporaneous newspaper account indicated that Alice Paul objected to participation of Negro suffragists, in a 1974 oral history interview, Alice Paul recalled the hurdle of Mary Church Terrell planning to bring a delegation from the National Association of Colored Women. What is clear is that groups did attempt on the day of the parade to segregate their delegations. The mistreatment of the marchers by the crowd and the police caused a great furor and she claimed the incident showed that the governments role in womens lives had broken down, and that it was incapable of even providing women with physical safety
32.
Silent Sentinels
–
The Silent Sentinels were a group of women in favor of womens suffrage organized by Alice Paul and the National Womans Party. They protested in front of the White House during Woodrow Wilsons presidency starting on January 10,1917. The women protested for six days a week until June 4,1919 when the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was passed both by the House of Representatives and the Senate, the name Silent Sentinels was given to the women because of their silent protesting. Using silence as a form of protest was a new principled, strategic, the Suffragist was the National Womans Party weekly newsletter. The Suffragist acted as a voice for the Silent Sentinels throughout their vigil and it covered the Sentinels progress and included interviews with protesters, reports on President Woodrow Wilsons reaction, and political essays. Although The Suffragist was intended for circulation, its subscription peaked at just over 20,000 issues in 1917. Further, most copies went to party members, advertisers, branch headquarters, and NWP organizers, the following are examples of banners held by the women, Mr. President, what will you do for woman suffrage. Mr. President, how long must women wait for liberty and we shall fight for the things which we have always carried nearest our hearts—for democracy, for the right of those who submit to authority to have a voice in their own governments. Democracy Should Begin at Home The time has come to conquer or submit, for us there can be, kaiser Wilson, have you forgotten your sympathy with the poor Germans because they were not self-governed. 20,000,000 American women are not self-governed, take the beam out of your own eye. Mr. President, you say liberty is the demand of the human spirit. Mr. President, you say we are interested in the United States, politically speaking, in nothing, the Sentinels all wore purple, white, and gold sashes which are the NWPs colors. Their banners were usually colored this way. At first President Wilson was not very responsive to the womens protest, at points he even seemed amused with it by tipping his hat and smiling. It was said that at one point Wilson even invited them in for coffee, as the Sentinels continued to protest, the issue became bigger and Wilsons opinion began to change. Beginning in June 1917 the protesters started getting arrested for obstructing traffic, on June 25,12 women were arrested, including Mabel Vernon and Annie Arniel from Delaware, again on charges of obstructing traffic. They were sentenced to three days in jail or to pay a $10 fine, on July 14,16 women, including Florence Bayard Hilles, Alison Turnbull Hopkins, and Elizabeth Selden Rogers were arrested and sentenced to 60 days in jail or to pay a $25 fine. When the women arrived at the Occoquan Workhouse they were asked to give up everything except for their clothing and they were then taken to a showering station where they were ordered to strip naked and bathe
33.
Federal Reserve Act
–
The Act was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson. The Federal Reserve Act created a system of private and public entities, there were to be at least eight and no more than twelve private regional Federal Reserve banks. Twelve were established, and each had various branches, a board of directors, the Federal Reserve Board, consisting of seven members, was created as the governing body of the Fed. Each member is appointed by the President of the U. S, in 1935, the Board was renamed and restructured. Also created as part of the Federal Reserve System was a 12-member Federal Advisory Committee and a single new United States currency, the Federal Reserve Note. The Federal Reserve Act created a currency and a monetary system that could respond effectively to the stresses in the banking system. With the passing of the Federal Reserve Act, Congress required that all nationally chartered banks become members of the Federal Reserve System, since 1980, all depository institutions have been required to set aside reserves with the Federal Reserve. Such institutions are entitled to certain Federal Reserve services, central banking has made various institutional appearances throughout the history of the United States. These institutions started with the First and Second banks of the United States, the American financial system was deeply fragmented after the American Revolutionary War. The government was burdened with large debts, and the new republic needed a strong financial institution to give the country a resilient financial footing. Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson had opposing views regarding whether or not the US could benefit from a European-style national financial institution, Hamilton was in favor of building a strong centralized political and economic institution to solve the country’s financial problem. He argued that a bank could bring order to the US monetary system, manage the government’s revenues and payments. On the other hand, Jefferson was deeply suspicious of a bank because, he argued. The First Bank of the United States was established in 1791 chartered for a period of twenty years, the US government was the largest shareholder of the bank. Despite its shareholder status, the government was not permitted to participate in management of the bank, the bank accepted deposits, issued bank notes, and provided short-term loans to the government. It also functioned as a clearinghouse for government debt, the bank could also regulate state-charted banks to prevent overproduction of banknotes. The bank was successful in financing the government and stimulating the economy. In spite of its successes, hostility against the bank did not fade, in 1811, the first bank of the United States failed to be renewed by one vote in both the House and the Senate
34.
Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914
–
That regime started with the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, the first Federal law outlawing practices considered harmful to consumers. The Clayton Act specified particular prohibited conduct, the three-level enforcement scheme, the exemptions, like the Sherman Act, much of the substance of the Clayton Act has been developed and animated by the U. S. courts, particularly the Supreme Court. Since the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, courts in the United States had interpreted the law on cartels as applying against trade unions and this had created an impossible situation for workers, who needed to organize so as to rebalance the equal bargaining power against their employers. At the end of the Taft administration, and the start of the Woodrow Wilson administration, a Commission on Industrial Relations was established. During its proceedings, and in anticipation of its first report on the 23 October 1914, the Clayton Act passed by a vote of 277 to 54 on June 5,1914. The Clayton Act made both substantive and procedural modifications to federal antitrust law, substantively, the act seeks to capture anticompetitive practices in their incipiency by prohibiting particular types of conduct, not deemed in the best interest of a competitive market. There are 4 sections of the bill that proposed changes in the antitrust laws by way of supplementing the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. Unilateral price discrimination is clearly outside the reach of Section 1 of the Sherman Act, exclusive dealing, tying, and mergers are all agreements, and theoretically, within the reach of Section 1 of the Sherman Act. Likewise, mergers that create monopolies would be actionable under Sherman Act Section 2, Section 7 of the Clayton Act allows greater regulation of mergers than just Sherman Act Section 2, since it does not require a merger-to-monopoly before there is a violation. Another important factor to consider is the amendment passed in Congress on Section 7 of the Clayton Act in 1950 and this original position of the US government on mergers and acquisitions was strengthened by the Celler-Kefauver amendments of 1950, so as to cover asset as well as stock acquisitions. Because the act singles out exclusive dealing and tying arrangements, one may assume they would be subject to heightened scrutiny and that remains true for tying, under the authority of Jefferson Parish Hospital District No.2 v. Hyde. However, when exclusive dealings are challenged under Clayton-3, they are treated under the rule of reason, under the rule of reason, the conduct is only illegal, and the plaintiff can only prevail, upon proving to the court that the defendants are doing substantial economic harm. An important difference between the Clayton Act and its predecessor, the Sherman Act, is that the Clayton Act contained safe harbors for union activities, therefore, boycotts, peaceful strikes, peaceful picketing, and collective bargaining are not regulated by this statute. Injunctions could be used to settle labor disputes only when property damage was threatened, the Supreme Court ruled in the 1922 case Federal Baseball Club v. National League that Major League Baseball was not interstate commerce and thus was not subject to federal antitrust law. Procedurally, the Act empowers private parties injured by violations of the Act to sue for damages under Section 4. The Supreme Court has expressly ruled that the injunctive relief clause in Section 16 includes the power to force defendants to divest assets. Boudin, Organized Labor and the Clayton Act, Part I, Virginia Law Review, boudin, Organized Labor and the Clayton Act, Part II, Virginia Law Review, vol. In JSTOR Brief History of the Federal Trade Commission Clayton Antitrust Act, why Did The Clayton Act Pass
35.
Federal Trade Commission
–
The Federal Trade Commission is an independent agency of the United States government, established in 1914 by the Federal Trade Commission Act. Its principal mission is the promotion of consumer protection and the elimination and prevention of anticompetitive business practices, the Federal Trade Commission Act was one of President Woodrow Wilsons major acts against trusts. Trusts and trust-busting were significant political concerns during the Progressive Era. Since its inception, the FTC has enforced the provisions of the Clayton Act, over time, the FTC has been delegated with the enforcement of additional business regulation statutes and has promulgated a number of regulations. He would make the first speech on the House floor advocating its creation on February 21,1912, though the initial bill did not pass, the questions of trusts and antitrust dominated the 1912 election. With the 1912 presidential election decided in favor of the Democrats and Woodrow Wilson, the national debate culminated in Wilsons signing of the FTC Act on September 26, with additional tightening of regulations in the Clayton Antitrust Act three weeks later. The new Federal Trade Commission would absorb the staff and duties of Bureau of Corporations, previously established under the Department of Commerce, the following table lists commissioners as of March 2017. Recent former commissioners were, The Bureau of Consumer Protections mandate is to protect consumers against unfair or deceptive acts or practices in commerce, with the written consent of the Commission, Bureau attorneys enforce federal laws related to consumer affairs and rules promulgated by the FTC. Its functions include investigations, enforcement actions, and consumer and business education, areas of principal concern for this bureau are, advertising and marketing, financial products and practices, telemarketing fraud, privacy and identity protection, etc. The bureau also is responsible for the United States National Do Not Call Registry, under the FTC Act, the Commission has the authority, in most cases, to bring its actions in federal court through its own attorneys. In some consumer protection matters, the FTC appears with, or supports, the Bureau of Competition is the division of the FTC charged with elimination and prevention of anticompetitive business practices. It accomplishes this through the enforcement of antitrust laws, review of proposed mergers, the FTC shares enforcement of antitrust laws with the Department of Justice. The FTC investigates issues raised by reports from consumers and businesses, pre-merger notification filings, congressional inquiries and these issues include, for instance, false advertising and other forms of fraud. FTC investigations may pertain to a company or an entire industry. Traditionally an administrative complaint is heard in front of an independent administrative law judge with FTC staff acting as prosecutors. The case is reviewed de novo by the full FTC commission which then may be appealed to the U. S. Court of Appeals, in numerous cases, the FTC employs this authority to combat serious consumer deception or fraud. Additionally, the FTC has rulemaking power to address concerns regarding industry-wide practices, Rules promulgated under this authority are known as Trade Rules. In the mid-1990s, the FTC launched the fraud sweeps concept where the agency and its federal, state, the first sweeps operation was Project Telesweep in July 1995 which cracked down on 100 business opportunity scams
United States
Carrancistas
