1.
Taxonomy (biology)
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Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
2.
Plant
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Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. The term is generally limited to the green plants, which form an unranked clade Viridiplantae. This includes the plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae. Green plants have cell walls containing cellulose and obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis by primary chloroplasts and their chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and b, which gives them their green color. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations, although reproduction is also common. There are about 300–315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, green plants provide most of the worlds molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earths ecologies, especially on land. Plants that produce grains, fruits and vegetables form humankinds basic foodstuffs, Plants play many roles in culture. They are used as ornaments and, until recently and in variety, they have served as the source of most medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology, Plants are one of the two groups into which all living things were traditionally divided, the other is animals. The division goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who distinguished between plants, which generally do not move, and animals, which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus created the basis of the system of scientific classification. Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, however, these organisms are still often considered plants, particularly in popular contexts. When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a group of organisms or taxon. The evolutionary history of plants is not yet settled. Those which have been called plants are in bold, the way in which the groups of green algae are combined and named varies considerably between authors. Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce energy through photosynthesis, most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble land plants, but are classified among the brown, red and green algae. Each of these groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms
3.
Flowering plant
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The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants, with 416 families, approx. 13,164 known genera and a total of c.295,383 known species, etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure, in other words, a fruiting plant. The term angiosperm comes from the Greek composite word meaning enclosed seeds, the ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms in the Triassic Period, during the range 245 to 202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants are known from 160 mya. They diversified extensively during the Lower Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 mya, angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways, described in the table. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants, the amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings, in the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium, the soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases, the characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species, the function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf, occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. There are two kinds of cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which divide to become pollen grains, are the male cells and are borne in the stamens. The female cells called megaspores, which divide to become the egg cell, are contained in the ovule. The flower may consist only of parts, as in willow. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls, the individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals. The outer series is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, the inner series is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators, attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower
4.
Eudicots
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The eudicots, Eudicotidae or eudicotyledons are a monophyletic clade of flowering plants that had been called tricolpates or non-magnoliid dicots by previous authors. The close relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains was initially seen in studies of shared derived characters. These plants have a trait in their pollen grains of exhibiting three colpi or grooves paralleling the polar axis. Later molecular evidence confirmed the basis for the evolutionary relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains. The term means true dicotyledons, as it contains the majority of plants that have been considered dicots and have characteristics of the dicots, the term eudicots has subsequently been widely adopted in botany to refer to one of the two largest clades of angiosperms, monocots being the other. The remaining angiosperms are sometimes referred to as basal angiosperms or paleodicots, the other name for the eudicots is tricolpates, a name which refers to the grooved structure of the pollen. Members of the group have tricolpate pollen, or forms derived from it and these pollens have three or more pores set in furrows called colpi. In contrast, most of the seed plants produce monosulcate pollen. The name tricolpates is preferred by some botanists to avoid confusion with the dicots, numerous familiar plants are eudicots, including many common food plants, trees, and ornamentals. Most leafy trees of midlatitudes also belong to eudicots, with exceptions being magnolias and tulip trees which belong to magnoliids, and Ginkgo biloba. The name eudicots is used in the APG system, of 1998 and it is applied to a clade, a monophyletic group, which includes most of the dicots. The eudicots can be divided into two groups, the basal eudicots and the core eudicots, basal eudicot is an informal name for a paraphyletic group. The core eudicots are a monophyletic group, a 2010 study suggested the core eudicots can be divided into two clades, Gunnerales and a clade called Pentapetalae, comprising all the remaining core eudicots
5.
Rosids
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The rosids are members of a large clade of flowering plants, containing about 70,000 species, more than a quarter of all angiosperms. The clade is divided into 16 to 20 orders, depending upon circumscription and classification and these orders, in turn, together comprise about 140 families. Fossil rosids are known from the Cretaceous period, molecular clock estimates indicate that the rosids originated in the Aptian or Albian stages of the Cretaceous, between 125 and 99.6 million years ago. The name is based upon the name Rosidae, which had usually been understood to be a subclass, in 1967, Armen Takhtajan showed that the correct basis for the name Rosidae is a description of a group of plants published in 1830 by Friedrich Gottlieb Bartling. The clade was later renamed Rosidae and has been variously delimited by different authors, the name rosids is informal and not assumed to have any particular taxonomic rank like the names authorized by the ICBN. The rosids are monophyletic based upon evidence found by molecular phylogenetic analysis, three different definitions of the rosids were used. Some authors included the orders Saxifragales and Vitales in the rosids, others excluded both of these orders. The circumscription used in this article is that of the APG IV classification, which includes Vitales, the rosids and Saxifragales form the superrosids clade. This is one of three groups compose the Pentapetalae, the others being Dilleniales and the superasterids. The rosids consist of two groups, the order Vitales and the eurosids, the eurosids, in turn, are divided into two groups, fabids and malvids. The rosids consist of 17 orders, in addition to Vitales, there are 8 orders in fabids and 8 orders in malvids. Some of the orders have only recently been recognized and these are Vitales, Zygophyllales, Crossosomatales, Picramniales, and Huerteales. The phylogeny of Rosids shown below is adapted from the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group website, the nitrogen-fixing clade contains a high number of actinorhizal plants. Not all plants in this clade are actinorhizal, however, media related to Rosids at Wikimedia Commons
6.
Malpighiales
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The Malpighiales comprise one of the largest orders of flowering plants, containing about 16,000 species, about 7. 8% of the eudicots. The order is very diverse, containing plants as different as the willow, violet, Poinsettia, and coca plant and it is not part of any of the classification systems based only on plant morphology. Molecular clock calculations estimate the origin of stem group Malpighiales at around 100 million years ago, the Malpighiales are divided into 32 to 42 families, depending upon which clades in the order are given the taxonomic rank of family. In the APG III system,35 families are recognized, medusagynaceae, Quiinaceae, Peraceae, Malesherbiaceae, Turneraceae, Samydaceae, and Scyphostegiaceae are consolidated into other families. The largest family, by far, is the Euphorbiaceae, with about 6300 species in about 245 genera, in a 2009 study of DNA sequences of 13 genes,42 families were placed into 16 groups, ranging in size from one to 10 families. Almost nothing is known about the relationships among these 16 groups, Malpighiales and Lamiales are the two large orders whose phylogeny remains mostly unresolved. Malpighiales is a member of a group called the COM clade, which consists of the orders Celastrales, Oxalidales. Some describe it as containing an order, Huales, separating the family Huaceae into its own order. Some recent studies have placed Malpighiales as sister to Oxalidales sensu lato, the COM clade is part of an unranked group known as Fabidae or eurosids I. The fabids, in turn, are part of a group that has long recognized, namely. The family Malpighiaceae was the family for one of the orders created by Jussieu in his 1789 work Genera Plantarum. Friedrich von Berchtold and Jan Presl described such an order in 1820, unlike modern taxonomists, these authors did not use the suffix ales in naming their orders. The name Malpighiales is attributed by some to Carl von Martius, in the 20th century, it was usually associated with John Hutchinson, who used it in all three editions of his book, The Families of Flowering Plants. The name was not used by those who later, in the 1970s, 80s. The taxon was largely presaged by Hans Hallier in 1912 in an article in the Archiv, the first semblance of Malpighiales as now known came from a phylogeny of seed plants published in 1993 and based upon DNA sequences of the gene rbcL. This study recovered a group of rosids unlike any found in any previous system of plant classification. Malpighiales is monophyletic and in phylogenetic studies, it receives strong statistical support. Since the APG II system was published in 2003, minor changes to the circumscription of the order have been made, the family Peridiscaceae has been expanded from two genera to three, and then to four, and transferred to Saxifragales
7.
Violaceae
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Violaceae /vaɪəˈleɪsiː/ is a family of flowering plants consisting of 806 species in 25 genera. It takes its name from the genus Viola, the violets, older classifications such as the Cronquist system placed the Violaceae in an order named after it, the Violales. However, more recent classifications such as that of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group locate it in the Malpighiales, though the best-known genus, Viola, is herbaceous, most species are shrubs or small trees. The simple leaves are alternate or opposite, often with leafy stipules or the stipules are reduced in size, some species have palmate or deeply dissected leaves. Inflorescences have solitary flowers or are paniculate, some species have cleistogamous flowers produced after or before the production of typically petaled flowers, flowers are bisexual or unisexual, typically zygomorphic or actinomorphic with a calyx of five sepals that are persistent after flowering. Corollae have five mostly unequal petals, and the petal is larger. Plants have five stamens with the abaxial stamen often spurred at the base, the gynoecium is a compound pistil of three united carpels with one locule. Styles are simple, with the superior, and many ovules. The fruits are capsules split by way of three seams, three subfamilies are recognized, the Violoideae, Leonioideae, and Fusispermoideae. Hekkingia J. K. Munzinger & H. E. Ballard Paypayrola Aubl, rinoreocarpus Ducke Agatea A. Gray Anchietea A. St. -Hil. Mayanaea Lundell Noisettia Kunth Orthion Standl, Viola L. (including Erpetion Sweet, Mnemion Spach Violaceae in L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz. The families of flowering plants, descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval, http, //delta-intkey. com GRIN Database for the Violaceae Chilean Violaceae, by Chileflora
8.
Viola (plant)
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Viola is a genus of flowering plants in the violet family Violaceae. It is the largest genus in the family, containing between 525 and 600 species, most species are found in the temperate Northern Hemisphere, however, some are also found in widely divergent areas such as Hawaii, Australasia, and the Andes. Some Viola species are plants, some are annual plants. A large number of species, varieties and cultivars are grown in gardens for their ornamental flowers, in horticulture the term pansy is normally used for those multi-coloured, large-flowered cultivars which are raised annually or biennially from seed and used extensively in bedding. The terms viola and violet are normally reserved for small-flowered annuals or perennials, Viola typically have heart-shaped, scalloped leaves, though a number have palmate leaves or other shapes. The simple leaves of plants with either habit are arranged alternately, plants always have leaves with stipules that are often leaf-like. The flowers of the vast majority of the species are zygomorphic with bilateral symmetry, the flowers are formed from five petals, four are upswept or fan-shaped petals with two per side, and there is one broad, lobed lower petal pointing downward. The shape of the petals and placement defines many species, for example, solitary flowers end long stalks with a pair of bracteoles. The flowers have 5 sepals that persist after blooming, and in some species the sepals enlarge after blooming, the flower styles are thickened near the top and the stigmas are head-like, narrowed or often beaked. The flowers have a superior ovary with one cell, which has three placentae, containing many ovules, Viola are most often spring blooming with chasmogamous flowers with well-developed petals pollinated by insects. Many species also produce self-pollinated cleistogamous flowers in summer and autumn that do not open, in some species the showy chasmogamous flowers are infertile. After flowering, fruit capsules are produced that open by way of three valves. On drying, the capsules may eject seeds with considerable force to distances of several meters, the nutlike seeds have straight embryos, flat cotyledons, and soft fleshy endosperm that is oily. The seeds of species have elaiosomes and are dispersed by ants. Flower colours vary in the genus, ranging from violet, through shades of blue, yellow, white. Flowering is often profuse, and may last for much of the spring, see List of Viola species for a more complete list. Note, Neither Saintpaulia nor Erythronium dens-canis are related to the true Viola, the genus includes dog violets, a group of scentless species which are the most common Viola in many areas, sweet violet, and many other species whose common name includes the word violet. Several species are known as pansies, including the yellow pansy of the Pacific coast, common blue violet Viola sororia is the state flower of Wisconsin, Rhode Island, Illinois, and New Jersey
9.
Viola tricolor
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It has been introduced into North America, where it has spread. It is the progenitor of the pansy, and is therefore sometimes called wild pansy, before the cultivated pansies were developed. V. tricolor is a plant of creeping and ramping habit, reaching at most 15 cm in height. It grows in grassland on farms and wasteland, chiefly on acid or neutral soils. It is usually found in partial shade and it flowers from April to September. The flowers can be purple, blue, yellow or white and they are hermaphrodite and self-fertile, pollinated by bees. As its name implies, heartsease has a history of use in herbalism. It has been recommended, among other uses, for epilepsy, asthma, skin diseases, V. tricolor has a history in folk medicine of helping respiratory problems such as bronchitis, asthma, and cold symptoms. It has expectorant properties, and so has been used in the treatment of chest complaints such as bronchitis and it is also a diuretic, leading to its use in treating rheumatism and cystitis. The flowers have also used to make yellow, green and blue-green dyes. What Shakespeare had in mind was V. tricolor, not a modern garden pansy, Shakespeare makes a more direct reference, probably to V. tricolor in A Midsummer Nights Dream. Oberon sends Puck to gather a little western flower that maidens call love-in-idleness, oberons account is that he diverted an arrow from Cupids bow aimed at a fair vestal, throned by the west to fall upon the plant before milk-white, now purple with loves wound. The imperial votress passes on fancy-free, destined never to fall in love, the juice of the heartsease now, claims Oberon, on sleeping eyelids laid, Will make or man or woman madly dote Upon the next live creature that it sees. Equipped with such powers, Oberon and Puck control the fates of characters in the play to provide Shakespeares essential dramatic and comic structure for the play. V. tricolor is one of many plant species containing cyclotides. These small peptides have proven to be useful in development due to their size. Many cyclotides, found in Viola tricolor are cytotoxic and this feature means that it could be used to treat cancers. Extracts from the plant are anti-microbial, V. tricolor extract had anti-inflammatory effect in acute inflammation induced in male Wistar rats
10.
Augustin Pyramus de Candolle
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Augustin Pyramus de Candolle also spelled Augustin Pyrame de Candolle was a Swiss botanist. René Louiche Desfontaines launched de Candolles botanical career by recommending him at an herbarium, within a couple of years de Candolle had established a new genus, and he went on to document hundreds of plant families and create a new natural plant classification system. Although de Candolles main focus was botany, he contributed to related fields such as phytogeography, agronomy, paleontology, medical botany. Candolle originated the idea of Natures war, which influenced Charles Darwin, de Candolle recognized that multiple species may develop similar characteristics that did not appear in a common evolutionary ancestor, this was later termed analogy. During his work with plants, de Candolle noticed that plant leaf movements follow a cycle in constant light. Though many scientists doubted de Candolles findings, experiments over a century later demonstrated that ″the internal biological clock″ indeed exists, Candolles descendants continued his work on plant classification. Alphonse de Candolle and Casimir Pyrame de Candolle contributed to the Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis, Augustin Pyramus de Candolle was born on 4 February 1778 in Geneva, Switzerland, to Augustin de Candolle, a former official, and his wife, Louise Eléonore Brière. His family descended from one of the ancient families of Provence in France, at age seven de Candolle contracted of a severe case of hydrocephalus, which significantly affected his childhood. Candolles initiation to botany happened in 1794 thanks to Pierre Etienne Vaucher in Geneva and he spent then four years at the Geneva Academy, studying science and law according to his fathers wishes. In 1798, he moved to Paris after Geneva had been annexed to the French Republic and his botanical career began with the help of René Louiche Desfontaines, who recommended de Candolle for work in the herbarium of Charles Louis LHéritier de Brutelle during the summer of 1798. The position elevated de Candolles reputation and also led to valuable instruction from Desfontaines himself, the premise of de Candolles method is that taxa do not fall along a linear scale, they are discrete, not continuous. In 1804, de Candolle published his Essai sur les propriétés médicales des plantes and was granted a doctor of medicine degree by the faculty of Paris. In 1807 he was appointed professor of botany in the faculty of the University of Montpellier. While in Montpellier, de Candolle published his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, which introduced a new classification system and the word taxonomy. Candolle moved back to Geneva in 1816 and in the year was invited by the government of the Canton of Geneva to fill the newly created chair of natural history. De Candolle spent the rest of his life in an attempt to elaborate and complete his natural system of botanical classification, de Candolle published initial work in his Regni vegetabillis systema naturale, but after two volumes he realized he could not complete the project on such a large scale. Consequently, he began his less extensive Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis in 1824, however, he was able to finish only seven volumes, or two-thirds of the whole. Even so, he was able to characterize over one hundred families of plants, although de Candolles main focus was botany, throughout his career he also dabbled in fields related to botany, such as phytogeography, agronomy, paleontology, medical botany, and economic botany
11.
Hybrid (biology)
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In biology, a hybrid, also known as a cross breed, is the result of combining, through sexual reproduction, the qualities of two animals or plants of different breeds, varieties, species or genera. Hybrids are not always intermediate between their parents, but can show heterosis or hybrid vigour, often growing larger or taller than either parent, some act before fertilization, others after it. A few animal species and many plant species, however, are the result of hybrid speciation, doubling the number of chromosomes to create polyploids is important in hybrid speciation, because homoploid hybrids are rarely fertile, the polyploid hybrids are allopolyploids. Human impact on the environment has greatly increased the mixing of species, with introduced species worldwide, the genetic mixing may threaten many species with extinction, while genetic erosion in crop plants may be damaging the gene pools of many species for future breeding. Many commercially useful fruits, flowers, garden herbs and trees have been produced by hybridization, one flower, Oenothera lamarckiana, was central to early genetics research into polyploidy. The term hybrid is derived from Latin hybrida, used for such as of a tame sow and a wild boar, or the child of a freeman. The term came into use in English in the 19th century. Conspicuous hybrids are named with portmanteau words, starting in the 1920s with the breeding of tiger-lion hybrids. The cross between two different homozygous lines produces an F1 hybrid that is heterozygous, having two alleles, one contributed by each parent and typically one is dominant and the other recessive. Typically, the F1 generation is also phenotypically homogeneous, producing offspring that are all similar to each other, double cross hybrids result from the cross between two different F1 hybrids. Three-way cross hybrids result from the cross between an F1 hybrid and an inbred line, triple cross hybrids result from the crossing of two different three-way cross hybrids. Top cross hybrids result from the crossing of a top quality or pure-bred male, population hybrids result from the crossing of plants or animals in a population with those of another population. These include interspecific hybrids or crosses between different breeds. e, from the point of view of genetics, different kinds of hybrid can be distinguished as follows, A genetic hybrid carries two different alleles of the same gene. A structural hybrid results from the fusion of gametes that have differing structure in at least one chromosome, a numerical hybrid results from the fusion of gametes having different haploid numbers of chromosomes. A permanent hybrid results when only the heterozygous genotype occurs, as in Oenothera lamarckiana, from the point of view of taxonomy, hybrids differ according to their parentage, Hybrids between different subspecies are called intra-specific hybrids. Offspring resulting from interspecies mating, are called interspecific hybrids, these result in hybrid speciation. Intergeneric hybrids result from matings between different genera, such as sheep and goats. Interfamilial hybrids such as chickens and guineafowl or pheasants are reliably described but extremely rare
12.
Flower
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A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in plants that are floral. The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs, Flowers may facilitate outcrossing or allow selfing. Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization, Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where gametophytes develop. Many flowers have evolved to be attractive to animals, so as to them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen. After fertilization, the ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds, the essential parts of a flower can be considered in two parts, the vegetative part, consisting of petals and associated structures in the perianth, and the reproductive or sexual parts. A stereotypical flower consists of four kinds of structures attached to the tip of a short stalk, each of these kinds of parts is arranged in a whorl on the receptacle. The four main whorls are as follows, Collectively the calyx, corolla, the next whorl toward the apex, composed of units called petals, which are typically thin, soft and colored to attract animals that help the process of pollination. Androecium, the whorl, consisting of units called stamens. Stamens consist of two parts, a called a filament, topped by an anther where pollen is produced by meiosis. Gynoecium, the innermost whorl of a flower, consisting of one or more units called carpels, the carpel or multiple fused carpels form a hollow structure called an ovary, which produces ovules internally. Ovules are megasporangia and they in turn produce megaspores by meiosis which develop into female gametophytes and these give rise to egg cells. The gynoecium of a flower is described using an alternative terminology wherein the structure one sees in the innermost whorl is called a pistil. A pistil may consist of a carpel or a number of carpels fused together. The sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen, the supportive stalk, the style, becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma. The relationship to the gynoecium on the receptacle is described as hypogynous, perigynous, although the arrangement described above is considered typical, plant species show a wide variation in floral structure. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species, the four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their positions on the receptacle and not by their function. Many flowers lack some parts or parts may be modified into other functions and/or look like what is typically another part, in some families, like Ranunculaceae, the petals are greatly reduced and in many species the sepals are colorful and petal-like. Other flowers have modified stamens that are petal-like, the flowers of Peonies and Roses are mostly petaloid stamens
13.
Genus
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A genus is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms in biology. In the hierarchy of classification, genus comes above species. In binomial nomenclature, the name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus. Felis catus and Felis silvestris are two species within the genus Felis, Felis is a genus within the family Felidae. The composition of a genus is determined by a taxonomist, the standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. Moreover, genera should be composed of units of the same kind as other genera. The term comes from the Latin genus, a noun form cognate with gignere, linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum, but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort is considered the founder of the modern concept of genera. The scientific name of a genus may be called the name or generic epithet. It plays a role in binomial nomenclature, the system of naming organisms. The rules for the names of organisms are laid down in the Nomenclature Codes. The standard way of scientifically describing species and other lower-ranked taxa is by binomial nomenclature, the generic name forms its first half. For example, the gray wolfs binomial name is Canis lupus, with Canis being the name shared by the wolfs close relatives. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany. Especially with these names, when the generic name is known from context. Because animals are typically only grouped within subspecies, it is written as a trinomen with a third name. Dog breeds, meanwhile, are not scientifically distinguished, there are several divisions of plant species and therefore their infraspecific names generally include contractions explaining the relation. For example, the genus Hibiscus includes hundreds of other species apart from the Rose of Sharon or common garden hibiscus, Rose of Sharon doesnt have subspecies but has cultivars that carry desired traits, such as the bright white H. syriaca Diana. Hawaiian hibiscus, meanwhile, includes several separate species, since not all botanists agree on the divisions or names between species, it is common to specify the source of the name using author abbreviations
14.
Cultivar
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The term cultivar most commonly refers to an assemblage of plants selected for desirable characteristics that are maintained during propagation. More generally, cultivar refers to the most basic classification category of cultivated plants governed by the ICNCP, most cultivars have arisen in cultivation, but a few are special selections from the wild. Popular ornamental garden plants like roses, camellias, daffodils, rhododendrons, trees used in forestry are also special selections grown for their enhanced quality and yield of timber. Cultivars form a part of Liberty Hyde Baileys broader grouping. Cultivar was coined by Bailey and it is regarded as a portmanteau of cultivated and variety. A cultivar is not the same as a variety, a taxonomic rank below subspecies. In recent times, the naming of cultivars has been complicated by the use of statutory plant patents, the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants offers legal protection of plant cultivars to people or organisations who introduce new cultivars to commerce. UPOV requires that a cultivar be distinct, uniform and stable, to be distinct, it must have characteristics that easily distinguish it from any other known cultivar. To be uniform and stable, the cultivar must retain these characteristics under repeated propagation, a cultivar is given a cultivar name, which consists of the scientific Latin botanical name followed by a cultivar epithet. The cultivar epithet is usually in a vernacular language, for example, the full cultivar name of the King Edward potato is Solanum tuberosum King Edward. The King Edward part of the name is the cultivar epithet, the origin of the term cultivar arises from the need to distinguish between wild plants and those with characteristics that have arisen in cultivation. This distinction dates back to the Greek philosopher Theophrastus, the Father of Botany, botanical historian Alan Morton notes that Theophrastus in his Enquiry into Plants had an inkling of the limits of culturally induced changes and of the importance of genetic constitution. In Species Plantarum, Linnaeus listed all the known to him. Most of the listed by Linnaeus were of garden origin rather than being wild plants. Over time there was an increasing need to distinguish between plants growing in the wild, and those with variations that had produced in cultivation. In the nineteenth century many garden-derived plants were given names, sometimes in Latin. In the twentieth century an improved international terminology was proposed for the classification and it is essentially the equivalent of the botanical variety except in respect to its origin. However, Bailey was never explicit about the etymology of the word, and it has suggested that it is a contraction of the words cultigen and variety
15.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
16.
Middle English
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This stage of the development of the English language roughly followed the High to the Late Middle Ages. Middle English developed out of Late Old English, seeing many dramatic changes in its grammar, pronunciation and this largely forms the basis for Modern English spelling, although pronunciation has changed considerably since that time. Middle English was succeeded in England by the era of Early Modern English, by that time, a variant of the Northumbrian dialect was developing into the Scots language. During the Middle English period many Old English grammatical features were simplified or disappeared, noun, adjective and verb inflections were simplified, a process that included the reduction of most grammatical case distinctions. Middle English also saw an adoption of Norman French vocabulary, especially in areas such as politics, law. Everyday English vocabulary remained mostly Germanic, with Old Norse influence becoming apparent, significant changes in pronunciation took place, especially for long vowels and diphthongs, which in the later Middle English period began to undergo the Great Vowel Shift. Little survives of early Middle English literature, most likely due to the Norman domination, poets wrote both in the vernacular and courtly English. It is popularly believed that William Shakespeare wrote in Middle English, the latter part of the 11th century was a period of transition from Late Old English to Early Middle English. The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a synthetic language towards a more analytic or isolating word order and it was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain was greater than the loss, there was a gain in directness, in clarity, and in strength. The change to Old English from Old Norse was substantive, pervasive and it is most important to recognise that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population which existed in the Danelaw these endings must have led to confusion, tending gradually to become obscured. This blending of peoples and languages resulted in simplifying English grammar. There are also many Norman-derived terms relating to the cultures that arose in the 12th century. Sometimes, and particularly later, words were taken from Latin, giving such sets as kingly, later French borrowings came from standard rather than Norman French, this leads to such cognate pairs as warden, guardian. The end of Anglo-Saxon rule did not, of course, change the language immediately, the general population would have spoken the same dialects as before the Conquest, these changed slowly until written records of them became available for study, which varies in different regions. Once the writing of Old English came to an end, Middle English had no standard language, Early Middle English has a largely Anglo-Saxon vocabulary, but a greatly simplified inflectional system
17.
Euphrasia of Constantinople
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Saint Euphrasia was a Constantinopolitan nun who was venerated after her death as a saint for her piety and example of charity. Euphrasia was the daughter of Antigonus—a nobleman of the court of Emperor Theodosius I, to whom he was related—and of Euphrasia. When Antigonus died, his widow and young daughter withdrew together to Egypt, near a monastery of one hundred and this was less than a century since St. Anthony had established his first monastery, but monasticism in that time had spread with incredible speed. At the age of seven, Euphrasia begged to take vows, when her mother presented the child to the abbess, Euphrasia took up an image of Christ and kissed it, saying, By vow I consecrate myself to Christ. Her mother replied, Lord Jesus Christ, receive this child under your special protection and you alone doth she love and seek, to you doth she recommend herself. Soon after, Euphrasias mother became ill and died, hearing of her mothers death, the Emperor Theodosius I sent for Euphrasia, whom he had promised in marriage to a young senator. She responded with a letter to the Emperor declining the offer to marry, instead, she requested that her estate be sold and divided among the poor, the emperor did as she requested shortly before his death in 395. Another version of her states that Euphrasia was raised in the court of Theodosius. The same version says that it was Theodosius successor, Arcadius, that commanded her to marry the senator, Euphrasia was known for her humility, meekness, and charity, her abbess often advised her to perform manual labor when she was burdened with temptations. As a part of these labors, she carried heavy stones from one place to another—once she did so for thirty days at one time. Euphrasia died in the year 410 at the age of thirty, in Thebáide deposítio sanctæ Euphrásiæ Vírginis. In Thebais, the death of St. Euphrasia, virgin, Euphrasia was said to perform miracles before and after her death. For example, she is said to have healed a deaf, dumb and crippled child, moreover, before she died, the abbess of Euphrasias monastery reported having had a vision of Euphrasia transported to Gods throne, surrounded by angels. After her death, she was venerated as a saint, in Western Christianity, her feast day is July 24, according to the Roman Martyrology reformed after the Second Vatican Council, in the Eastern churches, it is celebrated on July 25. EWTN Library, St. Euphrasia, Virgin Catholic Encyclopedia, St. Euphrasia Lives of the Saints, March 13, Saint Euphrasia St. Euphrasia Hagiography
18.
Aitiology
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Etiology is the study of causation, or origination. The word is derived from the Greek αἰτιολογία, aitiologia, giving a reason for, an etiological myth is a myth intended to explain a name or create a mythic history for a place or family, an origin story. In medicine, etiology refers to the many factors coming together to cause an illness and it is normally the focus of epidemiological studies. The etiology of scurvy is a good example, with scurvy, sailors going to sea often lacked fresh vegetables. Without knowing the cause, Captain James Cook suspected scurvy was caused by the lack of vegetables in the diet. It was only two centuries later, in 1926, that it was discovered that it was the lack of vitamin C in a sailors diet that was the basic cause of scurvy. From modern knowledge we can see that the sauerkraut was probably much less effective than Cook supposed, an etiological myth, or origin myth, is a myth intended to explain the origins of cult practices, natural phenomena, proper names and the like. While Delphi is actually related to the word delphus, many myths are similarly based on folk etymology. In the Aeneid, Virgil claims the descent of Augustus Caesars Julian clan from the hero Aeneas through his son Ascanius, also called Iulus. In Ovids Pyramus and Thisbe, the origin of the color of mulberries is explained, backstory Bradford Hill criteria Creation myth Just-so story Just So Stories Pathology The dictionary definition of etiology at Wiktionary
19.
Charles Bennet, 4th Earl of Tankerville
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Charles Bennet, 4th Earl of Tankerville, styled Lord Ossulston from 1753 to 1767, was a British nobleman, a collector of shells and a famous patron of Surrey cricket in the 1770s. He agreed a set of rules that included the first mention of the Leg before wicket rule. His wife, Emma, was notable as a collector of exotic plants. Her collection of over 600 illustrations were purchased by Kew Gardens in 1932 and are available today. Tankerville was born in 1743 and was educated at Eton College between 1753 and 1760, Lady Tankerville amassed a large collection of exotic plants at Mount Felix. Emma Tankervilles collection was thought to be the largest in the London area, specimens named after Lady Tankerville include the Nuns Orchid or Phaius tankervilleae. Artists were employed to create drawings on vellum of the specimens. Tankerville often played cricket and seems to have been a good fielder. He was the employer of Edward Lumpy Stevens, who was a gardener at Tankervilles Walton-on-Thames estate, and William Bedster and it was the accuracy of Lumpy Stevens that led to the introduction of a middle stump. Prior to 1776 there were only two stumps and Lumpys deliveries could go through the hole, a permanent memorial to Lumpy Stevens has been proposed. In 1774, Tankerville sat on the committee that formulated some early laws of cricket and they were settled and revised at the Star and Garter in Pall Mall on Friday 25 February 1774. The meeting was chaired by Sir William Draper and the committee included the Duke of Dorset, Harry Peckham and other Noblemen and Gentlemen of Kent, Hampshire, Surrey, Sussex, Middlesex, and London. This meeting was one of the sets of cricket rules and is acknowledged as being the first where the Leg before wicket rule was introduced. Tankerville continued in his interest in cricket with Chertsey and Surrey Cricket club until 1781 when he retired from the sport and he was appointed joint postmaster general and a privy councillor in 1782, but he resigned his office in April 1783. However Tankerville was again appointed under Mr Pitts administration in January 1784 and he died on 10 December 1822 and was succeeded by his eldest son Charles Augustus. Tankervilles other interests included maps and shells, at the end of his life his collection was sold for an undisclosed sum, but thought to be between three and four thousand pounds. There are a number of flowers, shells and gastropods with the Latin name tankervillii, the gastropod named Amalda tankervillii is probably named for Tankerville. Tankerville married Emma Colebooke on 7 October 1771 in Gatton, Surrey and she was co-heir to her father Sir John Coleborrke
20.
Walton-on-Thames
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Walton-on-Thames /ˈwɔːltən ɒn ˈtɛmz/ is a town on the River Thames in the Elmbridge borough of Surrey. An outlying suburb of London, the town is centred 15.3 miles south west of Charing Cross and is between the towns of Weybridge and Molesey and its waterside has the Thames Path National Trail between Sunbury Lock and Shepperton Lock. Its own localities include Ashley Park and Field Common and its station on the South West Main Line has proven important to its development – its services run with a minimum of one stop before London Waterloo station. The town is divided into four wards and is a hub in terms of retail. The name Walton is Anglo-Saxon in origin and is cognate with the phonetic combination meaning Briton settlement. Before the Romans and the Saxons were present, a Celtic settlement was here, the most common Old English word for the Celtic inhabitants was the Wealas originally meaning foreigners or strangers. Elmbridge Museum requires definitive evidence of these stakes, the evidence at present limited to pre 20th-century secondary sources that conflict as to detail, Walton lay within the Anglo-Saxon quasi-administrative district, Elmbridge hundred in the shire of Surrey. Walton appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Waletona, the settlement was held jointly as overlords in the feudal system by Edward de Sarisber and Richard de Tonbrige. Its Domesday assets were,6 hides,1 church,2 mills worth £1 5s 0d,1 fishery worth 5s,14 ploughs,40 acres of meadow, supporting 50 hogs. On a smaller scale, the majority of Oatlands village which is to the south-west was in the parish until its independence, St. Marys Parish Church has some Saxon material and an architectural structure of the 12th century, with later additions. The square flint tower, supported by a 19th-century brick buttress has a ring of eight bells. Also in the aisle a brass to John Selwyn keeper of Oatlands Park, with figures of himself, his wife. An unusual relic kept in the church is a copy of a scolds bridle presented to the parish in the seventeenth century, the royal palace of Oatlands, built by Henry VIII in 1538, was a mile upstream to the west. John Bradshaw lived in the Tudor manor house in the 17th century and he presided at Charles Is trial. An Inclosure Act 1800 enabled to be enclosed 3,117 acres of the Walton manors which included holdings at Chertsey and 475 acres of common fields. A School Board was formed in 1878, a previously existing school was enlarged in 1881. The infant school was built in 1884, the Methodist Church with a spire taller than the tower of the Anglican Church was built in 1887. The Baptist Church was built in 1901, a now demolished Public Hall, in High Street, was built by Mrs. Sassoon in 1879 who was seated at Ashley Park House at the time
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