1.
Drink
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A drink or beverage is a liquid intended for human consumption. In addition to their function of satisfying thirst, drinks play important roles in human culture. Common types of drinks include plain water, milk, juices, coffee, tea, in addition, alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer, and liquor, which contain the drug ethanol, have been part of human culture and development for 8,000 years. Non-alcoholic drinks often signify drinks that would normally contain alcohol, such as beer, the category includes drinks that have undergone an alcohol removal process such as non-alcoholic beers and de-alcoholized wines. When the human body becomes dehydrated it experiences the sensation of thirst and this craving of fluids results in an instinctive need to drink. Thirst is regulated by the hypothalamus in response to changes in the bodys electrolyte levels. The complete elimination of drinks, i. e. water, Water and milk have been basic drinks throughout history. As water is essential for life, it has also been the carrier of many diseases, as mankind evolved, new techniques were discovered to create drinks from the plants that were native to their areas. The earliest archaeological evidence of wine production yet found has been at sites in Georgia, beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 3000 BCE, and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The invention of beer has been argued to be responsible for humanitys ability to develop technology, tea likely originated in Yunnan, China during the Shang Dynasty as a medicinal drink. Drinking has been a part of socialising throughout the centuries. In Ancient Greece, a gathering for the purpose of drinking was known as a symposium. The purpose of these gatherings could be anything from serious discussions to direct indulgence, in Ancient Rome, a similar concept of a convivium took place regularly. Many early societies considered alcohol a gift from the gods, leading to the creation of such as Dionysus. Other religions forbid, discourage, or restrict the drinking of alcoholic drinks for various reasons, in some regions with a dominant religion the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic drinks is forbidden to everybody, regardless of religion. Toasting is a method of honouring a person or wishing good will by taking a drink, another tradition is that of the loving cup, at weddings or other celebrations such as sports victories a group will share a drink in a large receptacle, shared by everyone until empty. In East Africa and Yemen, coffee was used in religious ceremonies. As these ceremonies conflicted with the beliefs of the Christian church, the drink was also banned in Ottoman Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe
2.
Food
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Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, the substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organisms cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, humans secured food through two methods, hunting and gathering and agriculture, today, the majority of the food energy required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity, climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants, but even animals that are used as sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn, wheat, and rice – in all of their varieties – account for 87% of all grain production worldwide, most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock. Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina, inorganic substances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient. Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species are cultivated for food, many of these plant species have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plants initial growth, including many healthful fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods, edible seeds include cereals, legumes, and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed, sesame, seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food, although not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are a food source to the latter. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures, some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. Vegetables are a type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables, bulbs, leaf vegetables, stem vegetables, animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce
3.
Kitchen
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A kitchen is a room or part of a room used for cooking and food preparation in a dwelling or in a commercial establishment. Many households have an oven, a dishwasher and other electric appliances. The main function of a kitchen is serving as a location for storing, cooking and preparing food, commercial kitchens are found in restaurants, cafeterias, hotels, hospitals, educational and workplace facilities, army barracks, and similar establishments. These kitchens are generally larger and equipped with bigger and more heavy-duty equipment than a residential kitchen, for example, a large restaurant may have a huge walk-in refrigerator and a large commercial dishwasher machine. Commercial kitchens are generally subject to public health laws and they are inspected periodically by public-health officials, and forced to close if they do not meet hygienic requirements mandated by law. The evolution of the kitchen is linked to the invention of the range or stove. Food was cooked over an open fire, technical advances in heating food in the 18th and 19th centuries changed the architecture of the kitchen. Before the advent of modern pipes, water was brought from a source such as wells. The houses in Ancient Greece were commonly of the atrium-type, the rooms were arranged around a courtyard for women. In many such homes, a covered but otherwise open patio served as the kitchen, homes of the wealthy had the kitchen as a separate room, usually next to a bathroom, both rooms being accessible from the court. In such houses, there was often a small storage room in the back of the kitchen used for storing food. In the Roman Empire, common folk in cities often had no kitchen of their own, some had small mobile bronze stoves, on which a fire could be lit for cooking. Wealthy Romans had relatively well-equipped kitchens, the fireplace was typically on the floor, placed at a wall—sometimes raised a little bit—such that one had to kneel to cook. Early medieval European longhouses had a fire under the highest point of the building. The kitchen area was between the entrance and the fireplace, in wealthy homes there was typically more than one kitchen. In some homes there were upwards of three kitchens, the kitchens were divided based on the types of food prepared in them. In place of a chimney, these buildings had a hole in the roof through which some of the smoke could escape. Besides cooking, the fire served as a source of heat
4.
Old French
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Old French was the Gallo-Romance dialect continuum spoken from the 9th century to the 14th century. In the 14th century, these came to be collectively known as the langues doïl. The mid-14th century is taken as the period to Middle French. The areal of Old French in contemporary terms corresponded to the parts of the Kingdom of France, Upper Burgundy. As part of the emerging Gallo-Romance dialect continuum, the langues doïl were contrasted with the langue doc, in these examples, we notice a clear consequence of bilingualism, that sometimes even changed the first syllable of the Latin words. Pope estimated that perhaps still 15% of the vocabulary of modern French derives from Germanic sources, at the third Council of Tours in 813, priests were ordered to preach in the vernacular language, since the common people could no longer understand formal Latin. The second-oldest document in Old French is the Eulalia sequence, which is important for reconstruction of Old French pronunciation due to its consistent spelling. The Capetians langue doïl, the forerunner of modern standard French, did not begin to become the common speech of all of France, however, until after the French Revolution. In the Late Middle Ages, the Old French dialects diverged into a number of distinct langues doïl, during the Early Modern period, French now becomes established as the official language of the Kingdom of France throughout the realm, also including the langue doc-speaking territories in the south. Old French gives way to Middle French in the mid-14th century, the earliest extant French literary texts date from the ninth century, but very few texts before the 11th century have survived. The first literary works written in Old French were saints lives, the Canticle of Saint Eulalie, written in the second half of the 9th century, is generally accepted as the first such text. The first of these is the area of the chansons de geste. More than one hundred chansons de geste have survived in three hundred manuscripts. The oldest and most celebrated of the chansons de geste is The Song of Roland, a fourth grouping, not listed by Bertrand, is the Crusade cycle, dealing with the First Crusade and its immediate aftermath. Jean Bodels other two categories—the Matter of Rome and the Matter of Britain—concern the French romance or roman, around a hundred verse romances survive from the period 1150–1220. From around 1200 on, the tendency was increasingly to write the romances in prose, the most important romance of the 13th century is the Romance of the Rose which breaks considerably from the conventions of the chivalric adventure story. The Occitan or Provençal poets were called troubadours, from the word trobar to find, lyric poets in Old French are called trouvères. By the late 13th century, the tradition in France had begun to develop in ways that differed significantly from the troubadour poets
5.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
6.
Late Middle Ages
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The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history generally comprising the 14th and 15th centuries. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the modern era. Around 1300, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt, a series of famines and plagues, including the Great Famine of 1315–1317 and the Black Death, reduced the population to around half of what it was before the calamities. Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare, France and England experienced serious peasant uprisings, such as the Jacquerie and the Peasants Revolt, as well as over a century of intermittent conflict in the Hundred Years War. To add to the problems of the period, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the Western Schism. Collectively these events are called the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages. Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of progress in the arts. Following a renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman texts that took root in the High Middle Ages, combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing, which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two things would lead to the Protestant Reformation. Toward the end of the period, the Age of Discovery began, the rise of the Ottoman Empire, culminating in the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, eroded the last remnants of the Byzantine Empire and cut off trading possibilities with the east. Europeans were forced to seek new trading routes, leading to the expedition of Columbus to the Americas in 1492 and their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations. The changes brought about by these developments have led scholars to view this period as the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of modern history. However, the division is artificial, since ancient learning was never entirely absent from European society. As a result there was continuity between the ancient age and the modern age. Some historians, particularly in Italy, prefer not to speak of the Late Middle Ages at all, but rather see the period of the Middle Ages transitioning to the Renaissance. The term Late Middle Ages refers to one of the three periods of the Middle Ages, along with the Early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodization in his History of the Florentine People. Flavio Biondo used a framework in Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire. Tripartite periodization became standard after the German historian Christoph Cellarius published Universal History Divided into an Ancient, Medieval, for 18th-century historians studying the 14th and 15th centuries, the central theme was the Renaissance, with its rediscovery of ancient learning and the emergence of an individual spirit
7.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
8.
Hall (concept)
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The meanings attributed to the word hall have varied over the centuries, as social practices have changed. The word derives from the Old Teutonic, where it is associated with the idea of covering or concealing, in modern German it is Halle where it refers to a building but Saal where it refers to a large public room though the distinction is blurred. The latter may arise from a form of the former. The French salle is borrowed from the German, the Oxford English Dictionary gives nine meanings of hall relevant to buildings with a root of the word meaning. to cover, conceal. A hall is, fundamentally, a large space enclosed by a roof such as a market hall. Coming from the Old English language, it was brought into Britain in the fifth century, a hall is also a large, public or stately room in a building. Hall also may refer to a building itself where meetings or events such as Westminster Hall, a concert hall. Also a dwelling-house with a large, open room typically with an open hearth such as the form of the Wealden hall house. In 500, such a building was the residence of a lord. This is the kind of hall which Beowulf knew, even now, hall is the term used for a country house in midland and northern England. The concept was more fundamental than referring to just domestic buildings, though the lords hall had an administrative aspect, this was more prominent in the town hall and the guild hall. Similarly, the French word salle can refer to a large, later, partitions were set up so that the lords family could have more privacy, a fairly new concept in northern Europe at the time. The English had come to Britain from a part of Europe which had not been exposed to the ways of the Roman Empire. As further time passed, the became the largest room of the house. While the humbler residents still slept there, the family had one or more chambers at one end of the building in what came to be called the solar. At this stage, we have the house in which the central room is the great hall. Off one end is the solar while a partition divides the other end of the hall off as the screens passage, across the passage lie the pantry and buttery with between them, a passage through to the kitchen. The function of the last had been removed from the hall for the convenience of both cooks and inhabitants but also because roasting fires were a fire risk
9.
Food storage
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Food storage allows food to be eaten for some time after harvest rather than solely immediately. It is both a traditional skill and, in the form of food logistics, an important industrial and commercial activity. Food is stored by almost every society and by many animals. These guidelines have been researched by scientists to determine the best methods for reducing the real threat of food poisoning from unsafe food storage. It is also important to maintain proper hygiene, to reduce risks of bacteria or virus growth. The common food poisoning illnesses include Listeriosis, Mycotoxicosis, Salmonellosis, E. coli, Staphylococcal food poisoning, there are many other organisms that can also cause food poisoning. There are also safety guidelines available for the methods of home canning of food. For example, there are specific boiling times that apply depending upon whether pressure canning or waterbath canning is being used in the process and these safety guidelines are intended to reduce the growth of mold and bacteria and the threat of potentially-fatal food poisoning. Freezer temperature should be maintained below 0 °F. Food should never be thawed at room temperature, once thawed, food should be used and never refrozen. Frozen food should be thawed using the methods, Microwave oven During cooking In cold water In the refrigerator Throw out foods that have been warmer than 40 °F for more than 2 hours. If there is any doubt at all about the length of time the food has been defrosted at room temperature, freezing does not destroy microbes present in food. Freezing at 0 °F does inactivate microbes, however, once food has been thawed, these microbes can again become active. Microbes in thawed food can multiply to levels that can lead to foodborne illness, thawed food should be handled according to the same guidelines as perishable fresh food. Food frozen at 0 °F and below is preserved indefinitely, however, the quality of the food will deteriorate if it is frozen over a lengthy period. The United States Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Service publishes a chart showing the suggested freezer storage time for common foods. It is important to note that safe food storage using refrigeration requires adhering to guidelines, For safety. Refrigerators should be set to maintain a temperature of 40 °F or below, some refrigerators have built-in thermometers to measure their internal temperature. For those refrigerators without this feature, keep an appliance thermometer in the refrigerator to monitor the temperature and this can be critical in the event of a power outage
10.
Bread
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Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history it has been popular around the world and is one of the oldest artificial foods, proportions of types of flour and other ingredients vary widely, as do modes of preparation. As a result, types, shapes, sizes, and textures of breads differ around the world, Bread may be leavened by processes such as reliance on naturally occurring sourdough microbes, chemicals, industrially produced yeast, or high-pressure aeration. Some bread is cooked before it can leaven, including for traditional or religious reasons, non-cereal ingredients such as fruits, nuts and fats may be included. Commercial bread commonly contains additives to improve flavor, texture, color, shelf life, Bread is served in various forms with any meal of the day. It is eaten as a snack, and used as an ingredient in other preparations, such as sandwiches. It forms the main component of bread pudding, as well as of stuffings designed to fill cavities or retain juices that otherwise might drip out. Bread has a social and emotional significance beyond its importance as nourishment and it plays essential roles in religious rituals and secular culture. Its prominence in daily life is reflected in language, where it appears in proverbs, colloquial expressions, in prayer and in the etymology of words, the Old English word for bread was hlaf, which appears to be the oldest Teutonic name. Old High German hleib and modern German Laib derive from this Proto-Germanic word, Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods. Evidence from 30,000 years ago in Europe revealed starch residue on rocks used for pounding plants. It is possible that during this time, starch extract from the roots of plants, such as cattails and ferns, was spread on a rock, placed over a fire. Around 10,000 BC, with the dawn of the Neolithic age, yeast spores are ubiquitous, including on the surface of cereal grains, so any dough left to rest leavens naturally. There were multiple sources of leavening available for early bread, airborne yeasts could be harnessed by leaving uncooked dough exposed to air for some time before cooking. Pliny the Elder reported that the Gauls and Iberians used the foam skimmed from beer to produce a kind of bread than other peoples. Parts of the ancient world that drank wine instead of used a paste composed of grape juice and flour that was allowed to begin fermenting, or wheat bran steeped in wine. The most common source of leavening was to retain a piece of dough from the day to use as a form of sourdough starter. In 1961 the Chorleywood bread process was developed, which used the intense mechanical working of dough to dramatically reduce the fermentation period, the process, whose high-energy mixing allows for the use of lower protein grain, is now widely used around the world in large factories
11.
Bacon
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Bacon is a meat product usually prepared from pork and cured. It is first cured using large quantities of salt, either a brine or a dry packing, fresh bacon may then be dried for weeks or months in cold air, or it may be boiled or smoked. Fresh and dried bacon are typically cooked before eating, often by frying, boiled bacon is ready to eat, as is some smoked bacon, but they may be cooked further before eating. Bacon is prepared from different cuts of meat. It can be made from side and back cuts of pork, a side cut has less fat than the belly. In the United States, the term implies belly bacon, with leaner cuts known as Canadian bacon, in the United Kingdom, loin bacon with some belly attached is known as back bacon, or rashers, and belly bacon is called streaky bacon. Bacon may be prepared from one of two distinct back cuts, fatback, which is almost pure fat, or pork loin, Bacon may be eaten smoked, boiled, fried, baked, or grilled. It is eaten on its own, as a side dish, Bacon is also used for barding and larding roasts, especially game, including venison and pheasant. The word is derived from the Old High German bacho, meaning buttock, ham or side of bacon, in Italy, this product is called pancetta and is usually cooked in small cubes or thinly sliced as part of an antipasto. Meat from other animals, such as beef, lamb, chicken, goat, or turkey, may also be cut, cured, or otherwise prepared to resemble bacon, and may even be referred to as bacon. Such use is common in areas with significant Jewish and Muslim populations, the USDA defines bacon in the American way as the cured belly of a swine carcass, and other cuts and characteristics must be separately qualified. For safety, bacon may be treated to prevent trichinosis, caused by Trichinella, Bacon is distinguished from salt pork and ham by differences in the brine or dry packing. Bacon brine has added curing ingredients, most notably sodium nitrite, and occasionally potassium nitrate, flavourings such as brown sugar or maple syrup are used for some bacon products. Sodium polyphosphates, such as sodium triphosphate, may be added to make the easier to slice. Today, a specifically for ham includes a large amount of sugar. Historically, the ham and bacon referred to different cuts of meat that were brined or packed identically. Bacon is cured through either a process of injecting with or soaking in brine or using plain salt. In America, bacon is cured and smoked, and different flavours can be achieved by using various types of wood, or rarely corn cobs
12.
Meat
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Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times, the advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses. Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat and it is edible raw, but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways. Unprocessed meat will spoil or rot within hours or days as a result of infection with and decomposition by bacteria, most often, meat refers to skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as offal. The word meat comes from the Old English word mete, which referred to food in general, the term is related to mad in Danish, mat in Swedish and Norwegian, and matur in Icelandic and Faroese, which also mean food. The word mete also exists in Old Frisian to denote important food, differentiating it from swiets, paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of even the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the hunting of large animals such as bison. Several breeds of sheep were established in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt by 3500–3000 BC, today, more than 200 sheep-breeds exist. Cattle were domesticated in Mesopotamia after settled agriculture was established about 5000 BC, modern domesticated cattle fall into the groups Bos taurus and Bos indicus, both descended from the now-extinct aurochs. The breeding of cattle, cattle optimized for meat production as opposed to animals best suited for draught or dairy purposes. Domestic pigs, which are descended from boars, are known to have existed about 2500 BC in modern-day Hungary and in Troy, earlier pottery from Jericho. Pork sausages and hams were of commercial importance in Greco-Roman times. Pigs continue to be bred intensively as they are being optimized to produce meat best suited for meat products. Other animals are or have raised or hunted for their flesh. The type of meat consumed varies much between different cultures, changes over time, depending on such as tradition and the availability of the animals. The amount and kind of meat consumed also varies by income, horses are commonly eaten in France, Italy, Germany and Japan, among other countries. Horses and other mammals such as reindeer were hunted during the late Paleolithic in western Europe
13.
Larder
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A larder is a cool area for storing food prior to use. Larders were commonplace in houses before the use of the refrigerator. In Australia and New Zealand, larders were placed on the south or east sides of the house for the same reason, many larders have small unglazed windows with the window opening covered in fine mesh. This allows free circulation of air without allowing flies to enter, many larders also have tiled or painted walls to simplify cleaning. Older larders, and especially those in larger houses, have hooks in the ceiling to hang joints of meat or game, others have insulated containers for ice, anticipating the future development of refrigerators. A pantry may contain a thrawl, a used in Derbyshire and Yorkshire. In the late medieval hall, a thrawl would have been appropriate to a larder, for this reason, a buttery was usually called the cellar by this stage. Very few modern houses have larders, since this need is now satisfied by refrigerators, freezers, and this is reflected in the word larder, which in origin is a place for storing bacon. It comes from the French word meaning ‘bacon’ that also gave us lard, and the lardon, in medieval households the word larder referred both to an office responsible for fish, jams, and meat, as well as to the room where these commodities were kept. It was headed by a larderer, the Scots term for larder was spence, and so in Scotland larderers were known as spencers. This is one of the derivations of the modern surname, the office generally was subordinated to the kitchen and existed as a separate office only in larger households. It was closely connected with other offices of the kitchen, such as the saucery, larders were used in the Indus River Valley to store bones of goats, oxen, and sheep. These larders were made of clay pots
14.
Alcoholic drink
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Long-term use can lead to alcohol abuse, physical dependence, and alcoholism. Drinking alcohol plays an important social role in many cultures, most countries have laws regulating their production, sale, and consumption, some countries ban such activities entirely. However, alcoholic drinks are legal in most parts of the world, the global alcoholic drink industry exceeded $1 trillion in 2014. Alcohol is one of the most widely used drugs in the world. For instance, in 2015, among Americans, 89% of adults had consumed alcohol at point, 70% had drunk it in the last year. Alcoholic drinks are divided into three classes—beers, wines, and spirits—and typically contain between 3% and 40% alcohol by volume. Discovery of late Stone Age jugs suggest that intentionally fermented drinks existed at least as early as the Neolithic period, wine is a fermented beverage produced from grapes. Wine involves a longer process than beer and also a long aging process. Sparkling wine can be made by means of a secondary fermentation, fruit wines are made from fruits other than grapes, such as plums, cherries, or apples. Sake is an example of rice wine. Beer is a beverage fermented from grain mash and it is made from barley or a blend of several grains. If the fermented mash is distilled, then the drink is a spirit, beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage in the world. Cider or cyder is an alcoholic drink made from any fruit juice, apple juice, peaches. Cider alcohol content varies from 1. 2% ABV to 8. 5% or more in traditional English ciders, in some regions, cider may be called apple wine. Mead is a drink created by fermenting honey with water, sometimes with various fruits, spices, grains. The alcoholic content of mead may range from about 8% ABV to more than 20%, the defining characteristic of mead is that the majority of the drinks fermentable sugar is derived from honey. A distilled drink or liquor is a drink produced by distilling ethanol produced by means of fermenting grain, fruit. Unsweetened, distilled, alcoholic drinks that have a content of at least 20% ABV are called spirits
15.
Colonial history of the United States
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The colonial history of the United States covers the history of European settlements from the start of colonization until their incorporation into the United States. In the late 16th century, England, France, Spain, small early attempts often disappeared, such as the English Lost Colony of Roanoke. Everywhere, the rate was very high among the first arrivals. Nevertheless, successful colonies were established several decades. European settlers came from a variety of social and religious groups, few aristocrats settled permanently, but a number of adventurers, soldiers, farmers, and tradesmen arrived. They built colonies with distinctive social, religious, political, non-British colonies were taken over and most of the inhabitants were assimilated, unlike in Nova Scotia, where the British expelled the French Acadian inhabitants. There were no civil wars among the 13 colonies. The colonies developed legalized systems of slavery, based largely in the Atlantic slave trade from Africa or by way of the Caribbean, Wars were recurrent between the French and the British—the French and Indian Wars especially—and involved French support for Native American attacks on the British frontiers. By 1760, France was defeated and the British seized its colonies, on the eastern seaboard of what became the United States, the four distinct British regions were, New England, the Middle Colonies, the Chesapeake Bay Colonies, and the Lower South. Some historians add a fifth region of the Frontier which was never separately organized, see timeline of Colonial America for list of historical events. Colonizers came from European kingdoms that had highly developed military, naval, governmental and these efforts were managed respectively by the Casa de Contratación and the Casa da Índia. England, France, and the Netherlands had also started colonies in both the West Indies and North America and they had the ability to build ocean-worthy ships but did not have as strong a history of colonization in foreign lands as did Portugal and Spain. However, English entrepreneurs gave their colonies a foundation of merchant-based investment that seemed to need much less government support, initially, matters concerning the colonies were dealt with primarily by the Privy Council and its committees. The Commission of Trade was set up in 1625 as the first special body convened to advise on colonial questions, mercantilism was the basic policy imposed by Britain on its colonies from the 1660s. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold, the government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on a superb Royal Navy which protected the British colonies, thus, the British Navy captured New Amsterdam in 1664. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country, the prospect of religious persecution by authorities of the crown and the Church of England prompted a significant number of colonization efforts. People fleeing persecution by King Charles I were responsible for settling most of New England, anonymous Portuguese explorers were the first Europeans to map the future eastern seaboard of the U. S. from New York to Florida, as documented in the Cantino planisphere of 1502
16.
Buttery (room)
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A buttery was a service room in a large medieval house in which barrels, bottles, or butts of alcoholic drink were stored, and from which they were served into the Great Hall. The butler was anciently the household officer in charge of the buttery, and possibly for its provisionment, in the royal household such officer was termed the Marshal of the Buttery and was often a post discharged under the feudal land tenure of grand serjeanty. In less important households such an officer was termed the yeoman of the buttery, the words buttery and bottle derive from mediaeval French word botte and its diminutive bouteille, which in turn are derived from the mediaeval Latin terms buttis and butticula. The buttery was situated to one side of the screens passage, the butterys principal function was storage of wine and its preparation for serving. Candles were also dispensed from the buttery as was beer to those members of the household not entitled to drink wine. Today in colleges in Cambridge, Dublin, and Oxford, drinks are served from the Buttery Bar, the buttery generally had a staircase to the beer cellar below. The wine-storage area of the buttery, in keeping with the value of its contents, was often more richly decorated to reflect the higher status of its function. The buttery should not be confused with the department which stored and processed milk and its by-products such as butter and cheese. Kaufman proposed an apparently erroneous derivation, Cows were also kept near the castle to provide milk and milk by-product, life in the English Country House
17.
Biltmore Estate
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Biltmore Estate is a large private estate and tourist attraction near Asheville, North Carolina. Still owned by George Vanderbilts descendants, it today as one of the most prominent remaining examples of the Gilded Age. Vanderbilt named his estate Biltmore derived from Bildt, Vanderbilts ancestors place of origin in Holland, a portion of the estate was once the African-American community of Shiloh. Construction of the began in 1889 and continued well into 1896. Construction on the house required the labor of well over 1,000 workers and 60 stonemasons. Vanderbilt went on buying trips overseas as construction on the house was in progress. Among the few American-made items were the more practical oak drop-front desk, rocking chairs, a grand piano, bronze candlesticks. George Vanderbilt opened his opulent estate on Christmas Eve 1895 to invited family and friends from across the country, who were encouraged to enjoy leisure and country pursuits. George married Edith Stuyvesant Dresser in 1898 in Paris, France, their child, Cornelia Stuyvesant Vanderbilt, was born at Biltmore in the Louis XV room in 1900. Overwhelmed with running such an estate, Edith began consolidating her interests and sold Biltmore Estate Industries in 1917. Edith intermittently occupied the house, living in an apartment carved out of the former Bachelors Wing, the Cecils went on to have two sons who were born in the same room as their mother. The Music Room on the first floor was never finished, so it was used for storage until 1944, among the works stored were the Gilbert Stuart portrait of George Washington and works by Rembrandt, Raphael, and Anthony van Dyck. David Finley, the director, was a friend of Edith Vanderbilt and had stayed at the estate. After the divorce of the Cecils in 1934, Cornelia left the estate never to return, however and their eldest son George Henry Vanderbilt Cecil, occupied rooms in the wing until 1956. At this point Biltmore House ceased to be a residence and has continued to be operated as a historic house museum. Younger son William A. V. Cecil, Sr. returned to the estate in 1960 and joined his brother to manage the estate and make it a profitable and self-sustaining enterprise like his grandfather envisioned. He eventually inherited the estate upon the death of his mother, Cornelia, in 1976, while his brother, George, in 1995, while celebrating the 100th anniversary of the estate, Cecil turned over control of the company to his son, William A. V. The estate was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1963, Hunt sited the four-story Indiana limestone-built home to face east with a 375-foot facade to fit into the mountainous topography behind
18.
Asheville, North Carolina
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Asheville is a city in and the county seat of Buncombe County, North Carolina, United States. It is the largest city in Western North Carolina, and the 11th largest city in North Carolina, the citys population was 87,236 according to the 2013 estimates. It is the city in the four-county Asheville metropolitan area. Asheville is home to the United States National Climatic Data Center, before the arrival of the Europeans, the land where Asheville now exists lay within the boundaries of the Cherokee Nation. In 1540, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto came to the area, bringing the first European visitors along with European diseases, the area was used as an open hunting ground until the middle of the 19th century. The history of Asheville, as a town, began in 1784, in that year, Colonel Samuel Davidson and his family settled in the Swannanoa Valley, redeeming a soldiers land grant from the state of North Carolina. Soon after building a log cabin at the bank of Christian Creek, Davidson was lured into the woods by a band of Cherokee hunters, Davidsons wife, child and female slave fled on foot overnight to Davidsons Fort 16 miles away. In response to the killing, Davidsons twin brother Major William Davidson and brother-in-law Colonel Daniel Smith formed an expedition to retrieve Samuel Davidsons body and avenge his murder. Months after the expedition, Major Davidson and other members of his family returned to the area. The United States Census of 1790 counted 1,000 residents of the area, Buncombe County was officially formed in 1792. The county seat, named Morristown in 1793, was established on a plateau where two old Indian trails crossed, in 1797, Morristown was incorporated and renamed Asheville after North Carolina Governor Samuel Ashe. For a time, an Enfield rifle manufacturing facility was located in the town, in late April 1865 troops under the overall command of Union Gen. Stoneman captured Asheville. Hartley, Stonemans Raid, p.362 After a negotiated departure, the years following the war were a time of economic and social hardship in Buncombe County, as throughout most of the defeated South. On October 2,1880, the Western North Carolina Railroad completed its line from Salisbury to Asheville, almost immediately it was sold and resold to the Richmond and Danville Railroad Company, becoming part of the Southern Railway in 1894. With the completion of the first railway, Asheville experienced a slow but steady growth as industrial plants increased in number and size, textile mills were established and plants were set up for the manufacture of wood and mica products, foodstuffs, and other commodities. The 21-mile distance between Hendersonville and Asheville of the former Asheville and Spartanburg Railroad was completed in 1886, by that point, the line was operated as part of the Richmond and Danville Railroad until 1894 and controlled by the Southern Railway afterward. Asheville had the first electric railway lines in the state of North Carolina. These would be replaced by buses in 1934, Asheville prospered in the decades of the 1910s and 1920s and at one point was the third largest city in the state, behind Charlotte and Wilmington
19.
Stan Hywet Hall
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Stan Hywet Hall & Gardens is a notable country estate, with gardens, located at 714 North Portage Path in Akron, Ohio. It is one of the largest homes in the United States, the estate was built between 1912 and 1915 for F. A. Seiberling, founder of the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, and his wife, Gertrude Penfield Seiberling. They gave it the name Stan Hywet, Old English for stone quarry or stone hewn, to reflect the earlier use. Architect Charles Sumner Schneider designed the Tudor Revival house, with Hugo F. Huber as interior decorator, most of the furnishings came from New York City, but some were purchased in England. The estate grounds, originally about 3,000 acres in extent, were designed between 1911–1915 by Boston landscape architect Warren H. Manning, and remain one of the finest examples of his work. The English garden was redesigned in 1929 by noted landscape architect Ellen Biddle Shipman, in 1957, the Seiberling family donated Stan Hywet to a non-profit organization for its preservation. It is now a house museum and country estate, open seasonally to the public, in keeping with the stone inscription above the Manor House front door, Non nobis solum. Three English country homes served as the inspiration for Stan Hywets 65-room manor, Compton Wynyates, Ockwells Manor, the largest of the Lagoons pools measures 15 feet deep and was created from the sites quarry. The estate also includes a greenhouse, the Corbin Conservatory. The Corbin Conservatory, replicated from the design of the original building, two tennis courts, croquet and roque courts, horse trails and an indoor swimming pool and gymnasium were some of the recreational outlets available to the Seiberlings and their house guests. Stan Hywet Hall and Gardens hosts The Annual Classic, Antique & Collector Car Show every year on Fathers Day, Stan Hywet Hall and Gardens is open Tuesday through Sunday, April 1 through December 30. It is closed to the public on Mondays, except Memorial Day, largest Historic Homes in the United States List of botanical gardens in the United States Stan Hywet Hall and Gardens Annasue McCleave Wilson
20.
Akron, Ohio
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Akron /ˈækrən/ is the fifth-largest city in the U. S. state of Ohio and is the county seat of Summit County. It is located on the edge of the Glaciated Allegheny Plateau. As of the 2015 Census Estimate, the city proper had a population of 197,542. The Akron, OH Metropolitan Statistical Area covers Summit and Portage counties and it is also part of the larger Cleveland-Akron-Canton, OH Combined Statistical Area, which in 2013 had a population of 3,501,538, ranking 15th. Co-founded along the Little Cuyahoga River in 1825 by Simon Perkins and Paul Williams, it was done so being a point at the summit of the developing Ohio. The name derived from the Greek word ἄκρον signifying a summit or high point, due to Eliakim Crosby founding North Akron in 1833, South was added to its name until the two merged into an incorporated village in 1836. Neighboring settlements Kenmore and Ellet became annexed in 1929 and it is a setting for several movie films, television shows and novel stories, and is the origin of fictional characters. Residents of the city are called Akronites and it has had many nicknames, three of which are Rubber Capital of the World, Rubber City and City of Invention. Akron became a manufacturing center owing to its location on the canal, as well as being connected to numerous others and railroad lines. The city is home to the All-American Soapbox Derby, WGC-Bridgestone Invitational, Stan Hywet Hall and Gardens, Akron City Hospital, the Goodyear Polymer Center, and Alcoholics Anonymous. Listed by Newsweek as one of ten Information Age high tech havens, it was awarded by the National Civic League, residents Frank and Charles Menches have a disputed claim of inventing the hamburger thus the annual national festival is hosted in the city. A creature often referred to as the Kenmore Grassman is reported through history, Notable historical events that occurred in the city includes the Akron School Law of 1847 creating the K-12 system, and Sojourner Truth giving her Aint I A Woman. Resident Ferdinand Schumacher supplied the Union Army with quaker oats during the American Civil War. Akron is known for the rubber, tire, and airship industries among others, including the trucking, stoneware, sewer pipe, fishing tackle, farming equipment, mining, match, zipper, and toy industries. With a population increase of 201. 8% during the 1910s, three major civil unrest events took place during the riot of 1900, rubber strike of 1936, and the Wooster Avenue riots of 1968. Du Bois and President Bill Clinton gave speeches on race relations in the city, while visiting during August 1914, Marcus Garvey founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association. In 1971, James R. Williams founded Alpha Phi Alpha Homes Inc. to build the Channelwood Village area of Akron. During a 2016 march on West Market Street, purple heart Vietnam War veteran, Notable criminal history includes mobster Rosario Borgio headquartering the areas black hand operations, and Pretty Boy Floyds Walker-Mitchell mobs activities
21.
Victorian era
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
22.
Scullery (room)
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A scullery is a room in a house traditionally used for washing up dishes and laundering clothes, or as an overflow kitchen when the main kitchen is overloaded. Tasks performed in the scullery include cleaning dishes and cooking utensils, occasional kitchen work, ironing, boiling water for cooking or bathing, and soaking and washing clothes. Sculleries contain hot and cold sinks, sometimes slop sinks, drain pipes, storage shelves, plate racks, a table, various coppers for boiling water, tubs. The term scullery has fallen into disuse in North America, the room being more commonly referred to as a utility room or laundry room. In United States military facilities and most commercial restaurants, a scullery refers to the section of a facility where pots. It is usually near the kitchen and the serving line, in houses built prior to indoor plumbing, scullery sinks were located against an outside wall. Since sculleries were used for washing and great quantities of water had to be carried inside, they were made with solid floors of brick, stone, terracotta tiles, or concrete. Although a drain, known as a pipe, would carry the dirty water outside of the house. The scullery maid, or person washing dishes at the sink, the floor itself was often dug 6 inches or so below the main house floor in case of leaks or flooding. In designing a scullery, architects would take care to place the room adjacent to the kitchen with a door leading directly outside to obtain water. However, for sanitation purposes no doors led from there to the pantry or store rooms, Scullery sinks came in pairs, one for hot water and the other for cold water. They were square or rectangular in shape, shallow, and made of non-absorbent materials, or if the sink is to answer the double purpose of receiver and washer, i. e. if instead of washing the dinner-plates, etc. Grease, which abounded in scullery sink water, could choke up a soil pipe, water from green vegetables also has a peculiarly objectionable smell, thus drainage was of the utmost importance. In the late 19th century, unsanitary conditions in sculleries and privies could lead to chronic illness, by the privy and forming part of it was an open ashpit full of disgusting filth. On the morning of my visit, some potatoes, ready peeled for cooking, were piled up against that part of the wall which was permeated with the moisture from the privy. For maximum sanitation, the 19th century English nurse, Florence Nightingale, the best sink for a scullery is the new white porcelain sink recently introduced with hot and cold water laid on. Care must be taken that the pipe has no direct communication with a closed drain otherwise foul air is certain to find its way into the hospital. House Tour, The Scullery Tatton Park, The Scullery and Kitchen Victorian Scullery or Back Kitchen The 1900 House, The Scullery
23.
Tableware
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Tableware is the dishes or dishware used for setting a table, serving food and dining. It includes cutlery, glassware, serving dishes and other items for practical as well as decorative purposes. The quality, nature, variety and number of objects according to culture, religion, number of diners, cuisine. For example, Middle Eastern, Indian or Polynesian food culture and cuisine sometimes limits tableware to serving dishes, special occasions are usually reflected in higher quality tableware. Sets of dishes are referred to as a service, dinner service or service set. Table settings or place settings are the dishes, cutlery and glassware used for formal and informal dining, in Ireland such items are normally referred to as delph, the word being an English language phonetic spelling of the word delft, the town from which so much delftware came. Silver service or butler service are methods for a butler or waiter to serve a meal, Setting the table refers to arranging the tableware, including individual place settings for each diner at the table as well as decorating the table itself in a manner suitable for the occasion. Tableware and table decoration is more elaborate for special occasions. Unusual dining locations demand tableware be adapted, dishes are usually made of ceramic materials such as earthenware, stoneware, faience, bone china or porcelain. However, they can be made of materials such as wood, pewter, silver, gold, glass. Before it was possible to purchase mass-produced tableware, it was fashioned from available materials, industrialisation and developments in ceramic manufacture made inexpensive washable tableware available. It is sold either by the piece or as a set for a number of diners, normally four, six, eight. Large quantities are purchased for use in restaurants, individual pieces, such as those needed as replacement pieces for broken dishes, can be procured from open stock inventory at shops, or from antique dealers if the pattern is no longer in production. Possession of tableware has to a large extent been determined by individual wealth, the greater the means, the higher was the quality of tableware that was owned and the more numerous its pieces. In the London of the 13th century, the more affluent citizens owned fine furniture and silver, while those of straiter means possessed only the simplest pottery and kitchen utensils. By the later 16th century, even the poorer citizens dined off pewter rather than wood and had plate, jars, the nobility often used their arms on heraldic china. Table decoration may be ephemeral and consist of items made from confectionery or wax - substances commonly employed in Roman banqueting tables of the 17th century, in modern times, ephemeral table decorations continue to be made from sugar or carved from ice. In wealthy countries such as 17th century France, table decorations for the aristocracy were made of silver
24.
Glassware
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This list of glassware includes Alans bones, drinking vessels and tableware used to set a table for eating a meal, general glass items such as vases, and glasses used in the catering industry. It does not include laboratory glassware, drinkware, beverageware is a general term for a vessel intended to contain beverages or liquid foods for drinking or consumption. The first known use of the cup is before the 12th century. Old Fashioned glass, traditionally, for a cocktail or liquor on the rocks. Contemporary American rocks glasses may be larger, and used for a variety of beverages over ice Shot glass
25.
Basement
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A basement or cellar is one or more floors of a building that are either completely or partially below the ground floor. However, in cities with high property prices such as London, basements are often fitted out to a high standard, the word cellar or cellars is used to apply to the whole underground level or to any large underground room. A subcellar is a cellar that lies further underneath, a basement can be used in almost exactly the same manner as an additional above-ground floor of a house or other building. However, the use of basements depends largely on factors specific to a geographical area such as climate, soil, seismic activity, building technology. Basements are much easier to construct in areas with soft soils. Adding a basement can also reduce heating and cooling costs as it is a form of earth sheltering, the housing density of an area may also influence whether or not a basement is considered necessary. Historically, basements have become easier to build since the industrialization of home building. For most of its history, the basement took one of two forms. However, beginning with the development of large, mid-priced suburban homes in the 1950s, a daylight basement or a walk-out basement is contained in a house situated on a slope, so that part of the floor is above ground, with a doorway to the outside. The part of the lower than the ground can be considered the true basement area. From the street, some daylight basement homes appear to be one storey, others appear to be a conventional two storey home from the street. Occupants can walk out at that point without having to use stairs, for example, if the ground slopes downwards towards the back of the house, the basement is at or above grade at the back of the house. It is a modern design because of the complexity of uneven foundations, where the basement is above grade. Full-size windows can be installed in a daylight basement and these can provide exits for bedrooms. Ventilation is improved over fully buried basement homes, with less dampness, daylight basements can be used for several purposes – as a garage, as maintenance rooms, or as living space. The buried portion is used for storage, laundry room, hot water tanks. Daylight basement homes typically appraise higher than standard-basement homes, since they include more viable living spaces, in some parts of the US, however, the appraisal for daylight basement space is half that of ground and above ground level square footage. Designs accommodated include split-foyer and split-level homes, garages on both levels are sometimes possible
26.
Tansu
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Tansu is the traditional mobile storage cabinetry indigenous to Japan. Tansu was first recorded in the Genroku era of the Edo Period, the two characters, TAN and SU, appear to have initially represented objects with separate functions, the storage of food and the carrying of firewood. Since the radical for bamboo appears in each of these characters, woods commonly used in tansu included Keyaki, Kuri, Ezo matsu, Sugi, Kiri and Hinoki. Many collectors focus on finding genuine antique tansu, there are few workshops producing tansu in imitation of the classic antiques due to the high cost of materials and the very low prices of secondhand tansu. Larger chests are sometimes reduced in size, particularly futon chests, step chests, some reproduction tansu have been reproduced in Korea using keyaki veneer. Tansu were rarely used as stationary furniture, consistent with Japans minimalist aesthetic, traditional homes appeared rather empty. Tansu were not visible in the home except at times for specific situations. They were kept in adjacent to homes or businesses, in nando, in oshiire, on choba. Mobility was obtained through the use of attached wheels, iron handles for carrying or protruding structural upper rails for lifting, because the Edo Period was feudal in its socio-economic structure, rules concerning ownership dominated all classes from peasant to samurai. Travelling was regulated and conspicuous consumption discouraged through sumptuary laws, tansu from this time primarily reflect the class and occupation of the owner rather than any regionally inspired originality. With the coming of the Meiji Restoration of imperial authority in 1868, Choba-dansu, These chests were used by chonin on the choba to store daifukucho and related business materials. These chests come in many sizes but are usually of one section with numerous compartments. If visible to the customer, the wood and hardware could be of high quality to convey a favorable impression. Kusuri-dansu, They were apothecary chests with many small drawers to contain medicinal herbs, because the chests/boxes often needed to be carried by itinerant salesmen, they were often constructed of light weight Kiri. Katana-dansu, They were boxes with several drawers for the storage of sword blades. They were used primarily by blade polishers, most often the case wood of choice was Kiri to help protect blades from oxidization in the humid summer months. As well, the weight of the wood made it easier to move around between samurai customers. Kaidan-dansu, These step chests, often of construction, incorporated drawers
27.
Asia
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Asia covers an area of 44,579,000 square kilometres, about 30% of Earths total land area and 8. 7% of the Earths total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the population, was the site of many of the first civilizations. Asia is notable for not only its large size and population. In general terms, Asia is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, the western boundary with Europe is a historical and cultural construct, as there is no clear physical and geographical separation between them. The most commonly accepted boundaries place Asia to the east of the Suez Canal, the Ural River, and the Ural Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains, China and India alternated in being the largest economies in the world from 1 to 1800 A. D. The accidental discovery of America by Columbus in search for India demonstrates this deep fascination, the Silk Road became the main East-West trading route in the Asian hitherland while the Straits of Malacca stood as a major sea route. Asia has exhibited economic dynamism as well as robust population growth during the 20th century, given its size and diversity, the concept of Asia—a name dating back to classical antiquity—may actually have more to do with human geography than physical geography. Asia varies greatly across and within its regions with regard to ethnic groups, cultures, environments, economics, historical ties, the boundary between Asia and Africa is the Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez, and the Suez Canal. This makes Egypt a transcontinental country, with the Sinai peninsula in Asia, the border between Asia and Europe was historically defined by European academics. In Sweden, five years after Peters death, in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing the Urals as the border of Asia, the Russians were enthusiastic about the concept, which allowed them to keep their European identity in geography. Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg, the latter had suggested the Emba River as the lower boundary. Over the next century various proposals were made until the Ural River prevailed in the mid-19th century, the border had been moved perforce from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into which the Ural River projects. The border between the Black Sea and the Caspian is usually placed along the crest of the Caucasus Mountains, the border between Asia and the loosely defined region of Oceania is usually placed somewhere in the Malay Archipelago. The terms Southeast Asia and Oceania, devised in the 19th century, have had several different geographic meanings since their inception. The chief factor in determining which islands of the Malay Archipelago are Asian has been the location of the possessions of the various empires there. Lewis and Wigen assert, The narrowing of Southeast Asia to its present boundaries was thus a gradual process, Asia is larger and more culturally diverse than Europe. It does not exactly correspond to the borders of its various types of constituents. From the time of Herodotus a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system on the grounds there is no or is no substantial physical separation between them
28.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
29.
Edo period
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The Edo period or Tokugawa period is the period between 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when Japanese society was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the countrys 300 regional daimyō. The period was characterized by growth, strict social order, isolationist foreign policies. The shogunate was established in Edo on March 24,1603. The period came to an end with the Meiji Restoration on May 3,1868, instrumental in the rise of the new bakufu was Tokugawa Ieyasu, the main beneficiary of the achievements of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Already powerful, Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the rich Kantō area, after Hideyoshis death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control from the Toyotomi family. Ieyasus victory over the western daimyōs at the Battle of Sekigahara gave him control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy daimyō houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the western daimyōs, but his assumption of the title of shogun helped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his base, Ieyasu installed his son Hidetada as shogun. The Toyotomi were still a significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication, in 1615, the Tokugawa army destroyed the Toyotomi stronghold at Osaka. The Tokugawa period brought 250 years of stability to Japan, the political system evolved into what historians call bakuhan, a combination of the terms bakufu and han to describe the government and society of the period. In the bakuhan, the shogun had national authority and the daimyōs had regional authority and this represented a new unity in the feudal structure, which featured an increasingly large bureaucracy to administer the mixture of centralized and decentralized authorities. The feudal hierarchy was completed by the classes of daimyō. Closest to the Tokugawa house were the shinpan, or related houses and they were twenty-three daimyōs on the borders of Tokugawa lands, all directly related to Ieyasu. The shinpan held mostly honorary titles and advisory posts in the bakufu, the second class of the hierarchy were the fudai, or house daimyōs, rewarded with lands close to the Tokugawa holdings for their faithful service. By the 18th century,145 fudai controlled such smaller han, members of the fudai class staffed most of the major bakufu offices. Ninety-seven han formed the group, the tozama, former opponents or new allies. The tozama were located mostly on the peripheries of the archipelago, because the tozama were least trusted of the daimyō, they were the most cautiously managed and generously treated, although they were excluded from central government positions. The Tokugawa not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, they also had unprecedented power over the emperor, the court, all daimyōs and the religious orders
30.
Hoosier cabinet
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A Hoosier cabinet is a type of cupboard popular in the first decades of the 20th century. Named after the Hoosier Manufacturing Co. of New Castle, Indiana, they were made by several other companies. The typical Hoosier cabinet consists of three parts, the base section usually has one large compartment with a slide-out shelf, and several drawers to one side. Generally it sat on small casters, the top portion is shallower and has several smaller compartments with doors, with one of the larger lower compartments having a roll-top or tambour. The top and the bottom are joined by a pair of channels which serve as the guide for a sliding countertop. The whole assembly, with the counter retracted, is shallow, about 2 feet deep. A distinctive feature of the Hoosier cabinet is its accessories, as originally supplied, they were equipped with various racks and other hardware to hold and organize spices and various staples. One particularly distinctive item is the combination flour-bin/sifter, a tin hopper that could be used without having to remove it from the cabinet, a similar sugar bin was also common. Special glass jars were manufactured to fit the cabinet and its racks, a major manufacturer of the glassware was Sneath Glass Company. Original sets of Hoosier glassware consisted of coffee and tea canisters, a salt box, some manufacturers also included a cracker jar. One distinctive form was a jar with a ring molded around its center. On the inside of the doors, it was common to have cards with information as measurement conversions, sample menus. The Hoosier Manufacturing Co. was incorporated in 1899 with John M. Maring as President, houses of the period were frequently not equipped with built-in cabinetry, and the lack of storage space in the kitchen became acute. Hoosier adapted an existing furniture piece, the cabinet, which had a similar structure of a table top with some cabinets above it. By rearranging the parts and taking advantage of metal working, they were able to produce a well-organized, compact cabinet which answered the home cooks needs for storage. Hoosier cabinets remained popular into the 1920s, but by that time began to be built with more modern kitchens with built-in cabinets. Thus supplanted, the Hoosier largely disappeared and they remain common on the antique market, however, and are still used as supplemental cabinets. Coppes Napanee Hutch Welsh dresser Hopper, Lynn, Hoosier cabinet info elusive, Indianapolis Star May 13,2006
31.
Little White House
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The Little White House was the personal retreat of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd President of the United States, located in the Historic District of Warm Springs, Georgia. He first came to Warm Springs in 1924 for polio treatment, the house was finished in 1932. Roosevelt kept the house after he became President, using it as a presidential retreat and he died there on April 12,1945, three months into his fourth term. The house was opened to the public as a museum in 1948, a major attraction of the museum is the portrait that the artist Elizabeth Shoumatoff was painting of him when he died, now known as the Unfinished Portrait. It hangs near a finished portrait that Shoumatoff completed later from sketches, the house is operated by the State of Georgia as the Little White House Historic Site, also known as Roosevelts Little White House Historic Site. In the late 19th century, traveling to the springs was a desirable way to escape from Atlanta. Traveling by railroad to Durand, people would go to Bullochville. One of the places benefiting from this was the Meriwether Inn, once the automobile became popular in the early 20th century, tourists began going elsewhere, starting the decline of the inn. In 1921, Roosevelt, aged 39, was diagnosed with poliomyelitis, the few things that seemed to ease his pain was immersion in warm water, bathing and engaging in physical exercise. His first time in Warm Springs was October 1924 and he went to a resort in the town that had a permanent 880F natural spring, but whose main house was described as ramshackle. Roosevelt bought the resort and the 1, 700-acre farm surrounding it in 1927, five years later, in 1932, after winning the presidency for the first time, he ordered a six-room Georgia pine house to be built on the property. This house was his retreat throughout his presidency and became known as the Little White House. In total, he made 16 trips there during his presidency, usually spending two to three weeks at a time, as it took a day to reach Warm Springs from Washington, the Little White House is a six-room Colonial Revival structure made of Georgia pine. Three of the rooms were bedrooms, one for Roosevelt, one for his wife Eleanor, the other rooms were an entrance hall, a living room and a kitchen. Access to the Little White House was from a road that now only exists in parts. The garage-servants quarters was built in 1932, followed by the single-story frame cottage that served as a guesthouse in 1933, Wilkins family were the original owners of the property. Roosevelt used the Little White House as a base to replace Georgia politicians who refused to follow his policies and this was most notable in 1938 when Roosevelt tried and failed to have United States Senator Walter George replaced with a Roosevelt loyalist, even though both were Democrats. World War II affected Roosevelts time at the Little White House, the only year he did not go to the Little White House was 1942, as he was preoccupied by the beginnings of US involvement in the war
32.
Countertop
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A countertop is a horizontal work surface in kitchens or other food preparation areas, bathrooms or lavatories, and workrooms in general. It is frequently installed upon and supported by cabinets, the surface is positioned at an ergonomic height for the user and the particular task for which it is designed. A countertop may be constructed of materials with different attributes of functionality, durability. The countertop may have built-in applicances, or accessory items relative to the intended application. In Australian English, the counter is generally reserved for a surface of this type that forms a boundary between a space for public use and a space for workers to carry out service tasks. In other contexts, the bench or benchtop is used. The common fitted Western-style kitchen, developed in the early 20th century, is typically an arrangement of assembled unit cabinetry covered with a more-or-less continuous countertop work surface. The unfitted kitchen design style exemplified by Johnny Grey may also include detached and/or varied countertop surfaces mounted on discrete base support structures, primary considerations of material choice and conformation are durability, functionality, hygienics, appearance, and cost. When installed in a kitchen on standard wall-mounted base unit cabinets and this allows for a convenient reach to objects at the back of the countertop while protecting the base cabinet faces. In the UK the standard width is 600mm, finished heights from the floor will vary depending on usage but typically will be 35-36, with a material thickness depending on that chosen. They may include an integrated or applied backsplash to prevent spills, the horizontal surface and vertical edges of the countertop can be decorated in manners ranging from plain to very elaborate. They are often conformed to accommodate the installation of sinks, stoves, ranges, and cooktops, or other such as dispensers, integrated drain boards. Laboratory countertops are countertops used specifically in science fields for educational labs or research purposes and they can be used to place equipments, tools, projects and chemicals. Characteristics of laboratory countertops are generally determined according to what reagents or corrosive chemicals are being used, the purpose of the countertop would be different depending on whether it is used in a chemistry lab, physics lab, food science lab, microbiology or a biology lab. Common characteristics of preferred laboratory countertops are ones that are strong, durable, depending on the objectives of a lab, they may additionally be required to be resistant to acids or high temperatures. Many laboratory countertops are equipped with drawers that can be used to store materials that might get in the way while conducting an experiment. Materials such as lab notebooks, pencils, extra papers and folders are advised and expected to be stored away in the spaces or inside the drawer. The laboratory countertops styles and variations may differ according to where they are and they are also often made of different materials depending on their usage
33.
Dishwasher
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A dishwasher is a mechanical device for cleaning dishware and cutlery. A mix of water and dishwasher detergent is pumped to one or more rotating spray arms, once the wash is finished, the water is drained, more hot water is pumped in and a rinse cycle begins. After the rinse cycle finishes and the water is drained, the dishes are dried using one of several drying methods, typically a rinse aid is used to eliminate water spots for streak-free dishes and glassware resulting from hard water or other reasons. In addition to units, industrial dishwashers are available for use in commercial establishments such as hotels and restaurants. Users operate dishwashers by scraping food from dirty dishes, loading them into the dishwasher racks, adding dishwasher detergent, turning on the device, dishwasher use starts with installation as an appliance. Most home users fix their dishwashers in one place, such as under a countertop, the user scrapes dishes clean, such as by pushing uneaten food from a plate into a waste container as food waste. From the early 2010s, manufacturers have designed consumer dishwashers for use without pre-rinsing or pre-washing, Dishwashers are designed to hold different dishes in different places. For the most common installed two-rack consumer style of dishwasher, the user loads cups, bowls, eating utensils go in the bottom rack into a container, with pointed ends down for safety. Some dishwashers have a rack for utensils. Heavier dishes go on the rack, with large pots facing downward toward the spray nozzle. After the dishwasher is loaded, the user puts dishwasher detergent into the machine, contemporary dishwashers use sensors to determine how much washing is required, and when they finish, will provide clean dishes. Dishwashers and the used in dishwashers are not designed for use with some materials. The washing cycles heat and chemicals can harm kitchen knives and non-stick surface pans, detergents have their own usage restrictions, including not being safe for cleaning various materials like wood or certain metals. The first reports of a mechanical dishwashing device are of an 1850 patent in the United States by Joel Houghton for a hand-powered wood device and this device was made of wood and was cranked by hand while water sprayed onto the dishes. This device was both slow and unreliable, another patent was granted to L. A. Alexander in 1865 that was similar to the first but featured a hand-cranked rack system. Neither device was practical or widely accepted, cochranes inspiration was her frustration at the damage to her good china that occurred when her servants handled it during cleaning. Europes first domestic dishwasher with a motor was invented and manufactured by Miele in 1929. In the United Kingdom, William Howard Livens invented a small, drying elements were even added to his design in 1940
34.
Refrigerators
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Refrigeration is an essential food storage technique in developed countries. The lower temperature lowers the rate of bacteria, so the refrigerator reduces the rate of spoilage. A refrigerator maintains a temperature a few degrees above the point of water. Optimum temperature range for food storage is 3 to 5 °C. A similar device that maintains a temperature below the point of water is called a freezer. The refrigerator replaced the icebox, which had been a household appliance for almost a century. For this reason, a refrigerator is sometimes referred to as an icebox in American usage, the first cooling systems for food involved using ice. Artificial refrigeration began in the mid-1750s, and developed in the early 1800s, in 1834, the first working vapor-compression refrigeration system was built. The first commercial ice-making machine was invented in 1854, in 1913, refrigerators for home use were invented. In 1923 Frigidaire introduced the first self-contained unit, the introduction of Freon in the 1920s expanded the refrigerator market during the 1930s. Home freezers as separate compartments were introduced in 1940, frozen foods, previously a luxury item, became commonplace. Freezer units are used in households and in industry and commerce, commercial refrigerator and freezer units were in use for almost 40 years prior to the common home models. Most households use the style, which has been the basic style since the 1940s. A vapor compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators, refrigerator–freezers and freezers, newer refrigerators may include automatic defrosting, chilled water and ice from a dispenser in the door. Domestic refrigerators and freezers for food storage are made in a range of sizes, among the smallest is a 4 L Peltier refrigerator advertised as being able to hold 6 cans of beer. A large domestic refrigerator stands as tall as a person and may be about 1 m wide with a capacity of 600 L. Refrigerators and freezers may be free-standing, the refrigerator allows the modern household to keep food fresh for longer than before. Freezers allow people to buy food in bulk and eat it at leisure, before the invention of the refrigerator, icehouses were used to provide cool storage for most of the year. Placed near freshwater lakes or packed snow and ice during the winter
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Icebox
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An icebox is a compact non-mechanical refrigerator which was a common early-twentieth century kitchen appliance before the development of safe powered refrigeration devices. Iceboxes had hollow walls that were lined with tin or zinc and packed with various insulating materials such as cork, sawdust, a large block of ice was held in a tray or compartment near the top of the box. Cold air circulated down and around storage compartments in the lower section, some finer models had spigots for draining ice water from a catch pan or holding tank. In cheaper models a drip pan was placed under the box and had to be emptied at least daily, the user had to replenish the melted ice, normally by obtaining new ice from an iceman. Commonly iceboxes were made of wood, most probably for ease of construction, insulation, iceboxes date back to the days of ice harvesting, which had hit an industrial high that ran from the mid-19th century to the 1930s, when the refrigerator was introduced into the home. Most municipally consumed ice was harvested in winter from snow-packed areas or frozen lakes, stored in ice houses, and delivered domestically as iceboxes became more common. In 1907 survey of expenditures of New York City inhabitants, 81% of the surveyed were found to possess refrigerators either in the form of ice stored in a tub or iceboxes. The widespread use of iceboxes was partially credited with reduction of US infant mortality in summer months, with metropolitan growth, many sources of natural ice became contaminated from industrial pollution or sewer runoff. As early mechanical refrigerators became available, they were installed as large industrial plants producing ice for home delivery, able to produce clean, sanitary ice year-round, their product gradually replaced ice harvested from ponds. With widespread electrification and safer refrigerants, mechanical refrigeration in the home became possible, with the development of the chlorofluorocarbons, that came to replace the use of toxic ammonia gas, the refrigerator replaced the icebox. However, because of the prevalence of the icebox in recent human history, the horse-drawn ice wagon and the daily occupation of the iceman, who made regular door-to-door deliveries of block ice, was as much a social institution as the milk man. Apartment buildings had doors that opened to the ice box from the back porch. The ice man would bring the block of ice and insert it into the ice box through this door, Ice was delivered on a regular basis to these buildings and the people would pay for the ice. Children would go on the ice wagon and take chips of ice as treats during the summer. Travel cooler Coolgardie safe Pot-in-pot refrigerator Jonathan Rees, Refrigeration Nation, A History of Ice, Appliances, baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University Press,2013. Historical Highlights from the DeForest Area Historical Society, DeForest, Wisconsin
36.
Root cellar
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A root cellar is a structure, usually underground or partially underground, used for storage of vegetables, fruits, nuts, or other foods. Root cellaring has been important in various eras and places for winter food supply. Root cellars are for keeping food supplies at controlled temperatures and steady humidity, a few crops even keep better in low humidity. Root cellars keep food from freezing during the winter and keep cool during the summer to prevent spoilage. Typically, a variety of vegetables are placed in the cellar in the autumn. A secondary use for the cellar is as a place to store wine, beer. Vegetables stored in the root cellar primarily consist of potatoes, turnips, other food supplies placed in the root cellar over the winter months include beets, onions, jarred preserves and jams, salt meat, salt turbot, salt herring, winter squash, and cabbage. A potato cellar is sometimes called a potato barn or potato house, separate cellars are occasionally used for storing fruits, such as apples. Water, bread, butter, milk, and cream are sometimes stored in the cellar also. In addition, items such as greens, fresh meat. The ability of some vegetables and fruit to keep for months in favorable cellar conditions stems in part from the fact that they are not entirely inanimate even after picking. Although they may no longer qualify as living, the plant cells continue to respire in some impaired but nonzero way, the analogy is not exact, but the high humidity that supports many cellared crops is involved in this residual respiration. In some cases plants are transplanted from the field to the floor of a cellar in autumn. This is a form of extension in which the growing season is not extended. Closets, crawlspaces, garages, sheds, and attics have all used successfully for storage of at least some kinds of crops. Even the space under a bed can store some crops for several weeks, common construction methods are, Digging down into the ground and erecting a shed or house over the cellar. Digging into the side of a hill, building a structure at ground level and piling rocks, earth, and/or sod around and over it. This may be easier to build on rocky terrain where excavation is difficult, most root cellars were built using stone, wood, mortar, and sod
37.
New Castle, Indiana
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New Castle is a city in Henry County, Indiana,44 miles east-northeast of Indianapolis, on the Big Blue River. In 1900,3,406 people lived in the town, in 1910,9,446, in 1920,14,458, the population was 18,114 at the 2010 census. The city is the county seat of Henry County, New Castle is home to New Castle Fieldhouse, the largest high school gymnasium in the world. The city is surrounded by agricultural land, in the past, it was a manufacturing center for the production of sheet iron and steel, automobiles, caskets, clothing, scales, bridges, pianos, furniture, handles, shovels, lathes, bricks, and flour. New Castle Correctional Facility, with a capacity of over 3,500 inmates, is located just north of the city, New Castle was platted in 1823, and named after New Castle, Kentucky. A post office was established at New Castle in 1823, the Chrysler Enclosure, Gen. William Grose House, Henry County Courthouse, and New Castle Commercial Historic District are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. New Castle is located at 39°55′25″N 85°21′54″W, according to the 2010 census, New Castle has a total area of 7.311 square miles, of which 7.29 square miles is land and 0.021 square miles is water. New Castle is a third class city and has a city council chaired by the mayor. One council member is elected from each of the five districts. The clerk-treasurer and city judge are elected offices. City elections are every four years in the year preceding presidential elections. The mayor is elected by vote and appoints the police chief, fire chief, city attorney. List of mayors of New Castle, Indiana As of the census of 2010, there were 18,114 people,7,769 households, the population density was 2,481.4 inhabitants per square mile. There were 9,002 housing units at a density of 1,233.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 95. 1% White,1. 9% African American,0. 2% Native American,0. 4% Asian,0. 6% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 7% of the population. 34. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 15. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.93. The median age in the city was 39.5 years. 23. 4% of residents were under the age of 18,8. 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24,24. 7% were from 25 to 44,26. 4% were from 45 to 64, and 16. 7% were 65 years of age or older
38.
Hoosier
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Hoosier /ˈhuːʒər/ is the official demonym for a resident of the U. S. state of Indiana. The origin of the remains a matter of debate within the state. Anyone born in Indiana or a resident at the time is considered to be a Hoosier, Indiana adopted the nickname The Hoosier State more than 150 years ago. Hoosier is used in the names of numerous Indiana-based businesses and organizations, as there is no accepted embodiment of a Hoosier, the IU schools are represented through their letters and colors alone. In addition to acceptance by residents of Indiana, the term is also the official demonym according to the U. S. Government Publishing Office. In addition to The Hoosiers Nest, the term appeared in the Indianapolis Journals Carriers Address on January 1,1833. There are many suggestions for the derivation of the word, in 1900, Meredith Nicholson wrote The Hoosiers, an early attempt to study the etymology of the word as applied to Indiana residents. Jacob Piatt Dunn, longtime secretary of the Indiana Historical Society, published The Word Hoosier, Dunn traced the word back to the Cumbrian hoozer, meaning anything unusually large, derived from the Old English hoo, meaning high and hill. The importance of immigrants from northern England and southern Scotland was reflected in numerous placenames including the Cumberland Mountains, the Cumberland River, johnathan Clark Smith subsequently showed that Nicholson and Dunns earliest sources within Indiana were mistaken. A letter by James Curtis cited by Dunn and others as the earliest known use of the term was written in 1846. Similarly, the use of the term in an 1859 newspaper item quoting an 1827 diary entry by Sandford Cox was more likely an editorial comment and not from the original diary. Black Harry had been born a slave in North Carolina and sold north to Baltimore, Maryland, before gaining his freedom and he was a close associate and personal friend of Bishop Francis Asbury, the Father of the American Methodist Church. Benjamin Rush said that, making allowances for his illiteracy, he was the greatest orator in America and his sermons called on Methodists to reject slavery and champion the common working man. Piersen proposed that Methodist communities inspired by his example took or were given a variant spelling of his name during the decades after his ministry. Jorge Santander Serrano, a PhD student from Indiana University has also suggested that Hoosier might come from the French words for redness rougeur or red-faced rougeaud. ”Humorous folk etymologies for the term hoosier have a long history, as recounted by Dunn in The Word Hoosier. One account traces the word to the caution of approaching houses on the frontier. In order to avoid being shot, a traveler would call out from afar to let themselves be known, the inhabitants of the cabin would then reply Whos here. Which – in the Appalachian English of the early settlers – slurred into Whosh ere. the poet James Whitcomb Riley facetiously suggested that the fierce brawling that took place in Indiana involved enough biting that the expression Whose ear. became notable
39.
Home economics
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Home economics or domestic science, now known as family and consumer sciences, is the profession and field of study that deals with the economics and management of the home and community. The field deals with the relationship between individuals, families, and communities, and the environment in which they live. As a subject of study, FCS is taught in schools, colleges and universities, vocational schools. It prepares students for homemaking or professional careers, or to assist in preparing to fulfill real-life responsibilities at home, as an academic profession, it includes educators in the field and human services professionals. Other topics such as education, and fire prevention may also be covered. Family and consumer science was known in the United States as home economics. The field is known by other names, including human sciences, home science. One of the first to champion the economics of running a home was Catherine Beecher, sister to Harriet Beecher Stowe, Catherine and Harriet both were leaders in mid-19th century North America in talking about domestic science. They came from a religious family that valued education especially for women. Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Illinois, Minnesota and Michigan were early leaders offering programs for women, there were women graduates of these institutions several years before the Lake Placid Conferences which gave birth to the home economics movement. The home economics movement started with Ellen Swallow Richards, who was the first woman to attend Massachusetts Institute of Technology, through her chemistry research, she became an expert in water quality and later began to focus on applying scientific principles to domestic situations. She shunned an invitation to participate in the Women’s Building as she said none of her research was just women’s work and they met at pristine Lake Placid, New York at the invitation of Melvil Dewey. Over the course of the next 10 years, these educators worked tirelessly to elevate the discipline, Richards wanted to call this oekology or the science of right living. Euthenics, the science of environment, was also a name of her choice. Richards then founded the American Home Economics Association in 1909, in the 1910s the AHEA won passage of two crucial pieces of legislation that allowed home economists to establish formal niches for research and teaching within institutions of higher education. This legislation contributed to the creation of the Office of Home Economics, Home economics emerged at the turn of the twentieth century as a movement to train women to be more efficient household managers. At the same moment, American families began to consume many more goods, in the 19th century, home economics classes were intended to ready young women for their duties in the home in healthy environments. Classes were first offered in the United States, Canada, Germany and Great Britain, followed by Latin America, Asia, International organizations such as those associated with the United Nations have been involved in starting home economics programs around the world
40.
Harriet Beecher Stowe
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Harriet Elisabeth Beecher Stowe was an American abolitionist and author. She came from the Beecher family, a religious family. It depicts the life for African Americans under slavery. It reached millions as a novel and play, and became influential in the United States and it energized anti-slavery forces in the American North, while provoking widespread anger in the South. She wrote 30 books, including novels, three memoirs, and collections of articles and letters. She was influential for both her writings and her public stands on issues of the day. Harriet Elisabeth Beecher was born in Litchfield, Connecticut, on June 14,1811 and she was the seventh of 13 children born to outspoken Calvinist preacher Lyman Beecher and Roxana, a deeply religious woman who died when Stowe was only five years old. Roxanas maternal grandfather was General Andrew Ward of the Revolutionary War, among her classmates was Sarah P. Willis, who later wrote under the pseudonym Fanny Fern. In 1832, at the age of 21, Harriet Beecher moved to Cincinnati, Ohio to join her father, who had become the president of Lane Theological Seminary. There, she joined the Semi-Colon Club, a literary salon and social club whose members included the Beecher sisters, Caroline Lee Hentz, Salmon P. Chase, Emily Blackwell. Areas of the city had been wrecked in the Cincinnati riots of 1829, Beecher met a number of African Americans who had suffered in those attacks, and their experience contributed to her later writing about slavery. Riots took place again in 1836 and 1841, driven also by native-born anti-abolitionists and it was in the literary club that she met Calvin Ellis Stowe, a widower who was a professor at the seminary. The two married on January 6,1836 and he was an ardent critic of slavery, and the Stowes supported the Underground Railroad, temporarily housing several fugitive slaves in their home. Most slaves continued north to freedom in Canada. The Stowes had seven children together, including twin daughters, in 1850, Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Law, prohibiting assistance to fugitives and strengthening sanctions even in free states. At the time, Stowe had moved with her family to Brunswick, Maine and their home near the campus is protected as a national historic resource in her honor. Stowe claimed to have a vision of a slave during a communion service at the college chapel. However, what more likely allowed her to empathize with slaves was the loss of her eighteen-month-old son and she even stated the following, Having experienced losing someone so close to me, I can sympathize with all the poor, powerless slaves at the unjust auctions
41.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
42.
Laura Ingalls Wilder
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Laura Ingalls was born on February 7,1867,7 miles north of the village of Pepin in the Big Woods region of Wisconsin, to Charles Phillip Ingalls and Caroline Lake Ingalls. She was the second of five children, following Mary Amelia and their three younger siblings were Caroline Celestia, Charles Frederick, and Grace Pearl. Wilders birth site is commemorated by a log cabin, the Little House Wayside. Life there formed the basis for her first book, Little House in the Big Woods, Wilder was a descendant of the Delano family, the ancestral family of U. S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. A progenitor of the Delano family emigrated to the Plymouth Colony in the early 1620s, another ancestor, Edmund Rice. One paternal ancestor, Edmund Ingalls, was born on June 27,1586, in Skirbeck, Lincolnshire, England, and emigrated to America, Wilder moved with her family from the Big Woods of Wisconsin in the year 1869, before she was two years old. They stopped in Rothville, Missouri, and settled in Kansas and her younger sister Carrie was born there in August 1870, soon before they moved again. They had only just begun to farm when they were informed of their error, several neighbors stayed and fought eviction. From Kansas, the Ingalls family returned to Wisconsin, where lived for the next four years. Those experiences formed the basis for the novels Little House in the Big Woods, on the Banks of Plum Creek shows the family moving from Kansas to an area near Walnut Grove, Minnesota and settling in a dugout on the banks of Plum Creek. They really lived there beginning in 1874, when Wilder was about seven years old. That year the family moved, this time to Lake City, Minnesota, and then on to a preemption claim in Walnut Grove. Wilders younger and only brother, Charles Frederick Ingalls, was there on November 1,1875. The Ingalls next moved to Burr Oak, Iowa, where they helped run a hotel, Wilders youngest sibling, Grace, was born there on May 23,1877. The family moved from Burr Oak back to Walnut Grove, where Wilders father served as the town butcher and he accepted a railroad job in the spring of 1879, which took him to eastern Dakota Territory, where they joined him that fall. Wilder did not write about 1876–1877, when they lived near Burr Oak, thus the fictional timeline caught up with her real life. Wilders father filed for a formal homestead over the winter of 1879–1880, De Smet, South Dakota became her parents and sister Mary Ingalls home for the remainder of their lives. After spending the winter of 1879–1880 in the surveyors house
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De Smet, South Dakota
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De Smet is a city in and the county seat of Kingsbury County, South Dakota, United States. The population was 1,089 at the 2010 census, located in the area of South Dakota known as East River, De Smet was platted by European Americans in 1880. It was named for Belgian Father Pierre De Smet, a 19th-century Jesuit missionary who worked with Native Americans in the United States and its territories for most of his life. In the mid 1880s, prairie fires and failures of crops after a period of drought caused many settlers to relocate their farms. By 1917, De Smet was a cow town, with trains passing through every day carrying cattle to market. De Smet is located at 44°23′9″N 97°33′6″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.16 square miles, all of it land. De Smet has been assigned the ZIP code 57231 and the FIPS place code 16260, transportation for De Smet is by road, by air, or by the freight-only Rapid City, Pierre and Eastern Railroad. One of the two running through De Smet is U. S.14, in an east-west direction. The other is north-south South Dakota State Highway 25, as of the census of 2010, there were 1,089 people,478 households, and 290 families residing in the city. The population density was 938.8 inhabitants per square mile, there were 552 housing units at an average density of 475.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 98. 8% White,0. 1% African American,0. 6% Native American,0. 1% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 5% of the population. 35. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 22. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.17 and the average family size was 2.83. The median age in the city was 49.6 years. 22% of residents were under the age of 18,4. 1% were between the ages of 18 and 24,17. 9% were from 25 to 44, 26% were from 45 to 64, and 29. 9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47. 2% male and 52. 8% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,164 people,524 households, and 300 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,102.2 people per square mile, there were 582 housing units at an average density of 551.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 98. 37% White,0. 95% Native American,0. 09% Asian,0. 09% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 69% of the population. 39. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 24. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.09 and the average family size was 2.80
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Children's literature
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Childrens literature or juvenile literature includes stories, books, magazines, and poems that are enjoyed by children. Modern childrens literature is classified in two different ways, genre or the age of the reader. Childrens literature can be traced to stories and songs, part of an oral tradition. The development of childrens literature, before printing was invented, is difficult to trace. Even after printing became widespread, many childrens tales were originally created for adults. Since the 15th century, a quantity of literature, often with a moral or religious message, has been aimed specifically at children. The late nineteenth and early centuries became known as the Golden Age of Childrens Literature as this period included the publication of many books acknowledged today as classics. There is no single or widely used definition of childrens literature and it can be broadly defined as anything that children read or more specifically defined as fiction, non-fiction, poetry, or drama intended for and used by children and young people. The International Companion Encyclopedia of Childrens Literature notes that the boundaries of genre. are not fixed but blurred, sometimes, no agreement can be reached about whether a given work is best categorized as literature for adults or children. Rowlings Harry Potter series was written and marketed for young adults, the series extreme popularity led The New York Times to create a separate best-seller list for childrens books. Despite the widespread association of childrens literature with picture books, spoken narratives existed before printing, seth Lerer, in the opening of Childrens Literature, A Readers History from Aesop to Harry Potter, says, This book presents a history of what children have heard and read. The history I write of is a history of reception, early childrens literature consisted of spoken stories, songs, and poems that were used to educate, instruct, and entertain children. It was only in the 18th century, with the development of the concept of childhood, that a genre of childrens literature began to emerge, with its own divisions, expectations. French historian Philippe Ariès argues in his 1962 book Centuries of Childhood that the concept of childhood only emerged in recent times. He explains that children were in the past not considered as different from adults and were not given significantly different treatment. Pre-modern childrens literature, therefore, tended to be of a didactic and moralistic nature, with the purpose of conveying conduct-related, educational, during the 17th century, the concept of childhood began to emerge in Europe. Adults saw children as separate beings, innocent and in need of protection, the English philosopher John Locke developed his theory of the tabula rasa in his 1690 An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. A corollary of this doctrine was that the mind of the child was born blank, and he also suggested that picture books be created for children
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Mark Twain
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Samuel Langhorne Clemens, better known by his pen name Mark Twain, was an American writer, humorist, entrepreneur, publisher, and lecturer. Among his novels are The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and its sequel, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Twain was raised in Hannibal, Missouri, which later provided the setting for Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn. He served an apprenticeship with a printer and then worked as a typesetter and he later became a riverboat pilot on the Mississippi River before heading west to join Orion in Nevada. He referred humorously to his lack of success at mining, turning to journalism for the Virginia City Territorial Enterprise, the short story brought international attention and was even translated into classic Greek. His wit and satire, in prose and in speech, earned praise from critics and peers, and he was a friend to presidents, artists, industrialists, and European royalty. He filed for bankruptcy in the wake of financial setbacks. He chose to pay all his creditors in full, even though he had no legal responsibility to do so. Twain was born shortly after an appearance of Halleys Comet, and he predicted that he would go out with it as well and he was lauded as the greatest American humorist of his age, and William Faulkner called him the father of American literature. His parents met when his father moved to Missouri, and they were married in 1823, Twain was of Cornish, English, and Scots-Irish descent. Only three of his siblings survived childhood, Orion, Henry, and Pamela and his sister Margaret died when Twain was three, and his brother Benjamin died three years later. His brother Pleasant died at six months of age, slavery was legal in Missouri at the time, and it became a theme in these writings. His father was an attorney and judge, but he died of pneumonia in 1847, the next year, Twain left school after the fifth grade to become a printers apprentice. In 1851, he working as a typesetter, contributing articles and humorous sketches to the Hannibal Journal. He educated himself in libraries in the evenings, finding wider information than at a conventional school. Twain describes his boyhood in Life on the Mississippi, stating there was but one permanent ambition among his comrades. Pilot was the grandest position of all, the pilot, even in those days of trivial wages, had a princely salary – from a hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty dollars a month, and no board to pay. As Twain describes it, the pilots prestige exceeded that of the captain, bixby took Twain on as a cub pilot to teach him the river between New Orleans and St. Louis for $500, payable out of Twains first wages after graduating. It was more than two years before he received his pilots license, piloting gave also him his pen name from mark twain, the leadsmans cry for a measured river depth of two fathoms, which was safe water for a steamboat
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