1.
Post-consumer waste
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Post-consumer waste is a waste type produced by the end consumer of a material stream, that is, where the waste-producing use did not involve the production of another product. The terms of pre-consumer and post-consumer recycled materials are defined in the International Standards Organization standard number 14021 and these definitions are the most widely recognized and verified definitions as used by manufacturers and procurement officers worldwide. Quite commonly, it is simply the garbage that individuals routinely discard, either in a receptacle or a dump, or by littering, incinerating, pouring down the drain. Post-consumer waste is distinguished from pre-consumer waste, which is the reintroduction of manufacturing scrap back into the manufacturing process, pre-consumer waste is commonly used in manufacturing industries, and is often not considered recycling in the traditional sense. Anyone can search it, including the police, and any incriminating evidence recovered can be used at trial. This doctrine was established in The California v. Greenwood case and this has since led people to argue the legality of taking post-consumer waste for salvage value
2.
Paper mill
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A paper mill is a factory devoted to making paper from vegetable fibres such as wood pulp, old rags and other ingredients. While the use of human and animal powered mills was known to Chinese and Muslim papermakers, the general absence of the use of water-power in Muslim papermaking is suggested by the habit of Muslim authors to call a production center not a mill, but a paper manufactory. Although scholars have identified paper mills in Abbasid-era Baghdad in 794–795, in the Moroccan city of Fez, Ibn Battuta speaks of 400 mill stones for paper. Since Ibn Battuta does not mention the use of water-power and such a number of water-mills would be grotesquely high, the passage is generally taken to refer to human or animal force. An exhaustive survey of milling in Al-Andalus did not uncover a single water-powered paper mill, Burns remains altogether sceptical given the isolated occurrence of the reference and the prevalence of manual labour in Islamic papermaking elsewhere. Likewise, the identification of early hydraulic stamping mills in medieval documents from Fabriano, the earliest certain evidence to a water-powered paper mill dates to 1282 in the Spanish Kingdom of Aragon. A decree by the Christian king Peter III addresses the establishment of a royal molendinum, the first permanent paper mill north of the Alps was established in Nuremberg by Ulman Stromer in 1390, it is later depicted in the lavishly illustrated Nuremberg Chronicle. From the mid-14th century onwards, European paper milling underwent an improvement of many work processes. The size of a paper mill prior to the use of machines was described by counting the number of vats it had. Thus, a one vat paper mill had only one vatman, one coucher, by the early 20th century, paper mills sprang up around New England and the rest of the world, due to the high demand for paper. At this time, there were many leaders of the production of paper, one of such was the Brown Company in Berlin. During the year 1907, the Brown Company cut between 30 and 40 million acres of woodlands on their property, which extended from La Tuque, Quebec, Canada to West Palm, “Log drives” were conducted on local rivers to send the logs to the mills. By the late 20th and early 21st-century, paper began to close. Due to the addition of new machinery, many millworkers were laid off, Paper mills can be fully integrated mills or nonintegrated mills. Integrated mills consist of a mill and a paper mill on the same site. Such mills receive logs or wood chips and produce paper, modern paper machines can be 500 feet in length, produce a sheet 400 inches wide, and operate at speeds of more than 60 miles per hour. The two main suppliers of paper machines are Metso and Voith, Paper pollution Cutting stock problem List of paper mills Burns, Robert I. Paper comes to the West, 800−1400, in Lindgren, Uta, mann Verlag, pp. biz - Paper world directory and search engine for the pulp and paper world List of paper mills on paper and print monthly
3.
Molded pulp
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Molded pulp, also named moulded pulp or molded fibre, is a packaging material, typically made from recycled paperboard and/or newsprint. It is used for packaging or for food service trays. Other typical uses are end caps, trays, plates, bowls, for many applications, molded pulp is less expensive than expanded polystyrene, vacuumed formed PET and PVC, corrugation, and foams. Molded pulp products can be made waterproof with a spray or dip coating of wax, several types of molded pulp can be manufactured by several processes. These products usually have wall thicknesses of 1/16 to 1/4 and are used primarily for support packaging applications, thick-Wall is also commonly referred to as Slush Molded. The surfaces are rough on one side and moderately smooth on the opposite side. Product definition is due to the use of relatively inexpensive single-pass molds. Typical uses are for edge and edge protector, heavy item packaging, auto replacement parts, transfer molded products are usually thin walled, 1/16 to 3/16, and are the most prevalent type in use today. The process uses vacuum forming and take-off or transfer molds, where the mold is a fine wire mesh in the shape of the upper/exposed surface. Prior to the process, the mesh is mated with a vacuum chamber that draws water through the mesh into the chamber. The fibrous slurry is sprayed from below onto the mold, typical uses of transfer molded products are for packaging electronic equipment, cellular phones and other household and hardware items. This newest form of molded pulp is the highest quality of thin walled products available today, the process uses Cure-In-The-Mold technology which produces well defined, smooth surfaced molded pulp products. After being formed, the product is captured in heated forming molds which presses and densifies the molded products and they are accurately formed and have the appearance of plastic material. The products are ejected from the molds in their finished state as opposed to being dried in a heated oven. Typical uses for this type are for packaging and those applications where high definition. This type of molded pulp product is that which has some kind of secondary processing which is generally different from or in addition to. This could apply to any of the first three types, secondary processing could be coating, printing, hot-pressing, die-cutting, trimming or manufactured using colors or special slurry additives. Uses are for many kinds of custom applications, Packaging cushioning Sustainable packaging Yam, K. L. Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology, John Wiley & Sons,2009, ISBN 978-0-470-08704-6
4.
Ink
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Ink is a liquid or paste that contains pigments or dyes and is used to color a surface to produce an image, text, or design. Ink is used for drawing or writing with a pen, brush, thicker inks, in paste form, are used extensively in letterpress and lithographic printing. Ink can be a medium, composed of solvents, pigments, dyes, resins, lubricants, solubilizers, surfactants, particulate matter, fluorescents. The components of inks serve many purposes, the carrier, colorants. Pigments are solid, opaque particles suspended in ink to provide color, pigment molecules typically link together in crystalline structures that are 0. 1–2 µm in size and comprise 5–30 percent of the ink volume. Qualities such as hue, saturation, and lightness vary depending on the source, dye-based inks are generally much stronger than pigment-based inks and can produce much more color of a given density per unit of mass. However, because dyes are dissolved in the phase, they have a tendency to soak into paper, making the ink less efficient. To circumvent this problem, dye-based inks are made with solvents that dry rapidly or are used with quick-drying methods of printing, other methods include harder paper sizing and more specialized paper coatings. The latter is particularly suited to inks used in non-industrial settings, another technique involves coating the paper with a charged coating. If the dye has the charge, it is attracted to and retained by this coating. Cellulose, the material most paper is made of, is naturally charged. Such a compound is used in ink-jet printing inks. A more recent development in dye-based inks are dyes that react with cellulose to permanently color the paper, such inks are not affected by water, alcohol, and other solvents. As such, their use is recommended to prevent frauds that involve removing signatures and this kind of ink is most commonly found in gel inks and in certain fountain pen inks. Many ancient cultures around the world have discovered and formulated inks for the purposes of writing and drawing. The knowledge of the inks, their recipes and the techniques for their production comes from archaeological analysis or from written text itself. Evidence for the earliest Chinese inks, similar to modern inksticks, is around 256 BC in the end of the Warring States period and produced from soot, the best inks for drawing or painting on paper or silk are produced from the resin of the pine tree. They must be between 50 and 100 years old, the Chinese inkstick is produced with a fish glue, whereas Japanese glue is from cow or stag
5.
Pulp (paper)
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Pulp is a lignocellulosic fibrous material prepared by chemically or mechanically separating cellulose fibres from wood, fiber crops or waste paper. The wood fiber sources required for pulping are 45% sawmill residue, 21% logs and chips, many kinds of paper are made from wood with nothing else mixed into them. This includes newspaper, magazines and even toilet paper, Pulp is one of the most abundant raw materials worldwide. Using wood to make paper is a recent innovation. The ancient Egyptians were the first to make paper from reeds, papermaking using cotton and linen fibers spread to Europe in the 13th century, and the increasing use of fabric brought more rag paper, which was a factor in the development of printing. By the 1800s, fibre crops such as flax, which provided linen fibres, were still the material source. Chemical processes quickly followed, first with J. Roths use of acid to treat wood, then by Benjamin Tilghmans U. S. patent on the use of calcium bisulfite, Ca2. Almost a decade later, the first commercial sulfite pulp mill was built and it used magnesium as the counter ion and was based on work by Carl Daniel Ekman. By 1900, sulfite pulping had become the dominant means of producing wood pulp, the competing chemical pulping process, the sulfate, or kraft, process, was developed by Carl F. Dahl in 1879, the first kraft mill started, in Sweden, in 1890. The invention of the boiler, by G. H. Tomlinson in the early 1930s, allowed kraft mills to recycle almost all of their pulping chemicals, global production of wood pulp in 2006 was 175 million tons. In the previous year,63 million tons of market pulp was sold, with Canada being the largest source at 21 percent of the total, chemical pulp made up 93 percent of market pulp. The timber resources used to make wood pulp are referred to as pulpwood, wood pulp comes from softwood trees such as spruce, pine, fir, larch and hemlock, and hardwoods such as eucalyptus, aspen and birch. A pulp mill is a facility that converts wood chips or other plant fibre source into a thick fiberboard which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical or fully chemical methods, the finished product may be either bleached or non-bleached, depending on the customer requirements. Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three components, cellulose fibers, lignin and hemicelluloses. The aim of pulping is to break down the structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts. The various mechanical pulping methods, such as groundwood and refiner mechanical pulping, much of the lignin remains adhering to the fibres
6.
Deinking
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Deinking is the industrial process of removing printing ink from paperfibers of recycled paper to make deinked pulp. The key in the process is the ability to detach ink from the fibers. This is achieved by a combination of action and chemical means. In Europe the most common process is froth flotation deinking, Paper is one of the main targets for recycling. A concern about recycling wood pulp paper is that the fibers are degraded with each cycle and after being recycled 4–6 times the fibers become too short and weak to be useful in making paper. Before the invention of the machine in 1799 the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles. The rags were from hemp, linen and cotton and it was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was independent of recycled materials. Recycling of used paper before the industrialisation of paper production, rag paper was recycled to make low-grade board, a process for removing printing inks from recycled paper was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774. He practiced together with German paper producer Johann Engelhard Schmid, today this method is called deinking. First in the 1950s and 1960s the use of recycled fibres from paper made of wood pulp begun to increase, in the 1950s the froth flotation technique was adapted for deinking recycled paper. Use of recovered paper increased in the 1970s mainly in graphic and hygienic papers, the annual growth in use of recovered paper increased by 6% between 1980 and 1996. The use of virgin fibres only increased 2% in the same period, in 1997 recovered paper production was 42% of the total paper production. Waste paper may contain a mixture of different paper types made of mixtures of different paperfibers and these must be sorted before processed. Broke is normally used directly in the papermachine, office waste Old magazine papers Old newsprint Paperboard Corrugated fiberboard Recycled paper can be used to make paper of the same or lower quality than it was originally. The sorted paper is baled and shipped to a papermill, the pulpmill uses waste paper grade according to the paper quality they want to make. The bales are opened and large objects are sorted out on the conveyor belt to the pulper. Many extraneous materials are readily removed, twine, strapping, etc. are removed from the hydropulper by a ragger. Metal straps and staples can be screened out or removed by a magnet, film-backed pressure-sensitive tape stays intact, the PSA adhesive and the backing are both removed together
7.
Sieve
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The word sift derives from sieve. In cooking, a sifter is used to separate and break up clumps in dry ingredients such as flour, as well as to aerate, a strainer is a form of sieve used to separate solids from liquid. Some industrial strainers available are simplex basket strainers, duplex basket strainers, simple basket strainers are used to protect valuable or sensitive equipment in systems that are meant to be shut down temporarily. Some commonly used strainers are bell mouth strainers, foot valve strainers, most processing industries will opt for a self-cleaning strainer instead of a basket strainer or a simplex strainer due to limitations of simple filtration systems. The self-cleaning strainers or filters are more efficient and provide an automatic filtration solution, sieving is a simple technique for separating particles of different sizes. A sieve such as used for sifting flour has very small holes, coarse particles are separated or broken up by grinding against one-another and screen openings. Depending upon the types of particles to be separated, sieves with different types of holes are used, sieves are also used to separate stones from sand. Triage sieving refers to grouping people according to their severity of injury, the mesh in a wooden sieve might be made from wood or wicker. Use of wood to avoid contamination is important when the sieve is used for sampling, henry Stephens, in his Book of the Farm, advised that the withes of a wooden riddle or sieve be made from fir or willow with American elm being best. The rims would be made of fir, oak or, especially, a sieve analysis is a practice or procedure used to assess the particle size distribution of a granular material. Sieve sizes used in combinations of four to eight sieves
8.
Plastic
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Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and can be molded into solid objects. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses. In developed countries, about a third of plastic is used in packaging, other uses include automobiles, furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the ratios may be different - for example, the worlds first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland who coined the term plastics. Toward the end of the century, one approach to this problem was met with wide efforts toward recycling, the word plastic is derived from the Greek πλαστικός meaning capable of being shaped or molded, from πλαστός meaning molded. The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products, thermally insulation foams. Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being dark colors, One of the most expensive commercial polymers. It forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended in water with the use of other agents, polytetrafluoroethylene – Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumbers tape and water slides. It is more known as Teflon. Urea-formaldehyde – One of the aminoplasts and used as an alternative to phenolics. Used as an adhesive and electrical switch housings. Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, in 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines. Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages, materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk-proteins with lye. In the 1800s, as industrial chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution, the development of plastics also accelerated with Charles Goodyears discovery of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived from natural rubber. Parkesine is considered the first man-made plastic, the plastic material was patented by Alexander Parkes, In Birmingham, UK in 1856. It was unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London, parkesine won a bronze medal at the 1862 Worlds fair in London
9.
Newsprint
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Newsprint is a low-cost non-archival paper consisting mainly of wood pulp and most commonly used to print newspapers and other publications and advertising material. Invented in 1844 by Charles Fenerty of Nova Scotia, Canada, it usually has an off white cast and it is designed for use in printing presses that employ a long web of paper rather than individual sheets of paper. Newsprint is favored by publishers and printers as it is low cost, strong. Charles Fenerty began experimenting with wood pulp around 1838, making his discovery in 1844, World demand of newsprint in 2006 totaled about 37.2 million metric tonnes, according to the Montreal-based Pulp & Paper Products Council. This was about 1. 6% less than in 2000, between 2000 and 2006, the biggest changes were in Asia—which saw newsprint demand grow by about 20%—and North America, where demand fell by about 25%. Demand in China virtually doubled during the period, to about 3.2 million metric tonnes, about 35% of global newsprint usage in 2006 was in Asia, with approximately 26% being in North America and about 25% in Western Europe. Latin America and Eastern Europe each represented about 5% of world demand in 2006, according to PPPC, with smaller shares going to Oceania, according to NAA, daily ad revenues reached their all-time peak in 2000, and by 2007 had fallen by 13%. Newsprint demand has also affected by attempts on the part of newspaper publishers to reduce marginal printing costs through various conservation measures intended to cut newsprint usage. According to the World Association of Newspapers, in 2007 Asia was the home to 74 of the world’s 100 highest-circulation dailies, with millions of Chinese and Indians entering the ranks of those with disposable income, newspapers have gained readers along with other news media. Newsprint is used worldwide in the printing of newspapers, flyers, in the U. S. about 80% of all newsprint that is consumed is purchased by daily newspaper publishers, according to PPPC. Dailies use a majority of total demand in most other regions as well. In such cases the press owner might also purchase newsprint from the mill for such contract printing jobs, the biggest inputs to the newsprint manufacturing process are energy, fiber, and labor. Mill operating margins have been affected in the 2006–2008 time-frame by rising energy costs. Many mills fiber costs have also been affected during the U. S, another consideration in the newsprint business is delivery, which is affected by energy cost trends. Newsprint around the world may be delivered by rail or truck, or by barge, the cost-competitiveness of each freight mode for a specific mill’s business may depend on local infrastructure issues, as well as the degree of truck-vs-freight competition in the mills region. The appropriate freight mode for delivery from a mill to a specific pressroom can also depend on the press ability to accept enough trucks or rail cars. A newspaper rolls width is called its web width and is defined by how many front pages it can print, a full roll prints four front pages with four back pages behind it. Modern printing facilities most efficiently print newspapers in multiples of eight pages on a newsprint roll in two sections of four pages each
10.
Kraft process
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The kraft process is a process for conversion of wood into wood pulp, which consists of almost pure cellulose fibers, the main component of paper. The technology entails several steps, both mechanical and chemical and it is the dominant method for producing paper. In some situations, the process has been controversial because kraft plants can release smelly products, the kraft process was invented by Carl F. Dahl in 1879 in Danzig, Prussia, Germany. Patent 296,935 was issued in 1884, and a mill using this technology started in 1890. The invention of the boiler by G. H. Tomlinson in the early 1930s was a milestone in the advancement of the kraft process. For this reason, in the 1940s, the kraft process superseded the sulfite process as the dominant method for producing wood pulp, common wood chips used in pulp production are 12–25 millimetres long and 2–10 millimetres thick. The chips normally first enter the presteaming where they are wetted and preheated with steam, cavities inside fresh wood chips are partly filled with liquid and partly with air. The steam treatment causes the air to expand and about 25% of the air to be expelled from the chips, the next step is to saturate the chips with black and white liquor. Air remaining in chips at the beginning of liquor impregnation is trapped within the chips, the impregnation can be done before or after the chips enters the digester and is normally done below 100 °C. The cooking liquors consist of a mixture of white liquor, water in chips, condensed steam, in the impregnation, cooking liquor penetrates into the capillary structure of the chips and low temperature chemical reactions with the wood begin. A good impregnation is important to get a homogeneous cook and low rejects, about 40–60% of all alkali consumption in the continuous process occurs in the impregnation zone. The wood chips are cooked in pressurized vessels called digesters. Some digesters operate in a manner and some in a continuous process. There are several variations of the processes both for the batch and the continuous digesters. Digesters producing 1,000 tonnes or more of pulp per day are common, in a continuous digester, the materials are fed at a rate which allows the pulping reaction to be complete by the time the materials exit the reactor. Typically, delignification requires several hours at 170 to 176 °C, under these conditions lignin and hemicellulose degrade to give fragments that are soluble in the strongly basic liquid. The solid pulp is collected and washed, at this point the pulp is known as brown stock because of its color. The combined liquids, known as liquor, contain lignin fragments, carbohydrates from the breakdown of hemicellulose, sodium carbonate, sodium sulfate
11.
Lignin
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Lignin is a class of complex organic polymers that form important structural materials in the support tissues of vascular plants and some algae. Lignins are particularly important in the formation of walls, especially in wood and bark, because they lend rigidity. Chemically, lignins are cross-linked phenolic polymers and he named the substance “lignine”, which is derived from the Latin word lignum, meaning wood. It is one of the most abundant organic polymers on Earth, lignin constitutes 30% of non-fossil organic carbon and 20-35% of the dry mass of wood. The Carboniferous Period is in part defined by the evolution of lignin, the composition of lignin varies from species to species. An example of composition from a sample is 63. 4% carbon,5. 9% hydrogen,0. 7% ash. As a biopolymer, lignin is unusual because of its heterogeneity and its most commonly noted function is the support through strengthening of wood in vascular plants. Global commercial production of lignin is around 1.1 million metric tons per year and is used in a range of low volume, niche applications where the form. Lignin fills the spaces in the wall between cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin components, especially in vascular and support tissues, xylem tracheids, vessel elements. It is covalently linked to hemicellulose and therefore cross-links different plant polysaccharides, conferring mechanical strength to the cell wall and it is particularly abundant in compression wood but scarce in tension wood, which are types of reaction wood. Lignin plays a part in conducting water in plant stems. The polysaccharide components of plant cell walls are highly hydrophilic and thus permeable to water, the crosslinking of polysaccharides by lignin is an obstacle for water absorption to the cell wall. Thus, lignin makes it possible for the vascular tissue to conduct water efficiently. Lignin is present in all plants, but not in bryophytes. However, it is present in red algae, which seems to suggest that the ancestor of plants. This would suggest that its function was structural, it plays this role in the red alga Calliarthron. Another possibility is that the lignins in red algae and in plants are result of convergent evolution, lignin plays a significant role in the carbon cycle, sequestering atmospheric carbon into the living tissues of woody perennial vegetation. Lignin is one of the most slowly decomposing components of dead vegetation, the resulting soil humus, in general, holds nutrients onto its surface, and hence increases its cation exchange capacity and moisture retention, hence it increases the productivity of soil
12.
Reforestation
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Reforestation is the natural or intentional restocking of existing forests and woodlands that have been depleted, usually through deforestation. Sometimes the term re-afforestation is used to distinguish between the original forest cover and the later re-growth of forest to an area, forestation is the establishment of forest growth on areas that either had forest or lacked it. Special tools, e. g. tree planting bars, are used to make planting of trees easier and faster, a debated issue in managed reforestation is whether or not the succeeding forest will have the same biodiversity as the original forest. If the forest is replaced with one species of tree and all other vegetation is prevented from growing back. However, most reforestation involves the planting of different seedlots of seedlings taken from the area, another important factor is the natural regeneration of a wide variety of plant and animal species that can occur on a clear cut. In some areas the suppression of forest fires for hundreds of years has resulted in large single aged, the logging of small clear cuts and/or prescribed burning, actually increases the biodiversity in these areas by creating a greater variety of tree stand ages and species. Reforestation need not be used for recovery of accidentally destroyed forests. In some countries, such as Finland, many of the forests are managed by the products and pulp. In such an arrangement, like other crops, trees are planted to replace those that have been cut, in such circumstances, the industry can cut the trees in a way to allow easier reforestation. The wood products industry systematically replaces many of the trees it cuts, for example, in 2010, Weyerhaeuser reported planting 50 million seedlings. However replanting an old-growth forest with a plantation is not replacing the old with the characteristics in the new. In just 20 years, a plantation in Costa Rica can produce up to about 400 m³ of wood per hectare. As the natural forests of Asia become more scarce or difficult to obtain. Other species such as mahogany grow more slowly than teak in Tropical America but are extremely valuable. Faster growers include pine, eucalyptus, and Gmelina, the reestablishment of forests is not just simple tree planting. Forests are made up of a community of species and they build dead organic matter into soils over time, a major tree-planting program could enhance the local climate and reduce the demands of burning large amounts of fossil fuels for cooling in the summer. Forests are an important part of the carbon cycle because trees. By removing this greenhouse gas from the air, forests function as terrestrial carbon sinks, at any time, forests account for as much as double the amount of carbon in the atmosphere
13.
Forest Stewardship Council
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The Forest Stewardship Council is an international non-profit, multi-stakeholder organization established in 1993 to promote responsible management of the world’s forests. The FSC does this by setting standards on forest products, along with certifying and labeling them as eco-friendly, the FSC’s stated mission is to promote environmentally appropriate, socially beneficial and economically viable management of the worlds forests. To this end the body has published a Global Strategy with five Goals, ensure equitable access to the benefits of FSC systems. Ensure integrity, credibility and transparency of the FSC system, create business value for products from FSC certified forests. Strengthen the global network to deliver on goals 1 through 4, using the FSC logo signifies that the product comes from responsible sources — environmentally appropriate, socially beneficial and economically viable. The FSC label is used on a range of timber and non-timber products from paper and furniture to medicine. And aims to give consumers the option of supporting responsible forestry, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, half of the world’s forests have already been altered, degraded, destroyed or converted into other land uses. Much of the remaining forests today suffer from illegal exploitation and otherwise poor management, FSC was established as a response to these concerns over global deforestation. Prior to this, a number of economic and regulatory mechanisms such as financial aid, policy frameworks. These include the International Tropical Timber Agreement, the Convention of International Trade on Endangered Species, in the lead up to the Earth Summit, social groups, NGOs and industries were also beginning to consult on the issue of deforestation. Through stakeholder involvement it became apparent that a body would be required to verify the source of wood products. After 18 months of consultation in ten different countries, the Forest Stewardship Council was finally established in 1993, FSC is an international membership organization with a governance structure based on participation, democracy, equity and transparency. It is a platform for forest owners, timber industries, social groups, FSC has three levels of decision making bodies, The General Assembly, the Board of Directors and the Executive Director. The General Assembly, which place every three years, is made up of the three membership chambers and is the highest decision-making body in FSC. The most recent General Assembly took place in 2014, every member has the right to attend, formulate and submit motions, and vote. The General Assembly represents an opportunity for everybody to share, learn, establish new alliances and exchange, the FSC Board of Directors is accountable to the FSC members. It is made up of nine elected individuals who are FSC members, one member of the Board of Directors is elected from each sub-chamber of the General Assembly. The Executive Director runs FSC on a basis with the support of a multi-cultural professional team at the FSC International Center
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Energy Information Administration
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The U. S. Energy Information Administration is a principal agency of the U. S. EIA programs cover data on coal, petroleum, natural gas, electric, renewable and nuclear energy. EIA is part of the U. S. Department of Energy, the EIA disseminates its data products, analyses, reports, and services to customers and stakeholders primarily through its website and the customer contact center. Located in Washington, D. C. the EIA has about 325 federal employees, by law, the EIA’s products are prepared independently of policy considerations. The EIA neither formulates nor advocates any policy conclusions. ”More than 2 million people use the EIA’s information online each month, some of the EIA’s products include, General Interest Energy Information Energy Explained, Energy information written for a general, non-technical audience. A nonpartisan guide to the range of energy topics from biodiesel to uranium. Energy Kids Page, A very popular product from the EIA is its “Kid’s Page”, which students, citizens. Energy Glossary, Common energy terms defined in plain language and this Week in Petroleum, Weekly summary and explanation of events in U. S. and world petroleum markets, including weekly data. Natural Gas Weekly Update, Weekly summary and discussion of events, Data and Surveys Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Update, Weekly price data for U. S. national and regional averages. Monthly Energy Review, Provides statistics on monthly and annual U. S. national energy consumption going back in some cases to 1949, the figures are given in units of quads Annual Energy Review, EIAs primary report of historical annual energy statistics. For many series, data begin with the year 1949 and this report has been superseded by the Monthly Energy Review and was not produced for 2012. Country Energy Profiles, Data by country, region, and commercial group for 219 countries with additional country analysis notes for 87 of these, country Analysis Briefs, EIAs in-depth analyses of energy production, consumption, imports, and exports for 36 individual countries and regions. Residential Energy Consumption Survey, EIAs comprehensive survey and analysis of energy consumption, household characteristics. Projections and Outlooks Short-Term Energy Outlook, Energy projections for the next 13-24 months, Annual Energy Outlook, Projection and analysis of U. S. energy supply, demand, and prices through 2040 based on EIAs National Energy Modeling System. Projections are currently based on existing legislation, without assumption of any future Congressional action or technological advancement, international Energy Outlook, EIAs assessment of the outlook for international energy markets through 2040. It also provided the FEA with data collection enforcement authority for gathering data from energy producing, Section 205 of this law established the Energy Information Administration as the primary federal government authority on energy statistics and analysis to carry out a. The same law established that EIA’s processes and products are independent from review by Executive Branch officials, the majority of EIA energy data surveys are based on the general mandates set forth above. However, there are some surveys specifically mandated by law, including, EIA-28, eIA-1605 and 1605EZ, Voluntary Reporting of Greenhouse Gases - Section 1605 of the Energy Policy Act of 1992. EIA-886, Annual Survey of Alternative Fueled Vehicle Suppliers and Users - Section 503 of the Energy Policy Act of 1992, eIA-858, Uranium Marketing Annual Survey - Section 1015 of the Energy Policy Act of 1992
15.
Bureau of International Recycling
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The organisation serves as a platform to promote business relations and recycling among industry and to liaise with policy makers. It also provides data on the industry to organisations such as the OECD. Founded in 1948, the BIR is the oldest international association in the recycling sector and this initiative was therefore was started in Europe and was eventually expand its reach to the worldwide stage. The process started in March 1948 when leading recyclers met in Amsterdam, following this first meeting, the presidents of the Belgian and Dutch scrap organisations invited Luxembourg, France and Great Britain to join BIR. Later, the invitation would be extended to the Scandinavian countries. BIR soon became acknowledged by national and international bodies, as well as by governments, other countries applied for membership including Switzerland, the United States and Sweden. In 1953, during the BIR Convention in Paris, the Federal Republic of Germany also joined. On a world level, BIR continued to expand to other non-EU countries, and in particular into Eastern Europe, Russia and Asia, eventually changing name to become the Bureau of International Recycling
16.
Kilowatt hour
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The kilowatt-hour is a derived unit of energy equal to 3.6 megajoules. If the energy is being transmitted or used at a constant rate over a period of time, the kilowatt-hour is commonly used as a billing unit for energy delivered to consumers by electric utilities. The kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy equivalent to one kilowatt of power sustained for one hour. 1 k W ⋅ h = =3600 =3600 k J =3.6 M J One watt is equal to 1 J/s. One kilowatt-hour is 3.6 megajoules, which is the amount of energy converted if work is done at a rate of one thousand watts for one hour. The base unit of energy within the International System of Units is the joule, the hour is a unit of time outside the SI, making the kilowatt-hour a non-SI unit of energy. The kilowatt-hour is not listed among the non-SI units accepted by the BIPM for use with the SI, although the hour, an electric heater rated at 1000 watts, operating for one hour uses one kilowatt-hour of energy. A television rated at 100 watts operating for 10 hours continuously uses one kilowatt-hour, a 40-watt light bulb operating continuously for 25 hours uses one kilowatt-hour. Electrical energy is sold in kilowatt-hours, cost of running equipment is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours, the unit price of electricity may depend upon the rate of consumption and the time of day. Industrial users may also have extra charges according to their peak usage, the symbol kWh is commonly used in commercial, educational, scientific and media publications, and is the usual practice in electrical power engineering. Other abbreviations and symbols may be encountered, kW h is less commonly used and it is consistent with SI standards. This is supported by a standard issued jointly by an international and national organization. However, at least one major usage guide and the IEEE/ASTM standard allow kWh, One guide published by NIST specifically recommends avoiding kWh to avoid possible confusion. KW·h is, like kW h, preferred with SI standards, the US official fuel-economy window sticker for electric vehicles uses the abbreviation kW-hrs. Variations in capitalization are sometimes seen, KWh, KWH, kwh, the notation kW/h, as a symbol for kilowatt-hour, is not correct. To convert a quantity measured in a unit in the column to the units in the top row, multiply by the factor in the cell where the row. All the SI prefixes are commonly applied to the watt-hour, a kilowatt-hour is 1,000 W·h (symbols kW·h, kWh or kW h, a megawatt-hour is 1 million W·h, a milliwatt-hour is 1/1000 W·h and so on. Megawatt-hours, gigawatt-hours, and terawatt-hours are often used for metering larger amounts of energy to industrial customers
17.
Joule
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The joule, symbol J, is a derived unit of energy in the International System of Units. It is equal to the transferred to an object when a force of one newton acts on that object in the direction of its motion through a distance of one metre. It is also the energy dissipated as heat when a current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second. It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule, one joule can also be defined as, The work required to move an electric charge of one coulomb through an electrical potential difference of one volt, or one coulomb volt. This relationship can be used to define the volt, the work required to produce one watt of power for one second, or one watt second. This relationship can be used to define the watt and this SI unit is named after James Prescott Joule. As with every International System of Units unit named for a person, note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, section 5.2. The CGPM has given the unit of energy the name Joule, the use of newton metres for torque and joules for energy is helpful to avoid misunderstandings and miscommunications. The distinction may be also in the fact that energy is a scalar – the dot product of a vector force. By contrast, torque is a vector – the cross product of a distance vector, torque and energy are related to one another by the equation E = τ θ, where E is energy, τ is torque, and θ is the angle swept. Since radians are dimensionless, it follows that torque and energy have the same dimensions, one joule in everyday life represents approximately, The energy required to lift a medium-size tomato 1 m vertically from the surface of the Earth. The energy released when that same tomato falls back down to the ground, the energy required to accelerate a 1 kg mass at 1 m·s−2 through a 1 m distance in space. The heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 0.24 °C, the typical energy released as heat by a person at rest every 1/60 s. The kinetic energy of a 50 kg human moving very slowly, the kinetic energy of a 56 g tennis ball moving at 6 m/s. The kinetic energy of an object with mass 1 kg moving at √2 ≈1.4 m/s, the amount of electricity required to light a 1 W LED for 1 s. Since the joule is also a watt-second and the unit for electricity sales to homes is the kW·h. For additional examples, see, Orders of magnitude The zeptojoule is equal to one sextillionth of one joule,160 zeptojoules is equivalent to one electronvolt. The nanojoule is equal to one billionth of one joule, one nanojoule is about 1/160 of the kinetic energy of a flying mosquito
18.
Tonne
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The SI symbol for the tonne is t, adopted at the same time as the unit itself in 1879. Its use is also official, for the metric ton, within the United States, having been adopted by the US National Institute of Standards and it is a symbol, not an abbreviation, and should not be followed by a period. Informal and non-approved symbols or abbreviations include T, mT, MT, in French and all English-speaking countries that are predominantly metric, tonne is the correct spelling. Before metrication in the UK the unit used for most purposes was the Imperial ton of 2,240 pounds avoirdupois, equivalent to 1,016 kg, differing by just 1. 6% from the tonne. Ton and tonne are both derived from a Germanic word in use in the North Sea area since the Middle Ages to designate a large cask. A full tun, standing about a high, could easily weigh a tonne. An English tun of wine weighs roughly a tonne,954 kg if full of water, in the United States, the unit was originally referred to using the French words millier or tonneau, but these terms are now obsolete. The Imperial and US customary units comparable to the tonne are both spelled ton in English, though they differ in mass, one tonne is equivalent to, Metric/SI,1 megagram. Equal to 1000000 grams or 1000 kilograms, megagram, Mg, is the official SI unit. Mg is distinct from mg, milligram, pounds, Exactly 1000/0. 453 592 37 lb, or approximately 2204.622622 lb. US/Short tons, Exactly 1/0. 907 184 74 short tons, or approximately 1.102311311 ST. One short ton is exactly 0.90718474 t, imperial/Long tons, Exactly 1/1. 016 046 9088 long tons, or approximately 0.9842065276 LT. One long ton is exactly 1.0160469088 t, for multiples of the tonne, it is more usual to speak of thousands or millions of tonnes. Kilotonne, megatonne, and gigatonne are more used for the energy of nuclear explosions and other events. When used in context, there is little need to distinguish between metric and other tons, and the unit is spelt either as ton or tonne with the relevant prefix attached. *The equivalent units columns use the short scale large-number naming system used in most English-language countries. †Values in the equivalent short and long tons columns are rounded to five significant figures, ǂThough non-standard, the symbol kt is also sometimes used for knot, a unit of speed for sea-going vessels, and should not be confused with kilotonne. A metric ton unit can mean 10 kilograms within metal trading and it traditionally referred to a metric ton of ore containing 1% of metal. In the case of uranium, the acronym MTU is sometimes considered to be metric ton of uranium, in the petroleum industry the tonne of oil equivalent is a unit of energy, the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil, approximately 42 GJ
19.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
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The EPA was proposed by President Richard Nixon and began operation on December 2,1970, after Nixon signed an executive order. The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House, the agency is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by Congress. The current administrator is Scott Pruitt, the EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The EPA has its headquarters in Washington, D. C. regional offices for each of the ten regions. The agency conducts environmental assessment, research, and education and it has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tribal, and local governments. It delegates some permitting, monitoring, and enforcement responsibility to U. S. states, EPA enforcement powers include fines, sanctions, and other measures. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs. In 2016, the agency had 15,376 full-time employees, more than half of EPAs employees are engineers, scientists, and environmental protection specialists, other employees include legal, public affairs, financial, and information technologists. Beginning in the late 1950s and through the 1960s, Congress reacted to increasing concern about the impact that human activity could have on the environment. Senator James E. Murray introduced a bill, the Resources and Conservation Act of 1959, the 1962 publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson alerted the public about the detrimental effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides. In the years following, similar bills were introduced and hearings were held to discuss the state of the environment, in the colloquium, some members of Congress expressed a continuing concern over federal agency actions affecting the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was modeled on RCA, President Nixon signed NEPA into law on January 1,1970. The law created the Council on Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the President, NEPA required that a detailed statement of environmental impacts be prepared for all major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. The detailed statement would ultimately be referred to as an impact statement. On July 9,1970, Nixon proposed a reorganization that consolidated many environmental responsibilities of the federal government under one agency. After conducting hearings during that summer, the House and Senate approved the proposal, the agency’s first administrator, William Ruckelshaus, took the oath of office on December 4,1970. In May 2013, Congress renamed the EPA headquarters as the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, the EPA is led by an Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. As of 2017 Scott Pruitt is the 14th administrator, each EPA regional office is responsible within its states for implementing the Agencys programs, except those programs that have been specifically delegated to states
20.
Pulp mill
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A pulp mill is a manufacturing facility that converts wood chips or other plant fibre source into a thick fibre board which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical or fully chemical methods, the finished product may be either bleached or non-bleached, depending on the customer requirements. Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three components, cellulose fibres, lignin and hemicelluloses. The aim of pulping is to break down the structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts. The various mechanical pulping methods, such as groundwood and refiner mechanical pulping, much of the lignin remains adhering to the fibres. Strength is impaired because the fibres may be cut and these hybrid methods include thermomechanical pulping and chemithermomechanical pulping. The chemical and thermal treatments reduce the amount of energy required by the mechanical treatment. Much of the information about the technology in following subsections is from the book by C. J. Biermann, the chemistry of the various pulping processes can be found in Sjöströms book. The most common source for pulp mills is pulpwood. Other common sources are bagasse and fibre crops, the first step in all mills using wood as the fibre source is to remove the bark. Bark contains relatively few usable fibres and darkens the pulp, the removed bark is burned, along with other unusable plant material, to generate steam to run the mill. Almost all wood is then chipped before being processed further in order to free the fibres, removal of the bark is done in a barker. The bark adhesion is about 3–5 kg/cm2 in the growing season, the bark of frozen logs is even more difficult to remove. In chemical pulp mills, the bark introduces unwanted contaminants such as calcium, silica and aluminium that cause scaling, birch bark contains betulin, a terpenoid that easily creates deposits in a pulp mill. The pulp made by this process is known as stone groundwood pulp, if the wood is ground in a pressurized, sealed grinder the pulp is classified as pressure groundwood pulp. Most modern mills use chips rather than logs and ridged metal discs called refiner plates instead of grindstones. If the chips are just ground up with the plates, the pulp is called refiner mechanical pulp, steam treatment significantly reduces the total energy needed to make the pulp and decreases the damage to fibers. Mechanical pulp mills use large amounts of energy, mostly electricity to power motors which turn the grinders, the kraft process does less damage to the cellulose fibres than the sulfite process, thereby producing stronger fibres, but the sulfite process makes pulp that is easier to bleach
21.
Bleaching of wood pulp
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Bleaching of wood pulp is the chemical processing carried out on various types of wood pulp to decrease the color of the pulp, so that it becomes whiter. The main use of pulp is to make paper where whiteness is an important characteristic. The processes and chemistry described in this article are applicable to the bleaching of non-wood pulps. In the US, the TAPPI T452 or T525 standards are used, the international community uses ISO standards. The following table shows how the two systems rate high brightness papers, but there is no way to convert between the two systems because the test methods are so different. Note that the ISO rating is higher and can go above 100 and this is because today’s white paper manufacturing uses fluorescent whitening agents. Because the ISO standard only measures a range of blue light. Newsprint ranges from 55-75 ISO brightness, writing and printer paper would typically be as bright as 104 ISO. While the results are the same, the processes and fundamental chemistry involved in bleaching chemical pulps are very different from those involved in bleaching mechanical pulps. Chemical pulps contain very little lignin while mechanical pulps contain most of the lignin that was present in the used to make the pulp. Lignin is the source of color in pulp due to the presence of a variety of chromophores naturally present in the wood or created in the pulp mill. Mechanical pulp retains most of the present in the wood used to make the pulp. It would be impractical to remove this much lignin by bleaching, therefore, the objective of bleaching mechanical pulp is to remove only the chromophores. This is possible because the responsible for color are also more susceptible to oxidation or reduction. Alkaline hydrogen peroxide is the most commonly used bleaching agent for mechanical pulp, the amount of base such as sodium hydroxide is less than that used in bleaching chemical pulps and the temperatures are lower. These conditions allow alkaline peroxide to selectively oxidize non-aromatic conjugated groups responsible for absorbing visible light, the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is catalyzed by transition metals, and iron, manganese and copper are of particular importance in pulp bleaching. The use of chelating agents like EDTA to remove some of these metal ions from the prior to adding peroxide allows the peroxide to be used more efficiently. Magnesium salts and sodium silicate are also added to improve bleaching with alkaline peroxide, sodium dithionite, also known as sodium hydrosulfite, is the other main reagent used to brighten mechanical pulps
22.
Hydrogen peroxide
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Hydrogen peroxide is a chemical compound with the formula H 2O2. In its pure form, it is a liquid, slightly more viscous than water. Hydrogen peroxide is the simplest peroxide and it is used as an oxidizer, bleaching agent and disinfectant. Concentrated hydrogen peroxide, or high-test peroxide, is an oxygen species and has been used as a propellant in rocketry. Its chemistry is dominated by the nature of its unstable peroxide bond, Hydrogen peroxide is unstable and slowly decomposes in the presence of base or a catalyst. Because of its instability, hydrogen peroxide is typically stored with a stabilizer in an acidic solution. Hydrogen peroxide is found in biological systems including the human body, enzymes that use or decompose hydrogen peroxide are classified as peroxidases. The boiling point of H 2O2 has been extrapolated as being 150.2 °C, in practice hydrogen peroxide will undergo potentially explosive thermal decomposition if heated to this temperature. It may be distilled at lower temperatures under reduced pressure. In aqueous solutions hydrogen peroxide differs from the material due to the effects of hydrogen bonding between water and hydrogen peroxide molecules. Hydrogen peroxide and water form a mixture, exhibiting freezing-point depression, pure water has a melting point of 0 °C. The boiling point of the same mixtures is also depressed in relation with the mean of both boiling points and this boiling point is 14 °C greater than that of pure water and 36.2 °C less than that of pure hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is a molecule with C2 symmetry. Although the O−O bond is a bond, the molecule has a relatively high rotational barrier of 2460 cm−1, for comparison. The increased barrier is ascribed to repulsion between the pairs of the adjacent oxygen atoms and results in hydrogen peroxide displaying atropisomerism. The molecular structures of gaseous and crystalline H 2O2 are significantly different and this difference is attributed to the effects of hydrogen bonding, which is absent in the gaseous state. Crystals of H 2O2 are tetragonal with the space group D4 4P4121, Hydrogen peroxide has several structural analogues with Hm−X−X−Hn bonding arrangements. It has the highest boiling point of this series, diphosphane and hydrogen disulfide exhibit only weak hydrogen bonding and have little chemical similarity to hydrogen peroxide
23.
Sodium hydrosulfite
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Sodium dithionite is a white crystalline powder with a weak sulfurous odor. It is the salt of dithionous acid. Although it is stable under most conditions, it will decompose in hot water, in one anhydrous form, the dithionite ion has C2 geometry, almost eclipsed with a 16° O-S-S-O torsional angle. In the dihydrated form, the anion has a shorter S-S bond length. The weak S-S bond causes the dithionite anion to dissociate into the − radical anion in aqueous solution and it is also observed that 35S undergoes rapid exchange between S2O42− and SO2 in neutral or acidic solution, consistent with the weak S-S bond in the anion. Sodium dithionite is stable when dry, but is oxidized by air when in solution. Anhydrous is a crystal with slightly sulfuric odor. It is soluble in water and slightly soluble in ethanol, dihydrate is a columnar crystal, and it is so unstable that it easily dehydrates to anhydrous and is easily oxidized by oxygen in the air. Anhydrous gradually decomposes to sodium sulfate and sulfur dioxide above 90 °C in the air, in absence of air, it decomposes quickly above 150 °C to sodium sulfite, sodium thiosulfate, sulfur dioxide and trace amount of sulfur. Powdered anhydrous sodium dithionite with an amount of water may ignite in air by the heat of decomposition. In absence of air, it decomposes slowly. An aqueous solution of sodium dithionite is acidic and decomposes to sodium thiosulfate, the reaction rate increases with increasing temperature. In addition, the rate is higher under stronger acidity,2 Na2S2O4 + H2O → Na2S2O3 +2 NaHSO3 In presence of oxygen, it decomposes to sodium bisulfate and sodium bisulfite. Na2S2O4 + O2 + H2O → NaHSO4 + NaHSO3 Sodium bisulfate and sodium bisulfite decrease the pH, sulfur dioxide is formed under strongly acidic conditions. 2 H2S2O4 →3 SO2 + S +2 H2O3 H2S2O4 →5 SO2 + H2S +2 H2O On the other hand, alkali solution is stable and it has strong reducing properties and decomposes to sulfurous acid and sulfide. Some ketones are also reduced under similar conditions and this compound is a water-soluble salt, and can be used as a reducing agent in aqueous solutions. The reduction properties of sodium dithionite also eliminate excess dye, residual oxide, Sodium dithionite can also be used for water treatment, gas purification, cleaning, and stripping. It can also be used in processes as a sulfonating agent or a sodium ion source
24.
Yomiuri Shimbun
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The Yomiuri Shimbun is a Japanese newspaper published in Tokyo, Osaka, Fukuoka, and other major Japanese cities. It is part of the Yomiuri Group, Japans largest media conglomerate and it is one of the five national newspapers in Japan, the other four are the Asahi Shimbun, the Mainichi Shimbun, Nihon Keizai Shimbun, and the Sankei Shimbun. The headquarters is in Otemachi, Chiyoda, Tokyo, founded in 1874, the Yomiuri Shimbun is credited with having the largest newspaper circulation in the world, having a combined morning and evening circulation of 14,323,781 through January 2002. In 2010, the daily was the one in the list of the worlds biggest selling newspapers with a circulation of 10,021,000. As of mid-year 2011, it still had a combined morning-evening circulation of almost 13.5 million for its national edition, the paper is printed twice a day and in several different local editions. Yomiuri Shimbun established the Yomiuri Prize in 1948 and its winners have included Yukio Mishima and Haruki Murakami. The Yomiuri was launched in 1874 by the Nisshusha newspaper company as a daily newspaper. Throughout the 1880s and 1890s the paper came to be known as a literary publication with its regular inclusion of work by writers such as Ozaki Kōyō. In 1924, Shoriki Matsutaro took over management of the company and his innovations included improved news coverage, a full-page radio program guide, and the establishment of Japans first professional baseball team. The emphasis of the paper shifted to news coverage aimed at readers in the Tokyo area. By 1941 it had the largest circulation of any newspaper in the Tokyo area. In 1942, under conditions, it merged with the Hochi Shimbun. The Yomiuri was the center of a scandal in 1945 and 1946. In October,1945, a postwar democratization group called for the removal of Shoriki Matsutaro, when Shoriki responded by firing five of the leading figures of this group, the writers and editors performed the first production control strike on October 27,1945. This method of striking became an important union tactic in the coal, railroad, the Yomiuri employees continued to produce the paper without heeding executive orders until a police raid on June 21,1946. It features the Jinsei Annai advice column, the Yomiuri has a history of promoting nuclear power within Japan. During the 1950s Matsutaro Shoriki, the head of the Yomiuri and it wrote Kan should seriously reflect on the way he made his request. It then followed up with an article wondering about how dangerous Hamaoka really was, the next day damage to the pipes inside the condenser was discovered at one of the plants following a leak of seawater into the reactor
25.
Recycling in the United States
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This article examines recycling in the United States. In 2012, the rate in US was 34. 5%. Since there is no law that mandates recycling, state. On a national level, the United States Environmental Protection Agency oversees a variety of waste issues and these include regulation of hazardous wastes, landfill regulations, and setting recycling goals. More specific recycling legislation is localized through city or state governments, further regulation is reserved for individual states to create. State regulation falls into two categories, landfill bans and recycling goals. Landfill bans make it illegal to dispose of enumerated items in a landfill, most often these items include yard waste, oil, and recyclables easily collected in curbside recycling programs. States with landfill bans of recyclables include Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, other states focus on recycling goals. Some ways that encourage recycling of specific drink containers is by passing a bottle bill. Most are five cents per can or bottle, michigans deposit is 10 cents and has been since 1976. Some cities, such as Seattle, and states like Connecticut, have created mandatory recycling laws that may fine citizens who throw away certain recyclable materials, vermont also employed a landfill ban of recyclable materials, food and yard waste, and wood. There are also programs and educational programs to increase recycling where it is not mandated by law. Mandatory recycling is the standard e. g. across all European Union since the 1990s, recyclables are prohibited from households, businesses and apartment garbage. With businesses that would include cardboard, paper, and yard waste which would be prohibited from their garbage, for apartments and houses, glass, paper, cardboard, aluminum, and plastic would be prohibited. With businesses and apartments, if garbage collectors find more than 10 percent of the container filled with recyclables, on the third tag, they will then leave a $50 fine. However, with households there can be no fining, if they do find garbage, they will leave a tag and ask you to sort out your garbage that they will then collect the next week. In a 1996 article in The New York Times, John Tierney claimed that government mandated recycling wastes more resources than it saves, in 2010, he followed up on that with an updated look into the recycling policies of the US, finding that not much has changed. When recycling was an industry, it cost as much or more than trash disposal
26.
Municipal solid waste
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Municipal solid waste, commonly known as trash or garbage in the United States and as refuse or rubbish in Britain, is a waste type consisting of everyday items that are discarded by the public. Garbage can also specifically to food waste, as in a garbage disposal. The composition of municipal solid waste varies greatly from municipality to municipality, in municipalities which have a well developed waste recycling system, the waste stream consists mainly of intractable wastes such as plastic film, and non-recyclable packaging materials. At the start of the 20th century, the majority of waste in the UK consisted of coal ash from open fires. Most definitions of municipal solid waste do not include industrial wastes, agricultural wastes, medical waste, Waste collection is performed by the municipality within a given area. The term residual waste relates to waste left from household sources containing materials that have not been separated out or sent for reprocessing, the municipal solid waste industry has four components, recycling, composting, disposal, and waste-to-energy via incineration. This location may be a processing facility, a transfer station or a landfill disposal site. Waste handling and separation involves activities associated with waste management until the waste is placed in containers for collection. Handling also encompasses the movement of loaded containers to the point of collection, separating different types of waste components is an important step in the handling and storage of solid waste at the source. The types of means and facilities that are now used for the recovery of materials that have been separated at the source include curbside collection, drop-off. This element involves two main steps, first, the waste is transferred from a smaller collection vehicle to larger transport equipment. The waste is transported, usually over long distances, to a processing or disposal site. In the recent years environmental organizations, such as Freegle or Freecycle Network, have been gaining popularity for their online reuse networks and these networks provide a worldwide online registry of unwanted items that would otherwise be thrown away, for individuals and nonprofits to reuse or recycle. Therefore, this free Internet-based service reduces landfill pollution and promotes the gift economy, landfills are created by land dumping. Land dumping methods vary, most commonly it involves the mass dumping of waste into a designated area, after the waste is dumped, it is then compacted by large machines. When the dumping cell is full, it is sealed with a plastic sheet. This is the method of dumping in the United States because of the low cost. Landfills pose the threat of pollution, and can intoxicate ground water, the signs of pollution are effectively masked by disposal companies and it is often hard to see any evidence
27.
Landfill
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A landfill site is a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and the oldest form of waste treatment. Historically, landfills have been the most common method of organized waste disposal, some landfills are also used for waste management purposes, such as the temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or processing of waste material. A landfill also may refer to ground that has filled in with rocks instead of waste materials, so that it can be used for a specific purpose. Unless they are stabilized, these areas may experience severe shaking or soil liquefaction of the ground during a large earthquake, afterward, the waste collection vehicles use the existing road network on their way to the tipping face or working front, where they unload their contents. After loads are deposited, compactors or bulldozers can spread and compact the waste on the working face, before leaving the landfill boundaries, the waste collection vehicles may pass through a wheel-cleaning facility. If necessary, they return to the weighbridge for re-weighing without their load, the weighing process can assemble statistics on the daily incoming waste tonnage, which databases can retain for record keeping. In addition to trucks, some landfills may have equipment to handle railroad containers, the use of rail-haul permits landfills to be located at more remote sites, without the problems associated with many truck trips. Typically, in the face, the compacted waste is covered with soil or alternative materials daily. Alternative waste-cover materials include chipped wood or other waste, several sprayed-on foam products, chemically fixed bio-solids. Blankets can be lifted into place at night and then removed the day prior to waste placement. The space that is occupied daily by the waste and the cover material is called a daily cell. Waste compaction is critical to extending the life of the landfill, factors such as waste compressibility, waste-layer thickness and the number of passes of the compactor over the waste affect the waste densities. Landfills are often the most cost-efficient way to dispose of waste, in addition, landfill gas can be upgraded to natural gas—landfill gas utilization—which is a potential revenue stream. Another advantage is having a location for disposal that can be monitored. Landfills have the potential to cause a number of issues, infrastructure disruption, such as damage to access roads by heavy vehicles, may occur. Pollution of local roads and water courses from wheels on vehicles when they leave the landfill can be significant, pollution of the local environment, such as contamination of groundwater or aquifers or soil contamination may occur, as well. Extensive efforts are made to capture and treat leachate from landfills before it reaches groundwater aquifers, eventually, every landfill liner will leak, allowing the leachate to contaminate the groundwater. Installation of composite liners with flexible membrane and soil barrier is enforced by the EPA to ensure that leachate is withheld, rotting food and other decaying organic waste allows methane and carbon dioxide to seep out of the ground and up into the air
28.
Materials recovery facility
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Generally, there are two different types, clean and dirty materials recovery facilities. A clean MRF accepts recyclable comingled materials that have already been separated at the source from municipal waste generated by either residential or commercial sources. There are a variety of clean MRFs, material is sorted to specifications, then baled, shredded, crushed, compacted, or otherwise prepared for shipment to market. MWPFs can give communities the opportunity to recycle at much higher rates than has been demonstrated by curbside or other waste collection systems, advances in technology make today’s MWPF different and, in many respects better, than older versions. A dirty MRF recovers between 5% and 45% of the material as recyclables, then the remainder is landfilled or otherwise disposed. However, the dirty MRF process results in greater contamination of recyclables, furthermore, a facility that accepts mixed solid waste is usually more challenging and more expensive to site. Operational costs can be higher because it is more labor-intensive, around 2004, new mechanical biological treatment technologies were beginning to utilise wet MRFs. These combine a dirty MRF with water, which acts to densify, separate and it also hydrocrushes and dissolves biodegradable organics in solution to make them suitable for anaerobic digestion. In the United States, modern MRFs began in the 1970s, resource Recovery Systems, Inc. operated by Peter Karter was one of the first materials recovery facilities in the US. Cradle-to-cradle design Curbside collection List of waste treatment technologies Mechanical biological treatment Hiriya Waste sorting Coming soon, van der Lindes amazing recycling machine The Role of MRFS in Modern Day Waste Management
29.
Bisphenol A
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Bisphenol A is an organic synthetic compound with the chemical formula 2C2 belonging to the group of diphenylmethane derivatives and bisphenols, with two hydroxyphenyl groups. It is a solid that is soluble in organic solvents. It has been in use since 1957. BPA is employed to make certain plastics and epoxy resins, bPA-based plastic is clear and tough, and is made into a variety of common consumer goods, such as water bottles, sports equipment, CDs, and DVDs. Epoxy resins containing BPA are used to water pipes, as coatings on the inside of many food and beverage cans. In 2015, an estimated 4 million tonnes of BPA chemical were produced for manufacturing polycarbonate plastic, BPA exhibits estrogen mimicking, hormone-like properties that raise concern about its suitability in some consumer products and food containers. Since 2008, several governments have investigated its safety, which prompted some retailers to withdraw polycarbonate products. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration has ended its authorization of the use of BPA in baby bottles and infant formula packaging, based on market abandonment, the European Union and Canada have banned BPA use in baby bottles. The FDA states BPA is safe at the current levels occurring in foods based on extensive research, in February 2016, France announced that it intends to propose BPA as a REACH Regulation candidate substance of very high concern. World production capacity of Bisphenol A was 1 million tons in the 1980s and it is a high production volume chemical. In 2003, U. S. consumption was 856,000 tons, 72% of which used to make polycarbonate plastic and 21% going into epoxy resins. In the U. S. less than 5% of the BPA produced is used in food contact applications, Bisphenol A was first synthesized by the Russian chemist Alexander Dianin in 1891. This compound is synthesized by the condensation of acetone with two equivalents of phenol, the reaction is catalyzed by a strong acid, such as hydrochloric acid or a sulfonated polystyrene resin. Bisphenol A is used primarily to make plastics, and products using bisphenol A-based plastics have been in use since 1957. At least 3.6 million tonnes of BPA are used by manufacturers yearly and it is a key monomer in production of epoxy resins and in the most common form of polycarbonate plastic. Bisphenol A and phosgene react to give polycarbonate under biphasic conditions, phenol is eliminated instead of hydrochloric acid. This transesterification process avoids the toxicity and handling of phosgene, BPA is also used in the synthesis of polysulfones and polyether ketones, as an antioxidant in some plasticizers, and as a polymerization inhibitor in PVC. Bisphenol A is also a precursor to the flame retardant tetrabromobisphenol A, Bisphenol A is a preferred color developer in carbonless copy paper and thermal point of sale receipt paper
30.
Thermal paper
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Thermal paper is a special fine paper that is coated with a chemical that changes color when exposed to heat. It is used in printers and particularly in inexpensive or lightweight devices such as adding machines, cash registers. The surface of the paper is coated with a mixture of a dye and a suitable matrix. The reactant acid in thermal paper is often bisphenol A. Usually, the coating will turn black when heated, but coatings that turn blue or red are sometimes used. While an open source, such as a flame, can discolor the paper. Multicolor thermal paper first became available in the early 1990s with the introduction of the Fuji Thermo-Autochrome system and this was followed in the early 2000s by the development of the Polaroid Zink system. Both of these rely on multi-layer coatings with three separate colorizing layers, but different methods are used for independent activation of each layer. The earliest direct thermal papers were developed by NCR Corporation and 3M, the NCR technology became the market leader over time, although the image would fade rather rapidly compared with the much more expensive, but durable 3M technology. Texas Instruments invented the thermal print head in 1965, and the Silent 700, the Silent 700 was the first thermal print system that printed on thermal paper. U. S. producers such as Appleton, Nashua Corporation, Graphic Controls, leading pressure-sensitive label producers such as Avery Dennison became major consumers of direct thermal paper for label applications. Direct thermal made a comeback with point of sale receipts. During 1998, Nintendo used thermal paper technology for their Game Boy Printer, the leuco dyes used in direct thermal paper are usually triaryl methane phthalide dyes, such as Yamamoto Blue 4450, or fluoran dyes, such as Pergascript Black 2C. A third widely used leuco dye is Crystal Violet lactone, Red or magenta color can be achieved with dyes such as Yamamoto Red 40. Yellow can be produced by the protonation of a triaryl pyridine and these dyes have a colorless leuco form when crystalline or when in a pH neutral environment, but become colored when dissolved in a melt and exposed to an acidic environment. Leuco dyes, in general, provide little color when melted unless they are melted in conjunction with one or more organic acids, examples of organic acids suitable for thermochromic papers are phenols such as Bisphenol A and Bisphenol S. Other suitable acidic materials are sulfonyl ureas such as BTUM and Pergafast 201, zinc salts of substituted salicylic acids, such as zinc di-tert-butylsalicylate have also been commercially used as developers. A leuco dye and a developer, when melted together, are enough to produce color, however, the thermal threshold of the coated layer containing the colorizing components is determined by the lowest melting component of the layer. Furthermore, developers and leuco dyes often mix poorly upon melting, to optimize the colorization temperature and to facilitate mixing, a third chemical called a sensitizer is commonly added to the imaging layer
31.
Phthalate
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Phthalates, or phthalate esters, are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers. Phthalates are manufactured by reacting phthalic anhydride with alcohol that range from methanol and ethanol up to tridecyl alcohol and they are divided into two distinct groups, with very different applications, toxicological properties, and classification, based on the number of carbon atoms in their alcohol chain. They are used primarily to soften polyvinyl chloride, lower-molecular-weight phthalates are being gradually replaced in many products in the United States, Canada, and European Union over health concerns. They are replaced by high-molecular-weight phthalates, Phthalates are used in a wide range of common products, and are released into the environment. There is no covalent bond between the phthalates and plastics, rather, they are entangled within the plastic as a result of the process used to make PVC articles. They can be removed by exposure to heat or with organic solvents, phthalate exposure may be through direct use or by indirect means through leaching and general environmental contamination. Diet is believed to be the source of di phthalate. Fatty foods such as milk, butter, and meats are a major source, in studies of rodents exposed to certain phthalates, high doses have been shown to change hormone levels and cause birth defects. Phthalates are also used in soft plastic fishing lures, caulk, paint pigments. Phthalates are used in a variety of applications such as shower curtains, vinyl upholstery, adhesives, floor tiles, food containers and wrappers. Personal-care items containing phthalates include perfume, eye shadow, moisturizer, nail polish, liquid soap, Phthalates are also found in modern electronics and medical applications such as catheters and blood transfusion devices. The most widely used phthalates are di phthalate, diisodecyl phthalate, DEHP was the dominant plasticizer used globally in PVC due to its low cost. Benzylbutylphthalate is used in the manufacture of foamed PVC, which is used mostly as a flooring material, Phthalates with small R and R groups are used as solvents in perfumes and pesticides. Approximately 8.4 million tonnes of plasticizers are consumed every year. Approximately 70% of those totals are phthalates, down from about 88% in 2005, the remaining 30% are alternative chemistries. Plasticizers contribute 10-60% of total weight of plasticized products, all of these mentioned phthalates are now regulated and restricted in many products. Analysis of such applications will involve studies on alternatives and, given the number of compounds that have been used as plasticizers. The development of cellulose nitrate plastic in 1846 led to the patent of castor oil in 1856 for use as the first plasticizer, in 1870, camphor became the more favored plasticizer for cellulose nitrate
32.
Phenols
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In organic chemistry, phenols, sometimes called phenolics, are a class of chemical compounds consisting of a hydroxyl group bonded directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. The simplest of the class is phenol, which is also called carbolic acid C 6H 5OH, phenolic compounds are classified as simple phenols or polyphenols based on the number of phenol units in the molecule. Synonyms are arenols or aryl alcohols, phenolic compounds are synthesized industrially, they also are produced by plants and microorganisms, with variation between and within species. Although similar to alcohols, phenols have unique properties and are not classified as alcohols and they have higher acidities due to the aromatic rings tight coupling with the oxygen and a relatively loose bond between the oxygen and hydrogen. The acidity of the group in phenols is commonly intermediate between that of aliphatic alcohols and carboxylic acids. Phenols can have two or more hydroxy groups bonded to the ring in the same molecule. The simplest examples are the three benzenediols, each having two groups on a benzene ring. Organisms that synthesize phenolic compounds do so in response to pressures such as pathogen and insect attack, UV radiation. As they are present in food consumed in human diets and in used in traditional medicine of several cultures, their role in human health. Some phenols are germicidal and are used in formulating disinfectants, others possess estrogenic or endocrine disrupting activity. They can also be classified on the basis of their number of phenol groups and they can therefore be called simple phenols or monophenols, with only one phenolic group, or di-, tri- and oligophenols, with two, three or several phenolic groups respectively. The phenolic unit can be found dimerized or further polymerized, creating a new class of polyphenol, two natural phenols from two different categories, for instance a flavonoid and a lignan, can combine to form a hybrid class like the flavonolignans. Nomenclature of polymers, Plants in the genus Humulus and Cannabis produce terpenophenolic metabolites, phenolic lipids are long aliphatic chains bonded to a phenolic moiety. The majority of compounds are solubles molecules but the smaller molecules can be volatiles. Many natural phenols present chirality within their molecule, an example of such molecules is catechin. Cavicularin is an unusual macrocycle because it was the first compound isolated from nature displaying optical activity due to the presence of planar chirality, natural phenols chemically interact with many other substances. Stacking, a property of molecules with aromaticity, is seen occurring between phenolic molecules. When studied in mass spectrometry, phenols easily form adduct ions with halogens and they can also interact with the food matrices or with different forms of silica
33.
Mineral oil
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A mineral oil or paraffin oil is any of various colorless, odorless, light mixtures of higher alkanes from a mineral source, particularly a distillate of petroleum. The name mineral oil by itself is imprecise, having used for many specific oils over the past few centuries. Other names, similarly imprecise, include oil, liquid paraffin, paraffinum liquidum. Baby oil is a mineral oil. Most often, mineral oil is a liquid by-product of refining crude oil to make gasoline and this type of mineral oil is a transparent, colorless oil composed mainly of alkanes and cycloalkanes, related to petroleum jelly. It has a density of around 0.8 g/cm3, mineral oil is a substance of relatively low value, and it is produced in very large quantities. Mineral oil is available in light and heavy grades, and can often be found in drug stores. Some of the imprecision in the definition of the names reflects usage by buyers and sellers who did not know, and usually did not need to care about, the precise chemical makeup. Prior to the late 19th century, the science to determine such makeup was unavailable in any case. A similar lexical situation occurred with the white metal. Mineral oil, sold widely and cheaply in the USA, is not sold as such in Britain, instead British pharmacologists use the terms Paraffinum perliquidum for light mineral oil and Paraffinum liquidum or Paraffinum subliquidum for somewhat thicker varieties. The term Paraffinum Liquidum is often seen on the ingredient lists of baby oil, British aromatherapists commonly use the term white mineral oil. The FSA did not identify any specific safety concerns due to inks. People can be exposed to oil mist in the workplace by breathing it in, skin contact. In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set the limit for mineral oil mist exposure in the workplace as 5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended limit of 5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday and 10 mg/m3 short-term exposure. At levels of 2500 mg/m3, mineral oil mist is immediately dangerous to life, mineral oil of special purity is often used as an overlay covering microdrops of culture medium in petri dishes, during the culture of oocytes and embryos in IVF and related procedures. Over the counter veterinarian use mineral oil is intended as a laxative for pets
34.
Polychlorinated biphenyl
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A polychlorinated biphenyl is an organic chlorine compound with the formula C12H10−xClx. Polychlorinated biphenyls were once widely deployed as dielectric and coolant fluids in electrical apparatus, carbonless copy paper, because of their longevity, PCBs are still widely in use, even though their manufacture has declined drastically since the 1960s, when a host of problems were identified. The International Research Agency on Cancer, rendered PCBs as definite carcinogens in humans, according to the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, PCBs cause cancer in animals and are probable human carcinogens. Many rivers and buildings including schools, parks, and other sites are contaminated with PCBs, some PCBs share a structural similarity and toxic mode of action with dioxin. Other toxic effects such as endocrine disruption and neurotoxicity are known, the bromine analogues of PCBs are polybrominated biphenyls, which have analogous applications and environmental concerns. The compounds are pale-yellow viscous liquids and they are hydrophobic, with low water solubilities —0. 0027-0.42 ng/L for Aroclors, but they have high solubilities in most organic solvents, oils, and fats. They have low vapor pressures at room temperature and they have dielectric constants of 2. 5~2.7, very high thermal conductivity, and high flash points. The density varies from 1.182 to 1.566 kg/L, other physical and chemical properties vary widely across the class. As the degree of chlorination increases, melting point and lipophilicity increase, PCBs do not easily break down or degrade, which made them attractive for industries. PCB mixtures are resistant to acids, bases, oxidation, hydrolysis and they can generate extremely toxic dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans through partial oxidation. Intentional degradation as a treatment of unwanted PCBs generally requires high heat or catalysis, PCBs readily penetrate skin, PVC, and latex. PCB-resistant materials include Viton, polyethylene, polyvinyl acetate, polytetrafluoroethylene, butyl rubber, nitrile rubber, PCBs are derived from biphenyl, which has the formula C12H10, sometimes written 2. In PCBs, some of the atoms in biphenyl are replaced by chlorine atoms. There are 209 different chemical compounds in which one to ten chlorine atoms can replace hydrogen atoms, PCBs are typically used as mixtures of compounds and are given the single identifying CAS number 1336-36-3. About 130 different individual PCBs are found in commercial PCB products, toxic effects vary depending on the specific PCB. Coplanar or non-ortho The coplanar group members have a rigid structure. They do not activate the AhR, and are not considered part of the dioxin group, because of their lower toxicity, they are of less concern to regulatory bodies. Di-ortho-substituted, non-coplanar PCBs interfere with signal transduction dependent on calcium which may lead to neurotoxicity
35.
Paper
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Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibres of cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets. It is a material with many uses, including writing, printing, packaging, cleaning. The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production, the oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper, date to the 2nd century BC in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century AD Han court eunuch, with paper as an effective substitute for silk in many applications, China could export silk in greater quantity, contributing to a Golden Age. Because of papers introduction to the West through the city of Baghdad, in the 19th century, industrial manufacture greatly lowered its cost, enabling mass exchange of information and contributing to significant cultural shifts. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres, before the industrialisation of the paper production the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles, called rags. The rags were from hemp, linen and cotton, a process for removing printing inks from recycled paper was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774. Today this method is called deinking and it was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was not dependent on recycled materials from ragpickers. The word paper is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus, which comes from the Greek πάπυρος, although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibres, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have changed by maceration. To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibres and this is accomplished by dissolving lignin in a cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose, this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers–not to be confused with paper, this is because they do not contain lignin. The pulp can also be bleached to produce paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres, chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton. There are three main chemical pulping processes, the process dates back to the 1840s and it was the dominant method extent before the second world war. Most pulping operations using the process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents, soda pulping is another specialty process used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content. There are two major mechanical pulps, thermomechanical pulp and groundwood pulp, in the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into steam heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres
36.
USPS Post Office Box Lobby Recycling program
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USPS receives revenue from selling the material, and no tax dollars are used to fund the project. USPS was reported as having recycled over 200,000 tons of waste in 2009, including paper, plastics and other waste. Some U. S. post offices do not participate in the program, some reasons for non-participation include building space constraints and limited personnel at some U. S. post offices. At some post offices, mail received that is undeliverable is recycled, some U. S. post offices do not recycle whatsoever. In April 2010, it was reported that the number of post offices participating in the program had increased to 8,064, in March 2009, the total number of bins was increased by 1,844, to a total of nearly 5,900 recycling bins. The program uses secure, locked bins that have a slot opening to maintain privacy. If someone accidentally drops an item into the slot, they reach in to retrieve it, instead. Environmental issues in the United States Paper recycling Recycling in the United States Waste minimisation Hayton, dallas-Fort Worth post offices slowly offering recycling bins. Start a Recycling Program for Discarded Lobby Mail
37.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
38.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
39.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
40.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
41.
Federal government of the United States
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The Federal Government of the United States is the national government of the United States, a republic in North America, composed of 50 states, one district, Washington, D. C. and several territories. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party. The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in 1789, making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below. The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently 100 senators, who each serve six-year terms
42.
DMOZ
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DMOZ was a multilingual open-content directory of World Wide Web links. The site and community who maintained it were known as the Open Directory Project. It was owned by AOL but constructed and maintained by a community of volunteer editors, DMOZ used a hierarchical ontology scheme for organizing site listings. Listings on a similar topic were grouped into categories which included smaller categories. It was announced on February 28,2017 that DMOZ would close down on March 14,2017, DMOZ was founded in the United States as Gnuhoo by Rich Skrenta and Bob Truel in 1998 while they were both working as engineers for Sun Microsystems. Skrenta had developed TASS, an ancestor of tin, the popular threaded Usenet newsreader for Unix systems, the original category structure of the Gnuhoo directory was based loosely on the structure of Usenet newsgroups then in existence. The Gnuhoo directory went live on June 5,1998, then objected to the use of Hoo in the name, prompting a proposed name change, to ZURL. Prior to switching to ZURL, NewHoo was acquired by Netscape Communications Corporation in October 1998, Netscape released Open Directory data under the Open Directory License. Netscape was acquired by AOL shortly thereafter and DMOZ was one of the assets included in the acquisition, by the time Netscape assumed stewardship, the Open Directory Project had about 100,000 URLs indexed with contributions from about 4500 editors. On October 5,1999, the number of URLs indexed by DMOZ reached one million, according to an unofficial estimate, the URLs in DMOZ numbered 1.6 million in April 2000, surpassing those in the Yahoo. DMOZ achieved the milestones of indexing two million URLs on August 14,2000, three million listings on November 18,2001 and four million on December 3,2003. As of April,2013 there were 5,169,995 sites listed in over 1,017,500 categories, on October 31,2015, there were 3,996,412 sites listed in 1,026,706 categories. In January 2006, DMOZ began publishing reports to inform the public about the development of the project. The first report covered the year 2005, monthly reports were issued subsequently until September 2006. These reports gave greater insight into the functioning of the directory than the statistics provided on the front page of the directory. The number of listings and categories cited on the front page included Test and Bookmarks categories, there were about 7330 active editors during August 2006. 75,151 editors had contributed to the directory as of March 31,2007, as of April 2013, the number of contributing editors had increased to 97,584. On October 20,2006, DMOZs main server suffered a failure that prevented editors from working on the directory until December 18,2006
43.
Recycling
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Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects. It is an alternative to conventional waste disposal that can save material, Recycling can prevent the waste of potentially useful materials and reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, thereby reducing, energy usage, air pollution, and water pollution. Recycling is a key component of waste reduction and is the third component of the Reduce, Reuse. There are some ISO standards related to recycling such as ISO15270,2008 for plastics waste, recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, and cardboard, metal, plastic, tires, textiles, and electronics. The composting or other reuse of biodegradable waste—such as food or garden waste—is also considered recycling, materials to be recycled are either brought to a collection centre or picked up from the curbside, then sorted, cleaned, and reprocessed into new materials destined for manufacturing. However, this is difficult or too expensive, so recycling of many products or materials involves their reuse in producing different materials instead. Another form of recycling is the salvage of materials from complex products, either due to their intrinsic value. Recycling has been a practice for most of human history. In pre-industrial times, there is evidence of bronze and other metals being collected in Europe. Paper recycling was first recorded in 1031 when Japanese shops sold repulped paper, in Britain dust and ash from wood and coal fires was collected by dustmen and downcycled as a base material used in brick making. In 1813, Benjamin Law developed the process of turning rags into shoddy and mungo wool in Batley and this material combined recycled fibers with virgin wool. The West Yorkshire shoddy industry in such as Batley and Dewsbury lasted from the early 19th century to at least 1914. Industrialization spurred demand for materials, aside from rags, ferrous scrap metals were coveted as they were cheaper to acquire than virgin ore. Railroads both purchased and sold scrap metal in the 19th century, and the steel and automobile industries purchased scrap in the early 20th century. Many secondary goods were collected, processed and sold by peddlers who scoured dumps and city streets for discarded machinery, pots, pans, and other sources of metal. By World War I, thousands of such peddlers roamed the streets of American cities, beverage bottles were recycled with a refundable deposit at some drink manufacturers in Great Britain and Ireland around 1800, notably Schweppes. New chemical industries created in the late 19th century both invented new materials (e. g. Bakelite and promised to transform valueless into valuable materials, new and better paths are opened to reach the goals desired. Recycling was a highlight throughout World War II, during the war, financial constraints and significant material shortages due to war efforts made it necessary for countries to reuse goods and recycle materials
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document "https://web.archive.org/web/20060308134427/http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/recycle.htm".
