1.
Crenellation
–
These gaps are termed crenels, and the act of adding crenels to a previously unbroken parapet is termed crenellation. The solid widths between the crenels are called merlons, a wall with battlements is said to be crenelated or embattled. Battlements on walls have protected walkways behind them, on tower or building tops, the roof is used as the protected fighting platform. The term originated in about the 14th century from the Old French word batailler, the word crenel derives from the ancient French cren, Latin crena, meaning a notch, mortice or other gap cut out often to receive another element or fixing, see also crenation. In medieval England a licence to crenellate granted the permission to fortify their property. The castles in England vastly outnumber the licences to crenellate, royal pardons were obtainable, on the payment of an arbitrarily determined fine, by a person who had fortified without licence. The surviving records of such licences, generally issued by letters patent, there has been academic debate over the purpose of licensing. The view of military-focused historians is that licensing restricted the number of fortifications that could be used against a royal army and they indicated to the observer that the grantee had obtained royal recognition, acknowledgment and compliment. The crown usually did not charge for the granting of such licences, battlements have been used for thousands of years, the earliest known example is in the fortress at Buhen in Egypt. Battlements were used in the walls surrounding Assyrian towns, as shown on bas reliefs from Nimrud, traces of them remain at Mycenae in Greece, and some ancient Greek vases suggest the existence of battlements. The Great Wall of China has battlements, late merlons permitted fire from the first firearms. From the 13th century, the merlons could be connected with wooden shutters that provided added protection when closed, the shutters were designed to be opened to allow shooters to fire against the attackers, and closed during reloading. The Romans used low wooden pinnacles for their first aggeres, in the battlements of Pompeii, additional protection derived from small internal buttresses or spur walls, against which the defender might stand so as to gain complete protection on one side. Loop-holes were frequent in Italian battlements, where the merlon has much greater height, Italian military architects used the so-called Ghibelline or swallowtail battlement, with V-shaped notches in the tops of the merlon, giving a horn-like effect. This would allow the defender to be protected whilst shooting standing fully upright, the normal rectangular merlons were later nicknamed Guelph. In Muslim and African fortifications, the merlons often were rounded, the battlements of the Arabs had a more decorative and varied character, and were continued from the 13th century onwards not so much for defensive purposes as for a crowning feature to the walls. They serve a similar to the cresting found in the Spanish Renaissance. European architects persistently used battlements as a decorative feature throughout the Decorated
2.
Kyrenia Castle
–
Kyrenia Castle, at the east end of the old harbour in Kyrenia is a 16th-century castle built by the Venetians over a previous Crusader fortification. Within its walls lies a twelfth-century chapel showing reused late Roman capitals, Kyrenia has existed since the 10th century BC. Excavations have revealed Greek traces that date back to the 7th century BC, research carried out at the site suggests that the Byzantines built the original castle in the 7th Century to guard the city against the new Arab maritime threat. The first historical reference to the castle occurs in 1191, when King Richard the Lionheart of England captured it on his way to the Third Crusade and he did so by defeating Isaac Comnenus, an upstart local governor who had proclaimed himself emperor. After a short period, Richard sold the island to the Knights Templar, and then to his cousin Guy de Lusignan and this began the 300 years of the Frankish Lusignan Kingdom of Cyprus. Initially the castle was quite small, john dIbelin enlarged it between 1208 and 1211. The Castles main function was military and the improvements consisted of a new entrance, square and horseshoe-shaped towers, embrasures for archers, the castle was subjected to several sieges. A Genoese attack in 1373 almost destroyed the castle, and the longest amongst the sieges, in the 15th century, lasted four years and reduced the unfortunate occupants to eating mice. By 1489 the Venetians had taken control of Cyprus and in 1540 they enlarged the castle, the chief changes, such as the addition of thick walls and embrasures for cannons, were adaptations to changes in warfare in the form of gunpowder artillery. The Venetians also installed gun ports at three levels so that they could direct fire against attackers from the land. Inside the castle, they built huge long ramps so as to be able to drag artillery up on the walls. When the work on the castle was finished, its walls also encompassed the small church of St. George, in 1570, Kyrenia surrendered to the Ottomans. The Ottomans too made changes to the castle, but the British removed these during their occupation, the castle contains the tomb of the Ottoman Admiral Sadik Pasha. The British used the castle as a barracks and training school. They also used the castle as a prison for members of the Greek Cypriot EOKA organization, the Kyrenia Department of Antiquities took over custodianship of the castle in 1950, though it reverted to British control during the EOKA turmoil. The Department regained control in 1959 and since 1960 the castle has been open to the public, however, during the period from 1963 to 1967 the Cypriot National Guard used the castle as a military headquarters. Following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, in 1974 the Girne Department of Antiquities and Museums took over responsibility for the castles preservation, the Department is keeping icons that were collected from churches in the Kyrenia area pre-1974 and has stored them in the castles locked rooms for safekeeping. Some of these are now on display in the Archangel Michael Church, the moat on the landward side of the castle was full of water prior to the 14th Century AD and served as a harbour to the castle
3.
Roof
–
A roof is part of a building envelope. It is the covering on the uppermost part of a building or shelter which provides protection from animals and weather, notably rain or snow, the word also denotes the framing or structure which supports that covering. In most countries a roof protects primarily against rain, a verandah may be roofed with material that protects against sunlight but admits the other elements. The roof of a garden conservatory protects plants from cold, wind, and rain, a roof may also provide additional living space, for example a roof garden. Old English hrof roof, ceiling, top, summit, heaven, sky, also figuratively, highest point of something, there are no apparent connections outside the Germanic family. English alone has retained the word in a sense, for which the other languages use forms corresponding to OE. In many parts of the ceramic tiles have been the predominant roofing material for centuries. Other roofing materials include asphalt, coal tar pitch, EPDM rubber, Hypalon, polyurethane foam, PVC, slate, Teflon fabric, TPO, and wood shakes and shingles. The construction of a roof is determined by its method of support and how the space is bridged. The pitch is the angle at which the roof rises from its lowest to highest point, most US domestic architecture, except in very dry regions, has roofs that are sloped, or pitched. Although modern construction such as drainpipes may remove the need for pitch, roofs are pitched for reasons of tradition. So the pitch is dependent upon stylistic factors, and partially to do with practicalities. Some types of roofing, for example thatch, require a steep pitch in order to be waterproof, other types of roofing, for example pantiles, are unstable on a steeply pitched roof but provide excellent weather protection at a relatively low angle. In regions where there is rain, an almost flat roof with a slight run-off provides adequate protection against an occasional downpour. Drainpipes also remove the need for a sloping roof, a person that specializes in roof construction is called a roofer. The shape of roofs differs greatly from region to region, the main factors which influence the shape of roofs are the climate and the materials available for roof structure and the outer covering. The basic shapes of roofs are flat, mono-pitched, gabled, hipped, butterfly, there are many variations on these types. Roofs constructed of sections that are sloped are referred to as pitched roofs
4.
Terrace (building)
–
A terrace is an external, raised, open, flat area in either a landscape near a building, or as a roof terrace on a flat roof. Terraces are used primarily for leisure activity such as sitting, strolling, the term often applies to a raised area in front of a monumental building or structure, which is usually reached by a grand staircase and surrounded by a balustrade. A terrace may be supported by an embankment or solid foundation, terraces may also be platforms, supported by columns but without the space below filled in, but terraces are always open to the sky and may or may not be paved. Agricultural terracing can be traced back to prehistoric times, but architectural terracing is equally ancient. Examples of early architectural terracing in the Middle East have been found at Nahal Oren, at Tel Yarmut, for example, architectural terracing also occurred on the island of Babeldaob in modern Palau in the Pacific Ocean. Terraces are found the world over, throughout history, terraces were used extensively throughout Greece in both public and private architecture, and rooftop terraces can be found at Knossos as early as 1700 BCE. Terraces were also extensively in the Roman Empire, with terraces in front of monumental structures common throughout imperial history. Temples were terraced on the island of Java by at least 800 CE, the first terrace stone temple in Cambodia was constructed at Bakong in 881 CE. Terraces are often used for private residences, in traditional Thai homes, the dwelling is built around a central terrace, or chaan. One or more house cabins are placed around the edge of the terrace, architectural theories for the use and design of terraces varies widely geographically and historically. In the early part of the 20th century, architects Henry, since the terrace was not the focal point of the structure, its design should be simple and it should command a view. More recently, architect Catherine Dee has noted that the terrace is most commonly used to link the structure to the landscape and as an extension of living space. According to architect Sophia Psarra, the terrace is one of the most commonly used forms of architecture in the 21st century, along with halls, stairs. Landscape architect Russell Sturgis has observed that terraces tend to be used only in larger, terraces need not always protrude from a building, a flat roof area used for social activity is also known as a terrace. In Venice, Italy, for example, the terrace is the most common form of terrace found. Developed around 1500 CE, it remains little-changed today and consists of a platform with small spaces between the floorboards. The altana was originally a place where laundry could be out to dry. Today, however, the altana is used primarily for social purposes, balcony Band stand Gazebo Patio Pavilion Pergola Porch Terrace garden Verandah
5.
Balcony
–
A balcony is a platform projecting from the wall of a building, supported by columns or console brackets, and enclosed with a balustrade, usually above the ground floor. The traditional Maltese balcony is a closed balcony projecting from a wall. By contrast, a Juliet balcony does not protrude out of the building and it is usually part of an upper floor, with a balustrade only at the front, like a small Loggia. Modern Juliet balconies often involve a metal barrier placed in front of a window which can be opened. Sometimes balconies are adapted for ceremonial purposes, e. g. that of St. Peters Basilica at Rome, inside churches, balconies are sometimes provided for the singers, and in banqueting halls and the like for the musicians. A unit with a regular balcony will have doors that open up onto a patio with railings. A French balcony is actually a false balcony, with doors that open to a railing with a view of the courtyard or the surrounding scenery below. In theatres, the balcony was formerly a stage-box, but the name is now confined to the part of the auditorium above the dress circle. One of the most famous uses of a balcony is in traditional stagings of the scene that has come to be known as the scene in William Shakespeares tragedy, Romeo. Manufacturers names for their balcony designs often refer to the origin of the design, italian balcony, Spanish balcony, Mexican balcony, Ecuadorian balcony
6.
Walkway
–
In American English, walkway is a composite or umbrella term for all engineered surfaces or structures which support the use of trails. The New Oxford American Dictionary also defines a walkway as a passage or path for walking along, a raised passageway connecting different sections of a building or a wide path in a park or garden. The word is used to describe a footpath in New Zealand, in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, the SkyWalk is an approximately 500 metre enclosed walkway connecting Union Station to the CN Tower and the Rogers Centre. It is part of the PATH network, the SkyWalk passes above the York Street subway and the Simcoe Street Tunnel. It opened in 1989 and it was built to reduce the need for parking spaces near the Skydome stadium by providing a direct transportation link to the subway. PATH is a 29-kilometre network of tunnels beneath the office towers of Downtown Toronto. In British English, a more specifically refers to a covered or raised passage in a building
7.
Architectural engineering
–
Architectural engineering, also known as building engineering, is the application of engineering principles and technology to building design and construction. Definitions of an engineer may refer to, An engineer in the structural, mechanical, electrical, construction or other engineering fields of building design. A licensed engineering professional in parts of the United States, architectural engineers are those who work with other engineers and architects for the designing and construction of buildings. Structural engineering involves the analysis and design of physical objects and those concentrating on buildings are responsible for the structural performance of a large part of the built environment and are, sometimes, informally referred to as building engineers. Structural engineers require expertise in strength of materials and in the design of structures covered by earthquake engineering. Architectural Engineers sometimes structural as one aspect of their designs, the discipline when practiced as a specialty works closely with architects. Mechanical engineering and electrical engineering engineers are specialists, commonly referred to as when engaged in the design fields. Also known as building engineering in the United Kingdom, Canada. Mechanical engineers often design and oversee the heating, ventilation and air conditioning, plumbing, plumbing designers often include design specifications for simple active fire protection systems, but for more complicated projects, fire protection engineers are often separately retained. Electrical engineers are responsible for the power distribution, telecommunication, fire alarm, signalization, lightning protection and control systems. In many jurisdictions of the United States, the engineer is a licensed engineering professional. Architectural engineers are not entitled to practice architecture unless they are licensed as architects. In some languages, such as Korean and Arabic, architect is literally translated as architectural engineer, in some countries, an architectural engineer is entitled to practice architecture and is often referred to as an architect. These individuals are also structural engineers. In other countries, such as Germany, Austria, Iran, in Spain, an architect has a technical university education and legal powers to carry out building structure and facility projects. In Brazil, architects and engineers used to share the same accreditation process, now the Brazilian architects and urbanists have their own accreditation process. In Greece licensed architectural engineers are graduates from architecture faculties that belong to the Polytechnic University and they graduate after 5 years of studies and are fully entitled architects once they become members of the Technical Chamber of Greece. The Engineering Diploma equals a masters degree in ECTS units according to the Bologna Accords, the architectural, structural, mechanical and electrical engineering branches each have well established educational requirements that are usually fulfilled by completion of a university program
8.
Italian language
–
By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
9.
German language
–
German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
10.
Firewall (construction)
–
A firewall is a fire-resistant barrier used to prevent the spread of fire for a prescribed period of time. Firewalls are built between or through buildings, structures, electrical transformers, or within an aircraft or vehicle. Firewalls can be used to subdivide a building into separate areas and are constructed in accordance with the locally applicable building codes. Firewalls are a portion of a passive fire protection systems. Firewalls can be used to separate-high value transformers at a substation in the event of a mineral oil tank rupture. The firewall serves as a containment wall between one oil-filled transformer and other neighboring transformers, building structures, and site equipment. There are three classifications of fire rated walls, fire walls, fire barriers, and fire partitions. To the layperson, the use of language typically includes all three when referring to a firewall unless distinguishing between them becomes necessary. In addition specialty fire-rated walls such as a High Challenge Fire Wall would require further distinctions and this allows a building to be subdivided into smaller sections. If a sections becomes structurally unstable due to fire or other causes, a fire barrier wall, or a fire partition, is a fire-rated wall assembly that provides lower levels of protection than typically provided by a fire wall. The main differences are that these fire resistant walls are not structurally self-sufficient, Fire barriers are continuous through concealed spaces to the floor deck or roof deck above the barrier. Fire rating - Fire walls are constructed in such a way as to achieve a code-determined fire-resistance rating, germany includes repeated impact force testing upon new fire wall systems. Other codes require impact resistance on a performance basis Design loads – Fire wall must withstand a minimum 5 lb. /sq. ft. substation transformer firewalls are typically free-standing modular walls custom designed and engineered to meet application needs. Building firewalls typically extend through the roof and terminate at a height above it. They are usually finished off on the top with flashing for protection against the elements, building and structural firewalls in North America are usually made of concrete, concrete blocks, or reinforced concrete. Older fire walls, built prior to World War II, utilized brick materials, Fire barrier walls are typically constructed of drywall or gypsum board partitions with wood or metal framed studs. Penetrations – Penetrations through fire walls, such as for pipes and cables, Penetrations must not defeat the structural integrity of the wall, such that the wall cannot withstand the prescribed fire duration without threat of collapse. Openings – Other openings in Fire walls, such as doors and windows, must also be fire-rated fire door assemblies, firewalls are used in varied applications that require specific design and performance specifications
.jpg)
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Parapet". Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 770.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
