1.
Kyrenia Castle
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Kyrenia Castle, at the east end of the old harbour in Kyrenia is a 16th-century castle built by the Venetians over a previous Crusader fortification. Within its walls lies a twelfth-century chapel showing reused late Roman capitals, Kyrenia has existed since the 10th century BC. Excavations have revealed Greek traces that date back to the 7th century BC, research carried out at the site suggests that the Byzantines built the original castle in the 7th Century to guard the city against the new Arab maritime threat. The first historical reference to the castle occurs in 1191, when King Richard the Lionheart of England captured it on his way to the Third Crusade and he did so by defeating Isaac Comnenus, an upstart local governor who had proclaimed himself emperor. After a short period, Richard sold the island to the Knights Templar, and then to his cousin Guy de Lusignan and this began the 300 years of the Frankish Lusignan Kingdom of Cyprus. Initially the castle was quite small, john dIbelin enlarged it between 1208 and 1211. The Castles main function was military and the improvements consisted of a new entrance, square and horseshoe-shaped towers, embrasures for archers, the castle was subjected to several sieges. A Genoese attack in 1373 almost destroyed the castle, and the longest amongst the sieges, in the 15th century, lasted four years and reduced the unfortunate occupants to eating mice. By 1489 the Venetians had taken control of Cyprus and in 1540 they enlarged the castle, the chief changes, such as the addition of thick walls and embrasures for cannons, were adaptations to changes in warfare in the form of gunpowder artillery. The Venetians also installed gun ports at three levels so that they could direct fire against attackers from the land. Inside the castle, they built huge long ramps so as to be able to drag artillery up on the walls. When the work on the castle was finished, its walls also encompassed the small church of St. George, in 1570, Kyrenia surrendered to the Ottomans. The Ottomans too made changes to the castle, but the British removed these during their occupation, the castle contains the tomb of the Ottoman Admiral Sadik Pasha. The British used the castle as a barracks and training school. They also used the castle as a prison for members of the Greek Cypriot EOKA organization, the Kyrenia Department of Antiquities took over custodianship of the castle in 1950, though it reverted to British control during the EOKA turmoil. The Department regained control in 1959 and since 1960 the castle has been open to the public, however, during the period from 1963 to 1967 the Cypriot National Guard used the castle as a military headquarters. Following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, in 1974 the Girne Department of Antiquities and Museums took over responsibility for the castles preservation, the Department is keeping icons that were collected from churches in the Kyrenia area pre-1974 and has stored them in the castles locked rooms for safekeeping. Some of these are now on display in the Archangel Michael Church, the moat on the landward side of the castle was full of water prior to the 14th Century AD and served as a harbour to the castle
2.
Roof
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A roof is part of a building envelope. It is the covering on the uppermost part of a building or shelter which provides protection from animals and weather, notably rain or snow, the word also denotes the framing or structure which supports that covering. In most countries a roof protects primarily against rain, a verandah may be roofed with material that protects against sunlight but admits the other elements. The roof of a garden conservatory protects plants from cold, wind, and rain, a roof may also provide additional living space, for example a roof garden. Old English hrof roof, ceiling, top, summit, heaven, sky, also figuratively, highest point of something, there are no apparent connections outside the Germanic family. English alone has retained the word in a sense, for which the other languages use forms corresponding to OE. In many parts of the ceramic tiles have been the predominant roofing material for centuries. Other roofing materials include asphalt, coal tar pitch, EPDM rubber, Hypalon, polyurethane foam, PVC, slate, Teflon fabric, TPO, and wood shakes and shingles. The construction of a roof is determined by its method of support and how the space is bridged. The pitch is the angle at which the roof rises from its lowest to highest point, most US domestic architecture, except in very dry regions, has roofs that are sloped, or pitched. Although modern construction such as drainpipes may remove the need for pitch, roofs are pitched for reasons of tradition. So the pitch is dependent upon stylistic factors, and partially to do with practicalities. Some types of roofing, for example thatch, require a steep pitch in order to be waterproof, other types of roofing, for example pantiles, are unstable on a steeply pitched roof but provide excellent weather protection at a relatively low angle. In regions where there is rain, an almost flat roof with a slight run-off provides adequate protection against an occasional downpour. Drainpipes also remove the need for a sloping roof, a person that specializes in roof construction is called a roofer. The shape of roofs differs greatly from region to region, the main factors which influence the shape of roofs are the climate and the materials available for roof structure and the outer covering. The basic shapes of roofs are flat, mono-pitched, gabled, hipped, butterfly, there are many variations on these types. Roofs constructed of sections that are sloped are referred to as pitched roofs
3.
Terrace (building)
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A terrace is an external, raised, open, flat area in either a landscape near a building, or as a roof terrace on a flat roof. Terraces are used primarily for leisure activity such as sitting, strolling, the term often applies to a raised area in front of a monumental building or structure, which is usually reached by a grand staircase and surrounded by a balustrade. A terrace may be supported by an embankment or solid foundation, terraces may also be platforms, supported by columns but without the space below filled in, but terraces are always open to the sky and may or may not be paved. Agricultural terracing can be traced back to prehistoric times, but architectural terracing is equally ancient. Examples of early architectural terracing in the Middle East have been found at Nahal Oren, at Tel Yarmut, for example, architectural terracing also occurred on the island of Babeldaob in modern Palau in the Pacific Ocean. Terraces are found the world over, throughout history, terraces were used extensively throughout Greece in both public and private architecture, and rooftop terraces can be found at Knossos as early as 1700 BCE. Terraces were also extensively in the Roman Empire, with terraces in front of monumental structures common throughout imperial history. Temples were terraced on the island of Java by at least 800 CE, the first terrace stone temple in Cambodia was constructed at Bakong in 881 CE. Terraces are often used for private residences, in traditional Thai homes, the dwelling is built around a central terrace, or chaan. One or more house cabins are placed around the edge of the terrace, architectural theories for the use and design of terraces varies widely geographically and historically. In the early part of the 20th century, architects Henry, since the terrace was not the focal point of the structure, its design should be simple and it should command a view. More recently, architect Catherine Dee has noted that the terrace is most commonly used to link the structure to the landscape and as an extension of living space. According to architect Sophia Psarra, the terrace is one of the most commonly used forms of architecture in the 21st century, along with halls, stairs. Landscape architect Russell Sturgis has observed that terraces tend to be used only in larger, terraces need not always protrude from a building, a flat roof area used for social activity is also known as a terrace. In Venice, Italy, for example, the terrace is the most common form of terrace found. Developed around 1500 CE, it remains little-changed today and consists of a platform with small spaces between the floorboards. The altana was originally a place where laundry could be out to dry. Today, however, the altana is used primarily for social purposes, balcony Band stand Gazebo Patio Pavilion Pergola Porch Terrace garden Verandah
4.
Balcony
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A balcony is a platform projecting from the wall of a building, supported by columns or console brackets, and enclosed with a balustrade, usually above the ground floor. The traditional Maltese balcony is a closed balcony projecting from a wall. By contrast, a Juliet balcony does not protrude out of the building and it is usually part of an upper floor, with a balustrade only at the front, like a small Loggia. Modern Juliet balconies often involve a metal barrier placed in front of a window which can be opened. Sometimes balconies are adapted for ceremonial purposes, e. g. that of St. Peters Basilica at Rome, inside churches, balconies are sometimes provided for the singers, and in banqueting halls and the like for the musicians. A unit with a regular balcony will have doors that open up onto a patio with railings. A French balcony is actually a false balcony, with doors that open to a railing with a view of the courtyard or the surrounding scenery below. In theatres, the balcony was formerly a stage-box, but the name is now confined to the part of the auditorium above the dress circle. One of the most famous uses of a balcony is in traditional stagings of the scene that has come to be known as the scene in William Shakespeares tragedy, Romeo. Manufacturers names for their balcony designs often refer to the origin of the design, italian balcony, Spanish balcony, Mexican balcony, Ecuadorian balcony
5.
Firewall (construction)
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A firewall is a fire-resistant barrier used to prevent the spread of fire for a prescribed period of time. Firewalls are built between or through buildings, structures, electrical transformers, or within an aircraft or vehicle. Firewalls can be used to subdivide a building into separate areas and are constructed in accordance with the locally applicable building codes. Firewalls are a portion of a passive fire protection systems. Firewalls can be used to separate-high value transformers at a substation in the event of a mineral oil tank rupture. The firewall serves as a containment wall between one oil-filled transformer and other neighboring transformers, building structures, and site equipment. There are three classifications of fire rated walls, fire walls, fire barriers, and fire partitions. To the layperson, the use of language typically includes all three when referring to a firewall unless distinguishing between them becomes necessary. In addition specialty fire-rated walls such as a High Challenge Fire Wall would require further distinctions and this allows a building to be subdivided into smaller sections. If a sections becomes structurally unstable due to fire or other causes, a fire barrier wall, or a fire partition, is a fire-rated wall assembly that provides lower levels of protection than typically provided by a fire wall. The main differences are that these fire resistant walls are not structurally self-sufficient, Fire barriers are continuous through concealed spaces to the floor deck or roof deck above the barrier. Fire rating - Fire walls are constructed in such a way as to achieve a code-determined fire-resistance rating, germany includes repeated impact force testing upon new fire wall systems. Other codes require impact resistance on a performance basis Design loads – Fire wall must withstand a minimum 5 lb. /sq. ft. substation transformer firewalls are typically free-standing modular walls custom designed and engineered to meet application needs. Building firewalls typically extend through the roof and terminate at a height above it. They are usually finished off on the top with flashing for protection against the elements, building and structural firewalls in North America are usually made of concrete, concrete blocks, or reinforced concrete. Older fire walls, built prior to World War II, utilized brick materials, Fire barrier walls are typically constructed of drywall or gypsum board partitions with wood or metal framed studs. Penetrations – Penetrations through fire walls, such as for pipes and cables, Penetrations must not defeat the structural integrity of the wall, such that the wall cannot withstand the prescribed fire duration without threat of collapse. Openings – Other openings in Fire walls, such as doors and windows, must also be fire-rated fire door assemblies, firewalls are used in varied applications that require specific design and performance specifications
6.
Guard rail
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Guard rail or guardrail, sometimes referred to as guide rail or railing, is a system designed to keep people or vehicles from straying into dangerous or off-limits areas. A handrail is less restrictive than a rail and provides both support and the protective limitation of a boundary. Most public spaces are fitted with guard rails as a means of protection against accidental falls, any abrupt change in elevation where the higher portion is accessible makes a fall possible. Due to this responsibility and liability, rails are placed to protect people using the premises, guardrails are generally required by code where there is a drop of 30 or more. Examples of this are both architectural and environmental, environmental guard rails are placed along hiking trails where adjacent terrain is steep. Railings may also be located at scenic overlooks, guard rails in buildings are numerous, and are required by building codes in many circumstances. Guard rails along stairways are common, and catwalks and balconies are also lined with them, the most common residential guard rail is usually a wood railing around the deck. This typically is built on-site from pressure treated lumber, featuring a design of vertical baluster spaced every 3.5 to comply with building code. Other guard rail construction options are available, cable railings typically use stainless steel cables strung horizontally. Glass balusters and glass panels open the view while still providing safety, with the increasing popularity of composite lumber for decking, manufacturers, like TimberTech are providing composite railing components. Wrought iron is another choice that is traditional and sturdy, Building codes also require that no opening in a guard be of a size such that a 4 sphere may pass. There are three exceptions according to the 2003 International Building Code Section 1012.3 which allow openings to not exceed 8 or 21 depending on occupancy groups or special areas, an architect who was famous for creative use of handrails for social stability was Alvar Aalto. The guard rails of a tower such as the Space Needle or Eiffel Tower become exaggerated to the point of becoming a fence or cage. This is also done on bridges and overpasses to prevent accidents, guardrails are used in a facility setting to protect a companys greatest assets which include their people and expensive equipment. The strongest guardrail option is utilizing a manufacturer who produces industrial strength guardrail and this guardrail is constructed out of 4 Schedule 806 Schedule 40. It is then sleeved in Hi-Density Thermoplastic Polyethylene which makes it maintenance free and it can be mounted using a base-plate or cored into cement to enhance the strength. Guardrail can also be constructed of 10 gauge high-tensile steel formed into a two-rib corrugated design with two secondary ribs and this guardrail is similar in appearance to guardrails in an outdoor setting, but is often used in facilities. Once it is impacted, it must be repaired and replaced, guardrails were being used for the first time in Germany
7.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
8.
King's College Chapel, Cambridge
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Kings College Chapel is the chapel at Kings College in the University of Cambridge. It is considered one of the finest examples of late Perpendicular Gothic English architecture, the chapel was built in phases by a succession of kings of England from 1446 to 1515, a period which spanned the Wars of the Roses. The chapels large stained windows were not completed until 1531. The chapel is a house of worship, and home of the Kings College Choir. The chapel is a significant tourist site and a commonly used symbol of the city of Cambridge, Henry VI planned a university counterpart to Eton College. The King decided the dimensions of the Chapel, the first stone of the Chapel was laid, by Henry himself, on the Feast of St James the Apostle,25 July 1446, the College having been begun in 1441. By the end of the reign of Richard III, despite the Wars of the Roses, five bays had been completed, Henry VII visited in 1506, paying for the work to resume and even leaving money so that the work could continue after his death. In 1515, under Henry VIII, the building was complete and it features the worlds largest fan vault, constructed between 1512 and 1515 by master mason John Wastell. The Chapel also features fine medieval stained glass and, above the altar, The Adoration of the Magi by Rubens, the painting was installed in the Chapel in 1968, which involved the destruction and lowering of the Sanctuary floor leading up to the High Altar. It was previously believed that gradations were created in 1774 by James Essex, but at the demolition of these steps, it was found that the floor instead rested on tudor brick arches. The installation of the painting resulted in the destruction and loss of the Edwardian reredos. The Rubens was also a shape to the window, which dwarfed it. Plain shutters were proposed, one on side, to give it a triptych shape and lend it independence of form. Graffiti left by soldiers is still visible on the north and south walls near the altar. During World War II most of the glass was removed. The windows of Kings College Chapel are some of the finest in the world from their era, there are 12 large windows on each side of the chapel, and larger windows at the east and west ends. With the exception of the west window, they are by Flemish hands, barnard Flower, the first non-Englishman appointed as the Kings Glazier, completed four windows. Gaylon Hone and three partners are responsible for the east window and 16 others between 1526 and 1531, the final four were made by Francis Williamson and Symon Symondes
9.
Pub
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A pub, or public house, is an establishment licensed to sell alcoholic drinks, which traditionally include beer, ale and cider. It is a relaxed, social drinking establishment and a prominent part of British, Irish, New Zealand, Canadian, in many places, especially in villages, a pub is the focal point of the community. In his 17th century diary Samuel Pepys described the pub as the heart of England, Pubs can be traced back to Roman taverns, through the Anglo-Saxon alehouse to the development of the tied house system in the 19th century. In 1393, King Richard II of England introduced legislation that pubs had to display a sign outdoors to make them easily visible for passing ale tasters who would assess the quality of ale sold, most pubs focus on offering beers, ales and similar drinks. As well, pubs often sell wines, spirits, and soft drinks, meals, the owner, tenant or manager is known as the pub landlord or publican. The pub quiz was established in the UK in the 1970s and these alehouses quickly evolved into meeting houses for the folk to socially congregate, gossip and arrange mutual help within their communities. Herein lies the origin of the public house, or Pub as it is colloquially called in England. They rapidly spread across the Kingdom, becoming so commonplace that in 965 King Edgar decreed that there should be no more than one alehouse per village. A traveller in the early Middle Ages could obtain overnight accommodation in monasteries, the Hostellers of London were granted guild status in 1446 and in 1514 the guild became the Worshipful Company of Innholders. A survey in 1577 of drinking establishment in England and Wales for taxation purposes recorded 14,202 alehouses,1,631 inns, Inns are buildings where travellers can seek lodging and, usually, food and drink. They are typically located in the country or along a highway, in Europe, they possibly first sprang up when the Romans built a system of roads two millennia ago. Some inns in Europe are several centuries old, in addition to providing for the needs of travellers, inns traditionally acted as community gathering places. In Europe, it is the provision of accommodation, if anything, the latter tend to provide alcohol, but less commonly accommodation. Famous London inns include The George, Southwark and The Tabard, there is however no longer a formal distinction between an inn and other kinds of establishment. In North America, the aspect of the word inn lives on in hotel brand names like Holiday Inn. The Inns of Court and Inns of Chancery in London started as ordinary inns where barristers met to do business, traditional English ale was made solely from fermented malt. The practice of adding hops to produce beer was introduced from the Netherlands in the early 15th century, alehouses would each brew their own distinctive ale, but independent breweries began to appear in the late 17th century. By the end of the century almost all beer was brewed by commercial breweries, the 18th century saw a huge growth in the number of drinking establishments, primarily due to the introduction of gin
10.
BP Pedestrian Bridge
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The BP Pedestrian Bridge, or simply BP Bridge, is a girder footbridge in the Loop community area of Chicago, Illinois, United States. It spans Columbus Drive to connect Maggie Daley Park with Millennium Park, designed by Pritzker Prize-winning architect Frank Gehry, it opened along with the rest of Millennium Park on July 16,2004. Gehry had been courted by the city to design the bridge and the neighboring Jay Pritzker Pavilion, named for energy firm BP, which donated $5 million toward its construction, it is the first Gehry-designed bridge to have been completed. BP Bridge is described as snakelike because of its curving form, designed to bear a heavy load without structural problems caused by its own weight, it has won awards for its use of sheet metal. The bridge is known for its aesthetics, and Gehrys style is seen in its biomorphic allusions, the pedestrian bridge serves as a noise barrier for traffic sounds from Columbus Drive. It is a link between Millennium Park and destinations to the east, such as the nearby lakefront, other parts of Grant Park. BP Bridge uses a box girder design with a concrete base. It is designed without handrails, using stainless steel parapets instead, the total length is 935 feet, with a five percent slope on its inclined surfaces that makes it barrier free and accessible. Although the bridge is closed in winter because ice cannot be removed from its wooden walkway, it has received favorable reviews for its design. Since the mid-19th century, Grant Park has been Chicagos front yard, with Lake Michigan to the east, Columbus Drive runs north–south through Grant Park, with Daley Bicentennial Plaza in the northeast corner of the park. West of Columbus Drive, the northwest corner of the park had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997, Millennium Park is also north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute, east of Michigan Avenue, and south of Randolph Street. For 2007, Millennium Park trailed only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction, the city also sought donors to cover the cost of Gehrys work, which would eventually become Jay Pritzker Pavilion and the BP Pedestrian Bridge. At the time, the Chicago Tribune dubbed Gehry the hottest architect in the universe in reference to the acclaim for his Guggenheim Museum Bilbao. Millennium Park project manager Edward Uhlir said Frank is just the cutting edge of the century of architecture. Gehry was approached several times by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill architect Adrian Smith on behalf of the city. In April 1999, the city announced that the Pritzker family had donated $15 million to fund Gehrys band shell and that same day, Gehry agreed to the design request. In November 1999, when he unveiled his plans for the bridge and band shell. Even at this point, the need for a sound barrier for Columbus Drive traffic noise was recognized, although Gehry indicated this might take the form of a berm
11.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
12.
Battlement
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These gaps are termed crenels, and the act of adding crenels to a previously unbroken parapet is termed crenellation. The solid widths between the crenels are called merlons, a wall with battlements is said to be crenelated or embattled. Battlements on walls have protected walkways behind them, on tower or building tops, the roof is used as the protected fighting platform. The term originated in about the 14th century from the Old French word batailler, the word crenel derives from the ancient French cren, Latin crena, meaning a notch, mortice or other gap cut out often to receive another element or fixing, see also crenation. In medieval England a licence to crenellate granted the permission to fortify their property. The castles in England vastly outnumber the licences to crenellate, royal pardons were obtainable, on the payment of an arbitrarily determined fine, by a person who had fortified without licence. The surviving records of such licences, generally issued by letters patent, there has been academic debate over the purpose of licensing. The view of military-focused historians is that licensing restricted the number of fortifications that could be used against a royal army and they indicated to the observer that the grantee had obtained royal recognition, acknowledgment and compliment. The crown usually did not charge for the granting of such licences, battlements have been used for thousands of years, the earliest known example is in the fortress at Buhen in Egypt. Battlements were used in the walls surrounding Assyrian towns, as shown on bas reliefs from Nimrud, traces of them remain at Mycenae in Greece, and some ancient Greek vases suggest the existence of battlements. The Great Wall of China has battlements, late merlons permitted fire from the first firearms. From the 13th century, the merlons could be connected with wooden shutters that provided added protection when closed, the shutters were designed to be opened to allow shooters to fire against the attackers, and closed during reloading. The Romans used low wooden pinnacles for their first aggeres, in the battlements of Pompeii, additional protection derived from small internal buttresses or spur walls, against which the defender might stand so as to gain complete protection on one side. Loop-holes were frequent in Italian battlements, where the merlon has much greater height, Italian military architects used the so-called Ghibelline or swallowtail battlement, with V-shaped notches in the tops of the merlon, giving a horn-like effect. This would allow the defender to be protected whilst shooting standing fully upright, the normal rectangular merlons were later nicknamed Guelph. In Muslim and African fortifications, the merlons often were rounded, the battlements of the Arabs had a more decorative and varied character, and were continued from the 13th century onwards not so much for defensive purposes as for a crowning feature to the walls. They serve a similar to the cresting found in the Spanish Renaissance. European architects persistently used battlements as a decorative feature throughout the Decorated
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Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Parapet". Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 770.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
